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Leverett, Shelby, Christopher Garza, and Kendra Seaman. "The Effect of Delay Duration on Delay Discounting Across Adulthood." Journals of Gerontology: Series B 77, no. 3 (2021): 467–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab198.
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Abstract Objectives Literature about the relationship between age and delay discounting, or the willingness to wait for delayed rewards, is mixed. We posit that some of this heterogeneity may be attributable to inconsistent delay durations across studies. Here we investigate how delay duration influences discounting across adulthood by systematically varying the duration of the delay between the smaller, sooner and the larger, later option. Methods 288 healthy participants (age range: 25–84 years) completed an online delay discounting task that probed 12 different time delays across 3 discount rates. Discounting was analyzed in 2 statistical models that treated delay duration as either a categorical or a continuous predictor. Results Longer delays were generally associated with decreased discounting. However, this was dependent on both age of the participant and delay duration. Both models revealed that, at short to moderate time delays, older adults discounted less than younger adults. However, at very long delays (5 and 10 years), older adults discounted at similar rates to younger adults. Discussion Results suggest that delay length can moderate the relationship between age and discounting. Using delays longer than those tested here (>10 years) could reveal yet another trend (i.e., a reversal) to those found here. Future research should investigate whether this reversal in discounting exists, why it exists, and where the inflection point lies.
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Rachlin, Howard, and Bryan A. Jones. "Social discounting and delay discounting." Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 21, no. 1 (2008): 29–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bdm.567.
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Rosch, Keri S., and Stewart H. Mostofsky. "Increased Delay Discounting on a Novel Real-Time Task among Girls, but not Boys, with ADHD." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 22, no. 1 (2015): 12–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355617715001071.
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AbstractThe aim of this study was to examine delay discounting in girls and boys with ADHD-Combined type (ADHD-C) relative to typically developing (TD) children on two tasks that differ in the extent to which the rewards and delays were experienced by participants. Children ages 8–12 years with ADHD-C (n=65; 19 girls) and TD controls (n=55; 15 girls) completed two delay discounting tasks involving a series of choices between smaller, immediate and larger, delayed rewards. The classic delay discounting task involved choices about money at delays of 1–90 days and only some of the outcomes were actually experienced by the participants. The novel real-time discounting task involved choices about an immediately consumable reward (playing a preferred game) at delays of 25–100 s, all of which were actually experienced by participants. Participants also provided subjective ratings of how much they liked playing the game and waiting to play. Girls with ADHD-C displayed greater delay discounting compared to boys with ADHD-C and TD girls and boys on the real-time discounting task. Diagnostic group differences were not evident on the classic discounting task. In addition, children with ADHD-C reported wanting to play the game more and liking waiting to play the game less than TD children. This novel demonstration of greater delay discounting among girls with ADHD-C on a discounting task in which the rewards are immediately consumable and the delays are experienced in real-time informs our understanding of sex differences and motivational processes in children with ADHD. (JINS, 2016, 22, 12–23)
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Harvey, Sophie, Greg Jensen, and Kristen G. Anderson. "Gamification and motivation: Impact on delay discounting performance." PLOS ONE 19, no. 4 (2024): e0299511. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299511.
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Delay discounting is a phenomenon strongly associated with impulsivity. However, in order for a measured discounting rate in an experiment to meaningfully generalize to choices made elsewhere in life, participants must provide thoughtful, engaged answers during the assessment. Classic discounting tasks may not optimize intrinsic motivation or enjoyment, and a participant who is disengaged from the task is likely to behave in a way that provides a biased estimate of their discounting function. We assessed degree of delay discounting in a task intended to vary level of participant motivation. This was accomplished by introducing varying levels of gamification, the application of game design principles to a non-game context. Experiment 1 compared three versions of the delay discounting task with differing degrees of gamification and compared performance and task enjoyment across those variations, while Experiment 2 used two conditions (one gamified, one not). Participants found more gamified versions of the task more enjoyable than the other conditions, without producing substantial between-group differences in most cases. Thus, more polished task gameplay can provide a more enjoyable experience for participants without undermining delay discounting effects commonly reported in the literature. We also found that in all experimental conditions, higher levels of interest in or enjoyment of the task tended to be associated with more rapid discounting. This may suggest that low task motivation may result in less impulsive choice and suggests that participants who find delay discounting experiments sufficiently boring may bias assessments of value across delays.
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Mahalingam, Vaishali, Michael Palkovics, Michal Kosinski, Iva Cek, and David Stillwell. "A Computer Adaptive Measure of Delay Discounting." Assessment 25, no. 8 (2016): 1036–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191116680448.
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Delay discounting has been linked to important behavioral, health, and social outcomes, including academic achievement, social functioning and substance use, but thoroughly measuring delay discounting is tedious and time consuming. We develop and consistently validate an efficient and psychometrically sound computer adaptive measure of discounting. First, we develop a binary search–type algorithm to measure discounting using a large international data set of 4,190 participants. Using six independent samples ( N = 1,550), we then present evidence of concurrent validity with two standard measures of discounting and a measure of discounting real rewards, convergent validity with addictive behavior, impulsivity, personality, survival probability; and divergent validity with time perspective, life satisfaction, age and gender. The new measure is considerably shorter than standard questionnaires, includes a range of time delays, can be applied to multiple reward magnitudes, shows excellent concurrent, convergent, divergent, and discriminant validity—by showing more sensitivity to effects of smoking behavior on discounting.
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An, Yong-Dong, Guo-Xia Ma, Xing-Kui Cai, Ying Yang, Fang Wang, and Zhan-Lin Zhang. "Examining the association between delay discounting, delay aversion and physical activity in Chinese adults with type-2 diabetes mellitus." World Journal of Diabetes 15, no. 4 (2024): 675–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v15.i4.675.
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BACKGROUND The role of physical activity in diabetes is critical, influencing this disease's development, man-agement, and overall outcomes. In China, 22.3% of adults do not meet the minimum level of physical activity recommended by the World Health Organization. Therefore, it is imperative to identify the factors that contributing to lack of physical activity must be identified. AIM To investigate the relationship among delay discounting, delay aversion, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and various levels of physical activity in Chinese adults diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS In 2023, 400 adults with T2DM were recruited from the People's Hospital of Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture of Gansu Province. A face-to-face questionnaire was used to gather demographic data and details on physical activity, delay discounting, and delay aversion. In addition, HbA1c levels were measured in all 400 participants. The primary independent variables considered were delay discounting and delay aversion. The outcome variables included HbA1c levels and different intensity levels of physical activity, including walking, moderate physical activity, and vigorous physical activity. Multiple linear regression models were utilized to assess the relationship between delay discounting, delay aversion, and HbA1c levels, along with the intensity of different physical activity measured in met-hours per week. RESULTS After controlling for the sample characteristics, delay discounting was negatively associated with moderate physical activity (β = -2.386, 95%CI: -4.370 to -0.401). Meanwhile, delay aversion was negatively associated with the level of moderate physical activity (β = -3.527, 95% CI = -5.578 to -1.476) in the multiple linear regression model, with statistically significant differences. CONCLUSION Elevated delay discounting and increased delay aversion correlated with reduced levels of moderate physical activity. Result suggests that delay discounting and aversion may influence engagement in moderate physical activity. This study recommends that health administration and government consider delay discounting and delay aversion when formulating behavioral intervention strategies and treatment guidelines involving physical activity for patients with T2DM, which may increase participation in physical activity. This study contributes a novel perspective to the research on physical activity in adults with T2DM by examining the significance of future health considerations and the role of emotional responses to delays.
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Green, Leonard, Astrid F. Fry, and Joel Myerson. "Discounting of Delayed Rewards: A Life-Span Comparison." Psychological Science 5, no. 1 (1994): 33–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00610.x.
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In this study, children, young adults, and older adults chose between immediate and delayed hypothetical monetary rewards The amount of the delayed reward was held constant while its delay was varied All three age groups showed delay discounting, that is, the amount of an immediate reward judged to be of equal value to the delayed reward decreased as a function of delay The rate of discounting was highest for children and lowest for older adults, predicting a life-span developmental trend toward increased self-control Discounting of delayed rewards by all three age groups was well described by a single function with age-sensitive parameters (all R2s > 94) Thus, even though there are quantitative age differences in delay discounting, the existence of an age-invariant form of discount function suggests that the process of choosing between rewards of different amounts and delays is qualitatively similar across the life span
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Scherbaum, Stefan, Simon Frisch, and Maja Dshemuchadse. "Step by step: Harvesting the dynamics of delay discounting decisions." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 71, no. 4 (2018): 949–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2017.1307863.
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People show a tendency to devalue rewards when they are delayed in time. This so-called delay discounting often happens to an extent that seems irrational from an economical perspective. Research studying outcomes of delay discounting decisions has successfully derived descriptive models for such choice preferences. However, this outcome-based approach faces limitations in integrating the influence of contextual factors on the decision. Recently, this outcome-centred perspective on delay discounting has been complemented by a focus on the process dynamics leading to delay discounting decisions. Here, we embrace and add to this approach: We show how an attractor model can extend discounting descriptive discounting curves into the temporal dimension. From the model, we derive three predictions and study the predictions in a delay discounting experiment based on mouse tracking. We find differences in discounting depending on the order of option presentation and more direct movements to options presented first. Together with the analysis of specific temporal patterns of information integration, these results show that considering the continuous process dynamics of delay discounting decisions and harvesting them with continuous behavioural measures allow the integration of contextual factors into existing models of delay discounting, not as noise but as a signal on their own.
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Weatherly, Jeffrey N., Thomas V. Petros, Harpa L. Jόnsdόttir, Adam Derenne, and Joseph C. Miller. "Probability Alters Delay Discounting, but Delay Does Not Alter Probability Discounting." Psychological Record 65, no. 2 (2014): 267–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40732-014-0102-3.
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Lu, Huazhang. "Investigating the Impact of Age and Education on Delay Discounting: A Predictive Random Forest Model for Personalized Marketing and Mental Health Risk Detection." Applied and Computational Engineering 109, no. 1 (2024): 133–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/2024.17893.
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This study uses a random forest model to predict delay discounting rates, aiming to support mental health interventions and personalized marketing strategies. Delay discounting refers to the tendency to prefer smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards, a behavior closely linked to impulsivity and relevant in both psychological and commercial contexts. Data from Garofalo et al., including 357 healthy Italian adults categorized by age and education level, were used. Two-way ANOVA showed that education significantly influences delay discounting rates, while age does not. The model was utilized to anticipate delay discounting behaviors influenced by various factors. The random forest algorithm reached an impressive accuracy rate of 92%, showing particular proficiency in forecasting both high and low delay discounting classifications. Additionally, the model successfully pinpointed individuals whose actual discounting rates diverged significantly from the predictions, offering crucial insights for proactive mental health interventions. Based on the predictions, personalized strategies were recommended for individuals with different delay discounting rates, demonstrating the value of this predictive model in the fields of mental health and commercial marketing.
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Jones, Jeb, Jodie L. Guest, Patrick S. Sullivan, Michael R. Kramer, Samuel M. Jenness, and Jessica M. Sales. "Concordance between monetary and sexual delay discounting in men who have sex with men." Sexual Health 15, no. 3 (2018): 214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sh17111.
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Background Delay discounting has been found to be associated with numerous health-related outcomes, including risky sexual behaviour. To date, it is unclear whether delay discounting measured in different domains is associated within individuals. The goal of this study was to assess the concordance of monetary and sexual delay discounting in men who have sex with men. Methods: Participants completed an online survey, including the Monetary Choice Questionnaire and the Sexual Discounting Task. Linear regression models were used to assess the association between monetary and sexual discount rates. Results: Sexual discount rates did not predict monetary discount rates. There was a substantial amount of clustering of sexual discount rates, requiring sexual discounting data to be categorised. Conclusions: Monetary and sexual delay discounting are distinct processes that are not necessarily associated within individuals, and monetary delay discounting is not an appropriate proxy measure for sexual impulsivity. Data from the Sexual Discounting Task are typically rank-transformed for analysis. These data suggest that this might be an invalid method of analysis. Future studies should investigate the distribution of their data to determine if it is appropriate to analyse sexual discounting data as a continuous measure.
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Malesza, Marta, and Paweł Ostaszewski. "Relations between Cloninger's Dimensions of Temperament and Steepness of Delay and Effort Discounting of Monetary Rewards." Psychological Reports 112, no. 3 (2013): 694–705. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/09.14.pr0.112.3.694-705.
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The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between Cloninger's personality dimensions of temperament (Harm Avoidance, Novelty Seeking, Reward Dependence, and Persistence) and the steepness of delay and effort discounting, which refers to a decrease in the subjective value of a reward as its delay, or effort required to obtain the reward, increases. Participants ( N = 112; ages 19 to 29 years, M = 21.80, SD = 1.35) filled out two inventories: the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and the Discounting Questionnaire. The study revealed that the higher the Harm Avoidance and Reward Dependency, the steeper the effort discounting. On the other hand, the higher one's Persistence, the shallower one's effort discounting. Finally, a positive correlation was observed between delay and effort discounting. The results indicated that effort discounting was related to, but not equivalent to, delay discounting.
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Brown, Jeremiah M., Warren K. Bickel, Leonard H. Epstein, and Jeffrey S. Stein. "Episodic future thinking in type 2 diabetes: Further development and validation of the Health Information Thinking control for clinical trials." PLOS ONE 18, no. 8 (2023): e0289478. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289478.
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Episodic Future Thinking (EFT) reduces delay discounting and may have the potential as a clinical tool to increase the likelihood of health-promoting behaviors. However, evaluations of EFT in clinical settings require control conditions that match the effort and frequency of cue generation, as well as participants’ expectations of improvement. The Health Information Thinking (HIT) control addresses these issues, but how this control affects delay discounting in individuals with diabetes and obesity when utilizing diabetes-management specific health-information vignettes is unknown. Moreover, little research has explored whether EFT reduces delay discounting in individuals with type 2 diabetes. To this end, we examined the impact of EFT, HIT, and a secondary no-cue control condition (NCC; assessments as usual) on delay discounting in 434 adults with self-reported type 2 diabetes and obesity recruited using Amazon Mechanical Turk. After completing an initial screening questionnaire, eligible participants reported demographics, then were randomized to EFT, HIT, or NCC conditions. Following the generation of seven EFT or HIT cues, participants assigned to EFT or HIT conditions completed a delay discounting task while imagining EFT or HIT cues; no-cue participants completed the task without cues. EFT participants demonstrated significantly lower delay discounting levels than HIT or NCC participants; no differences in delay discounting between HIT and NCC participants were observed. These results suggest that engaging in EFT, but not diabetes-specific HIT, results in lower delay discounting in adults with type 2 diabetes and obesity. This provides further evidence for the appropriateness of the HIT control for clinical trials examining the effect of EFT on delay discounting in adults with self-reported type 2 diabetes.
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Karbowski, Adam, and Bartłomiej Wiśnicki. "Are there gender differences in delay discounting of monetary losses?" Kwartalnik Nauk o Przedsiębiorstwie 59, no. 2 (2021): 18–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.33119/knop.2021.59.2.2.
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We investigate gender differences in delay discounting of monetary losses. 203 participants solved a discounting task based on the titration algorithm. The individual rates of delay discounting of losses were calculated with the use of AUC (Area Under the Curve) method. The results show that there is no statistically significant impact of gender on delay discounting of monetary losses. We briefly discuss possible biological and social explanations of the above finding.
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Heerey, Erin A., Benjamin M. Robinson, Robert P. McMahon, and James M. Gold. "Delay discounting in schizophrenia." Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 12, no. 3 (2007): 213–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546800601005900.
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Madden, Gregory J., Monica T. Francisco, Adam T. Brewer, and Jeffrey S. Stein. "Delay discounting and gambling." Behavioural Processes 87, no. 1 (2011): 43–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2011.01.012.
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Odum, Amy L. "Delay discounting: Trait variable?" Behavioural Processes 87, no. 1 (2011): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2011.02.007.
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Lempert, Karolina M., Joanna E. Steinglass, Anthony Pinto, Joseph W. Kable, and Helen Blair Simpson. "Can delay discounting deliver on the promise of RDoC?" Psychological Medicine 49, no. 2 (2018): 190–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291718001770.
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AbstractThe National Institute of Mental Health launched the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative to better understand dimensions of behavior and identify targets for treatment. Examining dimensions across psychiatric illnesses has proven challenging, as reliable behavioral paradigms that are known to engage specific neural circuits and translate across diagnostic populations are scarce. Delay discounting paradigms seem to be an exception: they are useful for understanding links between neural systems and behavior in healthy individuals, with potential for assessing how these mechanisms go awry in psychiatric illnesses. This article reviews relevant literature on delay discounting (or the rate at which the value of a reward decreases as the delay to receipt increases) in humans, including methods for examining it, its putative neural mechanisms, and its application in psychiatric research. There exist rigorous and reproducible paradigms to evaluate delay discounting, standard methods for calculating discount rate, and known neural systems probed by these paradigms. Abnormalities in discounting have been associated with psychopathology ranging from addiction (with steep discount rates indicating relative preference for immediate rewards) to anorexia nervosa (with shallow discount rates indicating preference for future rewards). The latest research suggests that delay discounting can be manipulated in the laboratory. Extensively studied in cognitive neuroscience, delay discounting assesses a dimension of behavior that is important for decision-making and is linked to neural substrates and to psychopathology. The question now is whether manipulating delay discounting can yield clinically significant changes in behavior that promote health. If so, then delay discounting could deliver on the RDoC promise.
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Bailey, Allen J., Ricardo J. Romeu, and Peter R. Finn. "The problems with delay discounting: a critical review of current practices and clinical applications." Psychological Medicine 51, no. 11 (2021): 1799–806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291721002282.
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AbstractDelay discounting paradigms have gained widespread popularity across clinical research. Given the prevalence in the field, researchers have set lofty expectations for the importance of delay discounting as a key transdiagnostic process and a ‘core’ process underlying specific domains of dysfunction (e.g. addiction). We believe delay discounting has been prematurely reified as, in and of itself, a core process underlying psychological dysfunction, despite significant concerns with the construct validity of discounting rates. Specifically, high delay discounting rates are only modestly related to measures of psychological dysfunction and therefore are not ‘core’ to these more complex behavioral problems. Furthermore, discounting rates do not appear to be specifically related to any disorder(s) or dimension(s) of psychopathology. This raises fundamental concerns about the utility of discounting, if the measure is only loosely associated with most forms of psychopathology. This stands in striking contrast to claims that discounting can serve as a ‘marker’ for specific disorders, despite never demonstrating adequate sensitivity or specificity for any disorder that we are aware of. Finally, empirical evidence does not support the generalizability of discounting rates to other decisions made either in the lab or in the real-world, and therefore discounting rates cannot and should not serve as a summary measure of an individual's decision-making patterns. We provide recommendations for improving future delay discounting research, but also strongly encourage researchers to consider whether the empirical evidence supports the field's hyper-focus on discounting.
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Epstein, Leonard H., Ashfique Rizwan, Rocco A. Paluch, and Jennifer L. Temple. "Delay Discounting and the Income-Food Insecurity-Obesity Paradox in Mothers." Journal of Obesity 2023 (September 19, 2023): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2023/8898498.
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Food insecurity, defined as unpredictable access to food that may not meet a person’s nutritional needs, is paradoxically associated with higher BMI (kg/m2) and obesity. Research has shown delay discounting, a behavioral economic measure of the preference for immediate rather than delayed rewards, is related to higher BMI, and moderates the relationship between income and food insecurity. Based on this research, we used regression models to test whether delay discounting, consideration of future consequences, and perceived stress were atemporal mediators of the food insecurity-BMI relation in 313 mothers, controlling for demographic variables. A secondary aim was to replicate the finding that delay discounting moderates the relationship between low income and high food insecurity. Results showed that low income was associated with higher food insecurity, and higher food insecurity was associated with higher BMI. Delay discounting was the only variable that was indirectly related to both paths of the food-insecurity-BMI relation. Delay discounting accounted for 22.2% of the variance in the low-income-food insecurity-obesity relation, and the total model accounted for 38.0% of the variance. The relation between low income and food insecurity was moderated by delay discounting. These data suggest that delay discounting is a potential mediator of the relationship between food insecurity and high BMI, which suggests reducing discounting in the future could be a novel target to reduce food insecurity and help people with food insecurity to reduce their excess body weight. Trial Registration. This trial is registered with NCT02873715.
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Felton, Julia W., Anahi Collado, Katherine M. Ingram, Kelly Doran, and Richard Yi. "Improvement of Working Memory is a Mechanism for Reductions in Delay Discounting Among Mid-Age Individuals in an Urban Medically Underserved Area." Annals of Behavioral Medicine 53, no. 11 (2019): 988–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaz010.
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Abstract Background Delay discounting, or the tendency to devalue rewards as a function of their delayed receipt, is associated with myriad negative health behaviors. Individuals from medically underserved areas are disproportionately at risk for chronic health problems. The higher rates of delay discounting and consequent adverse outcomes evidenced among low-resource and unstable environments suggest this may be an important pathway to explain health disparities among this population. Purpose The current study examined the effectiveness of a computerized working memory training program to decrease rates of delay discounting among residents of a traditionally underserved region. Methods Participants (N = 123) were recruited from a community center serving low income and homeless individuals. Subjects completed measures of delay discounting and working memory and then took part in either an active or control working memory training. Results Analyses indicated that participants in the active condition demonstrated significant improvement in working memory and that this improvement mediated the relation between treatment condition and reductions in delay discounting. Conclusions Results suggest that a computerized intervention targeting working memory may be effective in decreasing rates of delay discounting in adults from medically underserved areas (ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT03501706).
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Swan, Julia, Joshua L. Gowin, Matthew E. Sloan, Reza Momenan, and Vijay A. Ramchandani. "2226 Influence of alcohol use disorder and comorbid psychopathology on discounting of delayed rewards." Journal of Clinical and Translational Science 2, S1 (2018): 43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cts.2018.169.
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OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) has been associated with greater discounting of delayed rewards relative to healthy controls. The relationship, however, has been inconsistent, likely because previous studies had relatively small sample sizes and inadequately controlled for comorbid psychopathology and substance use. In the present study, we analyzed one of the largest clinical research samples to date to assess the influence of alcohol use on delay discounting, and examine the influence of confounding variables including substance use disorder. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: In total, 801 participants completed a delay discounting task where they chose between smaller, immediately available monetary amounts ($0–$90) and $100 available after a delay of 7–30 days. Delay discounting behavior was summarized as the natural log of k, a constant derived from a hyperbolic discounting equation. Participants also completed Structured Clinical Interviews for DSM-IV disorders, 90-day Timeline Followback interviews, and the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence. Participants were divided into 4 groups: healthy controls (n=298), past AUD (n=69), and current AUD with (n=224) and without (n=210) comorbid psychopathology or substance use disorder. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to examine the effect of group on delay discounting. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: There were significant differences in the distribution of delay discounting scores by group (H=80.195, p<0.001). Healthy controls and past AUD showed lower levels of delay discounting than current AUD and current AUD+comorbidity groups with medium effect sizes (Cohen’s d=−0.635 and Cohen’s d=−0.614, respectively). There were nearly no differences between current AUD with and without comorbid psychopathology groups (Cohen’s d=−0.024). The past AUD group showed almost no difference relative to the healthy control group (Cohen’s d=0.007). DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: Individuals with current AUD were shown to discount rewards greater than those without current AUD, although comorbid psychopathology did not significantly affect discounting. Surprisingly, individuals with past AUD were more similar to controls than to those with current AUD. Our findings suggest that current problematic alcohol use is related to greater discounting of delayed rewards, but comorbid diagnoses do not significantly impact this relationship. However, once problematic patterns of alcohol use cease, delay discounting appears to return to levels comparable to healthy controls.
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Wang, Miao. "Differences in Nicotine Dependence and Delay Discounting between Traditional and E-cigarette Users." Transactions on Social Science, Education and Humanities Research 7 (May 6, 2024): 411–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.62051/avjejx53.
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The present study attempts to explore the differences in nicotine dependence and delay discounting between traditional cigarette and e-cigarette users. According to the Competing Neurobehavioral Decision Systems Theory, this study will also discuss the characteristics of impulsive decisions exhibited by smokers with these two different tobacco products. Study 1 used the Fagerström Nicotine Dependence Test (FTND) to investigate the nicotine dependence levels of traditional and e-cigarette users respectively. Based on study 1, study 2 adopted the Delay Discounting Task (DDT) to compare the difference in delay discounting among the non-smoking group, traditional cigarette group and e-cigarette group, with unrelated variables such as demography variables (gender, age, education) and nicotine dependence level controlled. The results showed that in Study 1, e-cigarette users had significantly higher nicotine dependence than traditional cigarette users. In Study 2, the degree of delay discounting between the traditional cigarette group and the e-cigarette group was significantly higher than that of the non-smoking group, while there was no significant difference in the degree of delay discounting between the traditional cigarette group and the e-cigarette group. The current findings suggest that e-cigarettes may exacerbate smokers' nicotine dependence. Traditional cigarette and e-cigarette users exhibit similar and significantly higher levels of delay discounting than the general population, indicating that the general connection between nicotine dependence and high levels of delay discounting is not influenced by different tobacco products.
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Nicolai, Jennifer, and Morten Moshagen. "Dissociating Pathological Buying From Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms Using Delay Discounting." Zeitschrift für Psychologie 225, no. 3 (2017): 244–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000308.
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Abstract. Pathological buying (PB) has been associated with elevated impulsivity in personality inventories, yet limited research has considered components of behavioral impulsivity. This study examined the relationship between discounting of delayed rewards, symptoms of PB, comorbid disorders (including obsessive-compulsive disorder, OCD), and trait impulsivity. One hundred three participants completed two delay discounting tasks (DDT). In addition to the traditional DDT, a loan variant assessing the preference to receive a certain amount of money immediately when a fixed amount has to be returned after a certain delay was included in this study. Regression analysis revealed that PB symptoms predicted steeper discounting functions in both variants of the DDT over and above the remaining symptom measures and trait impulsivity. In contrast, symptoms of OCD were associated with less delay discounting. With regard to delay discounting, PB seems to be more similar to behavioral addictions than to OCD.
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Erfanian Abdoust, Mani, Monja Isabel Froböse, Alfons Schnitzler, Elisabeth Schreivogel, and Gerhard Jocham. "Dopamine and acetylcholine have distinct roles in delay- and effort-based decision-making in humans." PLOS Biology 22, no. 7 (2024): e3002714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002714.
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In everyday life, we encounter situations that require tradeoffs between potential rewards and associated costs, such as time and (physical) effort. The literature indicates a prominent role for dopamine in discounting of both delay and effort, with mixed findings for delay discounting in humans. Moreover, the reciprocal antagonistic interaction between dopaminergic and cholinergic transmission in the striatum suggests a potential opponent role of acetylcholine in these processes. We found opposing effects of dopamine D2 (haloperidol) and acetylcholine M1 receptor (biperiden) antagonism on specific components of effort-based decision-making in healthy humans: haloperidol decreased, whereas biperiden increased the willingness to exert physical effort. In contrast, delay discounting was reduced under haloperidol, but not affected by biperiden. Together, our data suggest that dopamine, acting at D2 receptors, modulates both effort and delay discounting, while acetylcholine, acting at M1 receptors, appears to exert a more specific influence on effort discounting only.
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Aparicio, Carlos F. "DELAY DISCOUNTING AND POLYDIPSIA IN SPONTANEOUSLY HYPERTENSIVE (SHR) AND LEWIS (LEW) RATS." CONDUCTUAL 11, no. 1 (2023): 12–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.59792/gsdu1779.
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This study compared the performance of the Spontaneously Hypertensive rat (SHR) on a delay discounting task with the performance of the Lewis rat (LEW) to suggest that both strains of rats are potential models of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). It measured choice in the initial link of a concurrentchains procedure with presses on two levers arranging entries to two terminal links, one delivering 1-food pellet after a 0.1-s delay and the other 4-food pellets with delays of 0.1, 5, 10, 20, 40 or 80 seconds presented in random order during the session. A bottle with tap water could be available for the rats to drink during the session (B), or it was not available (A) according to an ABABA reversal design. The SHR and LEW rats made impulsive choices producing discounting functions showing discounting rates increasing with increasing training sessions. Early in training the SHR rats produced discounting rates greater than the LEW rats, but at the end of training both strains of rats produced comparable discounting rates. All rats developed polydipsia in condition B, but the SHR rats consumed more water and emitted more licks than the LEW rats. Polydipsia was not linked to discounting rate, nor polydipsia caused the rats’ impulsive choices to decrease.
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Sofis, Michael J., Ale Carrillo, and David P. Jarmolowicz. "Maintained Physical Activity Induced Changes in Delay Discounting." Behavior Modification 41, no. 4 (2016): 499–528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0145445516685047.
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Those who discount the subjective value of delayed rewards less steeply are more likely to engage in physical activity. There is limited research, however, showing whether physical activity can change rates of delay discounting. In a two-experiment series, treatment and maintenance effects of a novel, effort-paced physical activity intervention on delay discounting were evaluated with multiple baseline designs. Using a lap-based method, participants were instructed to exercise at individualized high and low effort levels and to track their own perceived effort. The results suggest that treatment-induced changes in discounting were maintained at follow-up for 13 of 16 participants. In Experiment 2, there were statistically significant group-level improvements in physical activity and delay discounting when comparing baseline with both treatment and maintenance phases. Percentage change in delay discounting was significantly correlated with session attendance and relative pace (min/mile) improvement over the course of the 7-week treatment. Implications for future research are discussed.
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Bounoua, Nadia, Leah D. Church, Melanie A. Matyi, Jeremy Rudoler, Kaleigh Wieand, and Jeffrey M. Spielberg. "Assessing the utility of a novel cortical marker of delay discounting (C-DD) in two independent samples of early adolescents: Links with externalizing pathology." PLOS ONE 18, no. 9 (2023): e0291868. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291868.
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Delay discounting is a well-established risk factor for risky behaviors and the development of externalizing spectrum disorders. Building upon recent work that developed a novel cortical marker of delay discounting (C-DD) in adult samples, the objective of this study was to test whether the C-DD relates to delay discounting and subsequently externalizing pathology in adolescent samples. The current study used two samples: 9992 early adolescents participating in the ABCD study (Mage = 9.93 years old, 48.7% female), and 56 early adolescents recruited from the community (Mage = 12.27 years old, 55.4% female). Cortical thickness was estimated using the FreeSurfer standard pipeline, and the cortical marker of delay discounting (C-DD) was calculated based on procedures outlined by the initial validation study. All data are cross-sectional in nature. As expected, C-DD was positively related to delay discounting in the ABCD sample, even after accounting for age, biological sex, collection site and data quality indicators. Moreover, results showed that C-DD was discriminately associated with externalizing, but not internalizing, symptoms in both samples of young adolescents. Findings replicate those found in adult samples, suggestive that C-DD may be a useful neuroanatomical marker of youth delay discounting. Replication of findings in other samples will be needed to determine whether C-DD has translational relevance to understanding externalizing psychopathology in adolescent samples.
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Doyle, John R. "Survey of time preference, delay discounting models." Judgment and Decision Making 8, no. 2 (2013): 116–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1930297500005052.
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AbstractThe paper surveys over twenty models of delay discounting (also known as temporal discounting, time preference, time discounting), that psychologists and economists have put forward to explain the way people actually trade off time and money. Using little more than the basic algebra of powers and logarithms, I show how the models are derived, what assumptions they are based upon, and how different models relate to each other. Rather than concentrate only on discount functions themselves, I show how discount functions may be manipulated to isolate rate parameters for each model. This approach, consistently applied, helps focus attention on the three main components in any discounting model: subjectively perceived money; subjectively perceived time; and how these elements are combined. We group models by the number of parameters that have to be estimated, which means our exposition follows a trajectory of increasing complexity to the models. However, as the story unfolds it becomes clear that most models fall into a smaller number of families. We also show how new models may be constructed by combining elements of different models.The surveyed models are: Exponential; Hyperbolic; Arithmetic; Hyperboloid (Green & Myerson, Rachlin); Loewenstein and Prelec Generalized Hyperboloid; quasi-Hyperbolic (also known as β-δ discounting); Benhabib et al’s fixed cost; Benhabib et al’s Exponential / Hyperbolic / quasi-Hyperbolic; Read’s discounting fractions; Roelofsma’s exponential time; Scholten and Read’s discounting-by-intervals (DBI); Ebert and Prelec’s constant sensitivity (CS); Bleichrodt et al.’s constant absolute decreasing impatience (CADI); Bleichrodt et al.’s constant relative decreasing impatience (CRDI); Green, Myerson, and Macaux’s hyperboloid over intervals models; Killeen’s additive utility; size-sensitive additive utility; Yi, Landes, and Bickel’s memory trace models; McClure et al.’s two exponentials; and Scholten and Read’s trade-off model.For a convenient overview, a single “cheat sheet” table captures the notation and essential mathematics behind all but one of the models.
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Dixon, Mark R., Janice Marley, and Eric A. Jacobs. "DELAY DISCOUNTING BY PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS." Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 36, no. 4 (2003): 449–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-449.
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da Matta, Adriana, Fábio Leyser Gonçalves, and Lisiane Bizarro. "Delay discounting: Concepts and measures." Psychology & Neuroscience 5, no. 2 (2012): 135–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3922/j.psns.2012.2.03.
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Shamosh, Noah A., Colin G. DeYoung, Adam E. Green, et al. "Individual Differences in Delay Discounting." Psychological Science 19, no. 9 (2008): 904–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02175.x.
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Moreira, Diana, and Fernando Barbosa. "Delay Discounting in Impulsive Behavior." European Psychologist 24, no. 4 (2019): 312–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000360.
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Abstract. Delay discounting (DD) is the process of devaluing results that happen in the future. With this review, we intend to identify specificities in the processes of DD in impulsive behavior. Studies were retrieved from multiple literature databases, through rigorous criteria (we included systematic reviews and empirical studies with adult human subjects), following the procedures of the Cochrane Collaboration initiative. Of the 174 documents obtained, 19 were considered eligible for inclusion and were retained for in-depth analysis. In addition, 13 studies from the manual search were included. Thus, a total of 32 studies were selected for review. The objectives/hypotheses, results, and the main conclusion(s) were extracted from each study. Results show that people with pronounced traits of impulsivity discount rewards more markedly, that is, they prefer immediate rewards, though of less value, or postponed losses, even though they worsen in the future. Taken together, the existing data suggest the importance of inserting DD as a tool for initial assessment in conjunction with measures of addiction and stress level, as well as the consideration of new therapies.
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Weatherly, Jeffrey N., Heather K. Terrell, and Adam Derenne. "Delay Discounting of Different Commodities." Journal of General Psychology 137, no. 3 (2010): 273–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2010.484449.
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Wulff, Dirk U., and Wouter van den Bos. "Modeling Choices in Delay Discounting." Psychological Science 29, no. 11 (2017): 1890–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797616664342.
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Moody, Lara, Chris Franck, Laura Hatz, and Warren K. Bickel. "Delay discounting in polysubstance dependence." Drug and Alcohol Dependence 146 (January 2015): e44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.491.
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Holt, Daniel D., Joseph D. Carlson, Victoria L. Follett, et al. "Response factors in delay discounting: Evidence for Pavlovian influences on delay discounting in pigeons." Behavioural Processes 98 (September 2013): 37–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2013.04.009.
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Olson, Elizabeth A., Paul F. Collins, Catalina J. Hooper, Ryan Muetzel, Kelvin O. Lim, and Monica Luciana. "White Matter Integrity Predicts Delay Discounting Behavior in 9- to 23-Year-Olds: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21, no. 7 (2009): 1406–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21107.
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Healthy participants (n = 79), ages 9–23, completed a delay discounting task assessing the extent to which the value of a monetary reward declines as the delay to its receipt increases. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was used to evaluate how individual differences in delay discounting relate to variation in fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) within whole-brain white matter using voxel-based regressions. Given that rapid prefrontal lobe development is occurring during this age range and that functional imaging studies have implicated the prefrontal cortex in discounting behavior, we hypothesized that differences in FA and MD would be associated with alterations in the discounting rate. The analyses revealed a number of clusters where less impulsive performance on the delay discounting task was associated with higher FA and lower MD. The clusters were located primarily in bilateral frontal and temporal lobes and were localized within white matter tracts, including portions of the inferior and superior longitudinal fasciculi, anterior thalamic radiation, uncinate fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, corticospinal tract, and splenium of the corpus callosum. FA increased and MD decreased with age in the majority of these regions. Some, but not all, of the discounting/DTI associations remained significant after controlling for age. Findings are discussed in terms of both developmental and age-independent effects of white matter organization on discounting behavior.
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Reynolds, Brady, Harriet de Wit, and Jerry B. Richards. "Delay of gratification and delay discounting in rats." Behavioural Processes 59, no. 3 (2002): 157–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0376-6357(02)00088-8.
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Kim, Bokyung, Young Shin Sung, and Samuel M. McClure. "The neural basis of cultural differences in delay discounting." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 367, no. 1589 (2012): 650–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0292.
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People generally prefer to receive rewarding outcomes sooner rather than later. Such preferences result from delay discounting, or the process by which outcomes are devalued for the expected delay until their receipt. We investigated cultural differences in delay discounting by contrasting behaviour and brain activity in separate cohorts of Western (American) and Eastern (Korean) subjects. Consistent with previous reports, we find a dramatic difference in discounting behaviour, with Americans displaying much greater present bias and elevated discount rates. Recent neuroimaging findings suggest that differences in discounting may arise from differential involvement of either brain reward areas or regions in the prefrontal and parietal cortices associated with cognitive control. We find that the ventral striatum is more greatly recruited in Americans relative to Koreans when discounting future rewards, but there is no difference in prefrontal or parietal activity. This suggests that a cultural difference in emotional responsivity underlies the observed behavioural effect. We discuss the implications of this research for strategic interrelations between Easterners and Westerners.
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Matsuyama, Yusuke, Takeo Fujiwara, Yasuyuki Sawada, Junko Yagi, Hirobumi Mashiko, and Ichiro Kawachi. "Delay discounting in children exposed to disaster." PLOS ONE 15, no. 12 (2020): e0243994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243994.
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Delay discounting is an important predictor of future health and academic success in children but can change in environmental uncertainty situations. Here we show that the experience of loss of housing in the Great East Japan Earthquake 2011—but not other psychological trauma such as loss of loved ones—was correlated delay discounting of children. In 2014, we assessed delay discounting in children (N = 167; mean age = 8.3 years-old), who were preschool age at the time of the earthquake (mean age at the time of disaster = 4.8 years-old) in a time-investment exercise where children allocated five tokens between rewards "now" (one candy per token on the same day) versus "one month later" (two candies per token one month later). The number of tokens allocated for "now" was higher by 0.535 (95% confidence interval: −0.012, 1.081) in children who had their housing destroyed or flooded than those with no housing damage. Other types of traumatic experiences were not associated with delay discounting.
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Gilroy, Shawn P., Christopher T. Franck, and Donald A. Hantula. "The discounting model selector: Statistical software for delay discounting applications." Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 107, no. 3 (2017): 388–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jeab.257.
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Ritschel, F., J. A. King, D. Geisler, et al. "Temporal delay discounting in acutely ill and weight-recovered patients with anorexia nervosa." Psychological Medicine 45, no. 6 (2015): 1229–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291714002311.
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Background.Patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) are characterized by a very low body weight but readily give up immediate rewards (food) for long-term goals (slim figure), which might indicate an unusual level of self-control. This everyday clinical observation may be quantifiable in the framework of the anticipation-discounting dilemma.Method.Using a cross-sectional design, this study compared the capacity to delay reward in 34 patients suffering from acute AN (acAN), 33 weight-recovered AN patients (recAN) and 54 healthy controls. We also used a longitudinal study to reassess 21 acAN patients after short-term weight restoration. A validated intertemporal choice task and a hyperbolic model were used to estimate temporal discounting rates.Results.Confirming the validity of the task used, decreased delay discounting was associated with age and low self-reported impulsivity. However, no group differences in key measures of temporal discounting of monetary rewards were found.Conclusions.Increased cognitive control, which has been suggested as a key characteristic of AN, does not seem to extend the capacity to wait for delayed monetary rewards. Differences between our study and the only previous study reporting decreased delay discounting in adult AN patients may be explained by the different age range and chronicity of acute patients, but the fact that weight recovery was not associated with changes in discount rates suggests that discounting behavior is not a trait marker in AN. Future studies using paradigms with disorder-specific stimuli may help to clarify the role of delay discounting in AN.
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Skrynka, Jordan, and Benjamin T. Vincent. "Hunger increases delay discounting of food and non-food rewards." Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 26, no. 5 (2019): 1729–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01655-0.
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Abstract How do our valuation systems change to homeostatically correct undesirable psychological or physiological states, such as those caused by hunger? There is evidence that hunger increases discounting for food rewards, biasing choices towards smaller but sooner food reward over larger but later reward. However, it is not understood how hunger modulates delay discounting for non-food items. We outline and quantitatively evaluate six possible models of how our valuation systems modulate discounting of various commodities in the face of the undesirable state of being hungry. With a repeated-measures design, an experimental hunger manipulation, and quantitative modeling, we find strong evidence that hunger causes large increases in delay discounting for food, with an approximately 25% spillover effect to non-food commodities. The results provide evidence that in the face of hunger, our valuation systems increase discounting for commodities, which cannot achieve a desired state change as well as for those commodities that can. Given that strong delay discounting can cause negative outcomes in many non-food (consumer, investment, medical, or inter-personal) domains, the present findings suggest caution may be necessary when making decisions involving non-food outcomes while hungry.
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Yu, Xue, Edmund Sonuga-Barke, and Xiangping Liu. "Preference for Smaller Sooner Over Larger Later Rewards in ADHD: Contribution of Delay Duration and Paradigm Type." Journal of Attention Disorders 22, no. 10 (2015): 984–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087054715570390.
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Objective: Individuals with ADHD preferentially choose smaller sooner (SS) over larger later (LL) rewards, termed impulsive choice. This has been observed to different degrees on single-choice and more complex discounting tasks using various types of rewards and durations of delays. There has been no direct comparison of performance of ADHD children using these two paradigms. Method: Two experimental paradigms, single-choice and temporal discounting, each including two delay conditions (13 and 25 s), were administered to 7- to 9-year-old children with ADHD ( n = 17) and matched controls ( n = 24). Results: Individuals with ADHD chose more SS rewards than controls on both tasks, but in the long delay condition only. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that delay durations rather than paradigm types determine laboratory-based measures of choice impulsivity in ADHD.
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Białaszek, Wojciech, Bartłomiej Swebodziński, and Paweł Ostaszewski. "Intertemporal Decision Making After Brain Injury: Amount-Dependent Steeper Discounting after Frontal Cortex Damage." Polish Psychological Bulletin 48, no. 4 (2017): 456–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2017-0052.
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Abstract Traumatic brain injuries to the frontal lobes are associated with many maladaptive forms of behavior. We investigated the association between brain damage and impulsivity, as measured by the rate of delay discounting (i.e., the extent to which future outcomes are devalued in time). The main aim of this study was to test the hypothesis of steeper discounting of different amounts in a group of patients with frontal lobe damage. We used a delay discounting task in the form of a structured interview. A total of 117 participants were divided into five groups: three neurological groups and two groups without brain damage. Our analyses showed that patients with focal damage to the frontal lobes demonstrated steeper delay discounting than other participants. Other clinical groups demonstrated similar discounting rates. The data pattern related to the magnitude effect on the group level suggested that the magnitude effect is absent in the group of patients with damage to the frontal lobes; however, results were less consistent on an individual level. Amount-dependent discounting was observed in only two groups, the healthy control group and the neurological group with other cortical areas damaged.
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Garofalo, Sara, Luigi A. E. Degni, Manuela Sellitto, et al. "Unifying Evidence on Delay Discounting: Open Task, Analysis Tutorial, and Normative Data from an Italian Sample." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4 (2022): 2049. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042049.
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Despite the widespread use of the delay discounting task in clinical and non-clinical contexts, several task versions are available in the literature, making it hard to compare results across studies. Moreover, normative data are not available to evaluate individual performances. The present study aims to propose a unified version of the delay discounting task based on monetary rewards and it provides normative values built on an Italian sample of 357 healthy participants. The most used parameters in the literature to assess the delay discount rate were compared to find the most valid index to discriminate between normative data and a clinical population who typically present impulsivity issues, i.e., patients with a lesion to the medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC). In line with our hypothesis, mOFC patients showed higher delay discounting scores than the normative sample and the normative group. Based on this evidence, we propose that the task and indexes here provided can be used to identify extremely high (above the 90th percentile for hyperbolic k or below the 10th percentile for AUC) or low (below the 10th percentile for hyperbolic k or above the 90th percentile for AUC) delay discounting performances. The complete dataset, the R code used to perform all analyses, a free and modifiable version of the delay discounting task, as well as the R code that can be used to extract all indexes from such tasks and compare subjective performances with the normative data here presented are available as online materials.
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Rotschedl, Jiri, and Jiri Rotschedl. "Study of Intertemporal Discounting According to Age Groups." International Journal of Economic Sciences 10, no. 2 (2021): 126–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.52950/es.2021.10.2.008.
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The paper focuses on the topic of intertemporal discounting of individuals according to age groups. Using the sample of examined individuals, it aims to verify the hypothesis that the patience of individuals decreases with their increasing age. The study included a total of 599 individuals with an average age of 38.3 years (min. 16 and max. 82 years) who answered classical questions focused on time discounting and impulsive behaviour. In total, four possible scenarios were analysed: a small reward (CZK 100) with a delay of 1 day, a small reward with a delay of 1 month, a large reward (CZK 100,000) with a delay of 1 day and a large reward with a delay of 1 month. The delayed reward was always increased by 10% (i.e., CZK 110 or CZK 110,000). The basic hypothesis was that with increasing age, the subjective discount rate increases i.e., patience decreases. The above-mentioned 4 scenarios were evaluated for the hypotheses, while only three of the four scenarios were confirmed for all hypotheses. The results in the examined individuals suggest that with increasing age, there is a decrease in patience and at the same time a decrease in impulsive behaviour. These findings may have an overlap in consumption or savings in relation to the aging population.
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Thomas, Katie B., Adam Derenne, and Jeffrey N. Weatherly. "Delay and probability discounting in the context of gambling function and expectancies." Journal of Gambling Issues, no. 30 (May 1, 2015): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4309/jgi.2015.30.6.
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The current study investigated the relationship between two forms of discounting (delay and probability) and two measures of factors that may maintain gambling behavior (behavioral contingencies and expectancies). Participants (272 undergraduates) completed discounting questions for scenarios of gaining or losing $1,000 or $100,000 with uncertain or delayed outcomes. They also filled out the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the Gambling Functional Assessment -Revised, and the Gambling Expectancies Questionnaire. Results showed that gambling for positive reinforcement was consistently the best predictor of discounting, suggesting that the function of gambling behavior may be a better predictor of discounting than are the emotional expectancies of gambling. However, the direction of the relationship was inconsistent, with function negatively predicting discounting of both uncertain gains and losses. No consistent relationship was found between discounting and gambling for negative reinforcement or emotional expectancies. Results were generally the same when non-gamblers were excluded from the analyses. The results suggest that studying gambling function may be an informative pursuit.
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Stolarski, Maciej, Joanna Bitner, and Philip G. Zimbardo. "Time perspective, emotional intelligence and discounting of delayed awards." Time & Society 20, no. 3 (2011): 346–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0961463x11414296.
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Although the tendency to delay gratification is by definition the core feature of twoincreasingly popular—within the scope of individual differences at least—constructs: emotional intelligence (EI) and time perspective (TP), the role of the latter two in its development has never been investigated before. Moreover, none of existing research reports consider mutual relationships between EI and TP. Our research investigated relationships between TP, EI and the rate of discounting of delayed awards, understood as one of the forms of gratification delay. We also applied a new method of assessing balanced time perspective—the Deviation from the Balanced Time Perspective (DBTP). 126 university students participated in the study. The results obtained suggest the existence of several important connections between TP and EI and moderate impact of DBTP on the process of discounting. Future studies on temporal orientation could be enriched by utilizing this integrative measure of balanced time perspective (the DBTP coefficient) and by partitioning award delays into stages when analyzing temporal discounting strategies.