Academic literature on the topic 'Derivational and grammatical suffixes'

This study seeks to determine the relative position of derivational affixes on the lexicon-grammar continuum in English. Its major claim is that the set of prefixes is rather more lexical and the set of suffixes rather more grammatical in nature. This hypothesis is supported by a battery of ten tests (nine linguistic and one psycholinguistic). All tests converge to the point where we can raise the possibility of a unified explanation. A theoretical account is offered which is grounded in both language structure and processing. It is erected on a temporal asymmetry between prefixes and suffixes and a logical (relational) asymmetry between stems and affixes. In conjunction with the immediacy-of-processing assumption, these asymmetries lead to a temporal precedence of (more) lexical over (more) grammatical material, hence the higher lexicalness of prefixes and the higher grammaticalness of suffixes. An extended focus on inflectional morphology locates inflectional suffixes at the grammatical end of the spectrum. Inflectional prefixes in languages other than English may find a place either between derivational prefixes and derivational suffixes or between derivational and inflectional suffixes.

This study was intended to describe the category of inflectional and derivational morphemes found in Reading Texts of 2013 Curriculum English Textbook for the X Grade of Senior High Schools Published by Ministry of Education and Culture. Morpheme is used to refer to the smallest unit that has meaning or serves a grammatical function in a language. The morphemes which can meaningfully stand alone are called free morphemes while the morphemes such as –er and –s, which cannot meaningfully stand alone are called bound morphemes. The design of this study was descriptive qualitative. The results of this study show that Derivational prefixes consist of inter-, eco-, un-, ar-, pre-, re-, pro-, be-, de-, in-, dis-, a-, ex-, auto-, mis-, agri-, em-, ap-, im- and al-. While, Derivational suffixes consist of four categories. Thus are nominal, verbal, adjectival, and adverbial suffixes. First, nominal suffixes, namely –ism, -ation, -al, -ing, -ist, -or, -ity, -er, -ance, -ment, -ion, -ess, -ium, -ature, -ry, -ant, -ce, -ive, -cy, -y, -r, -ge, and -ness. Second, Verbal suffixes, namely –n and –ize. Third, Adjectival suffixes, namely –al, -ly, -ous, -ing, -able, -ic, -ish, -ive, -ian, -ny, -less, -ed, -ary, -nese, -y, and –ful and the last is adverbial suffix –ly. Otherwise, the categories of inflectional morphemes that found in texts consist of Noun suffixes (plural) such as; –s, -ies, and –es, Noun suffixes (possessive) e.g; –s’ and -’s, Verb suffixes (3rd person singular) are –s and –es, Verb suffixes (past tense) are –ed and –d, Verb suffixes (past participle) such as; –n, -d, and -ed, Adjective suffixes (comparative) are –er, - r, and –ier and Adjective suffixes (superlative) are –st and –est. Therefore, based on the result of finding verb suffixes are not found.

For many decades there has been a consensus among linguists of various schools that derivational suffixes function not only to determine the word-class of the complex expressions they form, but also convey semantic information. The aspect of suffix-inherent meaning is ignored by representatives of a relatively new theoretical direction – Neo-Construction Grammar – who consider derivational suffixes to be either purely functional elements of the grammar or meaningless phonological realizations of abstract grammatical morphemes. The latter view is maintained by adherents of Distributed Morphology, who at the same time emphasize the importance of conceptual knowledge for derivational processes without attempting to define this aspect. The purpose of this study is first of all to provide support for the long-standing assumption that suffixes are inherently meaningful. The focus of interest is on the suffixes -ship, -dom and -hood. Data from Old English and Modern English (including neologisms) will show that these suffixes have developed rich arrays of meaning which cannot be structurally derived. Moreover, since conceptual knowledge is indeed an important factor for word-formation processes, a concrete, theory-independent model for the representation of the synchronically observable meaning components associated with -ship, -dom and -hood will be proposed.

This research tries to analyze the morphological process of derivational affixes in a popular LINE Webtoon comic titled Annarasumanara authored by Il Kwon Ha. This research uses a synchronic descriptive approach in which data are collected and explained naturally. The objects of this research are the conversations in Annarasumanara from episode 1 to 10. The results of the research are 53 words that changed word classes, involving 7 derivational prefixes and 47 derivational suffixes. The suffix “-ly” is the most dominantly used in the Webtoon. This study revealed not only the detailed morphological process of affix analysis but also the grammatical categories of words and meanings.

This paper is a comparative morphological study of some class maintaining derivational affixes that do not alter the grammatical categories lexemes in Standard English and Central Kurdish from the standpoints of Generative Morphology. For the comparative analysis of the two languages, some of the derivational affixes that form new meanings from the existing lexemes and retain the grammatical categories of the newly derived lexemes have been classified. The main aim of the study is to identify the points of similarity and difference of class maintaining derivational affixes in both languages. The findings indicate that in the addition of nominal affixes, English and Kurdish are similar in that ‘concrete nouns’ could remain concrete nouns, as well as could convert into abstract nouns by adding certain affixes. In English, a prefix can also be added to a concrete noun to derive a new concrete noun, whereas in Kurdish, only a prefix can be added to an abstract noun to form a concrete noun. In the addition of adjectival affixes, both languages are similar in that adjectives can derive new adjectives by attaching some prefixes and some suffixes to the existing lexemes. In English, the cardinal numbers remain cardinals when the suffixes –teen and –ty are attached to them, whereas in Kurdish the only rare case can be seen when the suffix –a is attached to the two cardinal numerals hawt/ haft ‘seven’ and hašt ‘eight’. The suffixes –th in English and -(h)am and -(h)amin in Kurdish can be attached to the cardinal numbers to form the ordinal numbers.

This study examines how two types of word knowledge, word associations and grammatical suffix knowledge, change over time both receptively and productively. Ninety-five secondary and postsecondary Japanese students were tested on three word associations and inflectional and derivational suffixes for each of 20 verbs, once near the beginning of their academic year and once near the end. The results showed their average vocabulary gain was 330 words. The students showed rather poor knowledge of the allowable suffixes for the verbs, especially the derivative suffixes. Likewise, the subjects did not show very good mastery of the verbs' word associations. Even for verbs rated as known, the students as a group were able to produce only about 50% of the word associations possible on the test as judged by native speaker norms. Word association knowledge and suffix knowledge were shown to correlate with each other and with total vocabulary size. The subjects overall had from 19 to 25 percentage points more receptive knowledge than productive knowledge.

This study was designed in the form of descriptive qualitative study with the aim at describing the prefixes and suffixes in Batusesa Dialect of Balinese which belong to derivational and inflectional morpheme. The techniques used to collect the data were observation, recording and interview technique. In this study, there were three informants chosen. The results of this study show that there are four kinds of prefixes found in Batusesa Dialect, namely {n-}, {me-}, {pe-}, and {a-} and five kinds of suffixes namely {-ang}, {-nә}, {-in}, {-an} and {-ә}. There are three kinds of prefixes and one kind of suffixes which belong to derivational morpheme, namely {n-}, {me-}, {pe-}, and {-ang}. Moreover there are three kinds of inflectional prefixes namely {n-}, {me-}, and {a-} and four kinds of suffixes which belong to inflectional morpheme, namely {-nә}, {-in}, {-an} and {-ә}. There were some grammatical functions of prefixes and suffixes in Batusesa dialect of Balinese, namely affix forming verbal, affix forming nominal, affix forming numeral, affix forming adjective, and affix forming adverb, activizer and passivizer.

AbstractHittite features three derivational suffixes, i.e., -ške/a-, -šša-, and -anna/i-, that attach to verbs and are commonly described as expressing a number of imperfective-like functions. So far, the distribution and use of these suffixes has defied a satisfactory explanation. Whereas some scholars argue that they operate within the domain of lexical aspect, others view them as associated with the encoding of grammatical imperfective aspect. In this paper, we focus on the interpretation of -ške/a- and argue that a better understanding of the nature of this suffix can be achieved if one frames its description within the typology of pluractional constructions. As we show, the range of polyfunctionality of -ške/a- fully complies with the cross-linguistic behavior of pluractional markers. We also provide a tentative diachronic scenario that accounts for the rise of such polyfunctionality out of the original semantic core of the suffix.

The paper analyses passive constructions in Setswana from morpho-syntactic view point, showing that the suffixation of a passive morpheme to the verb reduces the argument structure of the verb. Previous studies carried out in Setswana verbal suffixes have confined their investigations to these morphemes as elements of morphology but have failed to observe that these affixes overlap into syntax. Chebanne (1996) observes that in Setswana, verbal extensions can combine with a single verbal base but fail to observe the overlap into syntax. Further, the studies do not give any insight in the features that Setswana shares with other Bantu languages. The passive construction in Setswana, like in other Bantu languages, is a bit complex in the sense that the verbal extension –iw brings into effect the dropping of the subject, and the object becomes the grammatical subject, thus rendering the transitive verb, such as, apaya ‘cook’ intransitive. Conversely, other derivational suffixes, such as applicative and causative, increase the verb’s arguments by two. For instance, the suffixation of the verbal suffix –el suggests an entity carrying out the action and somebody benefiting. The paper also compares passive with other verbal extensions such as neuter, applicative, causatives and reciprocals. It shows that while the passive occurs with most verbs and other verbal extensions, such as, applicative or causative suffixes, the neuter is rigid in occurring with other verbal extensions. The paper also appeals to Lexical Mapping Theory, whose role is to constrain mapping relations between thematic roles, such as an agent or patient and the corresponding grammatical functions, such as the subject, patient and oblique that have been subcategorized for by predicates

The objectives of this research are to know the derivational and inflectional morphemes and to know the functions of morpheme in the selected news from Tempo.co. This research uses qualitative method. The analysis shows that the derivational and inflectional morphemes found in Tempo.co as 357 words. Derivational shows 97 data (27.17 %) and inflectional shows 260 data (72.83 %). Derivational changes the grammatical categories of words which consists of suffix and prefix, for example, noun-forming suffix changes the words/morphemes to nouns in the suffix –ion, -ment, -ist, -ship and –er. Adjective-forming suffix changes the words/ morphemes to adjectives in the suffix –able, -al, -ful, -ic, -cal, and –ous. Adverb-forming suffix changes the words/morphemes to an adverb in the suffix –ly. While, verb-forming prefix changes adjective to new adjective or form verb to new verb in the prefix un- and mis-. The inflectional does not change the grammatical categories of words which consists of “-s, -‘s, -er, -est, -s, -ed, -ing, and –en”. The suffix –s means plural. The suffix -‘s, -s’ means possessive. The suffix –er means comparative. The suffix –est means superlative. The suffix –ed means past. The suffix –ing means Ving (continuous). The suffix –en means participle.

Toute langue parlée dans le monde évolue selon des mécanismes internes et externes qui lui sont propres. Notre travail s’intéresse aux facteurs de ces mécanismes, en particulier aux effets du contact des langues entre elles. Des chercheurs ont mis en évidence les effets de ces interactions et ont montré que toutes sortes d’éléments linguistiques pouvaient être transférées d’une langue à une autre. La famille des langues altaïques est représentée en Chine par des langues des trois principales branches (toungouso-mandchoue, mongole, turque), qui ont été en contact à divers degrés avec le chinois. Dans ce travail, nous étudierons le khortchin (qorcin, ch. keerqin), dialecte mongol oriental qui a été en contact avec le chinois de façon importante dans le temps et l’espace. Des linguistes de Mongolie-Intérieure ont souligné des phénomènes de « mixité linguistique » dans le khortchin, révélant un nombre considérable de mots d'emprunt chinois. Ce travail tente de montrer, à travers une description phonologique, morphologique et syntaxique, les caractéristiques linguistiques propres à ce dialecte. Pour comprendre les mécanismes à l’œuvre et identifier les facteurs internes et/ou externes, cette description est étayée par une comparaison entre le khortchin et d’autres dialectes mongols, notamment l’oïrate. Cette recherche s’est inscrite dans la problématique du projet ANR dirigé par M. R. Djamouri «Contacts de langues et changements linguistiques : le cas du chinois et des langues altaïques », et celui dirigé par Mme Dan Xu, « Do languages and genes correlate? A case study in Northwestern China »
Any language in the world evolves according to internal and external mechanisms which are specific to each language. Our work focuses on these factors, and particularly on the effects of contact between different languages. Researchers have highlighted these linguistic interactions and showed that all kinds of linguistic elements can be transferred from one language to another. The Altaic language family in China includes languages of the three main branches (Tungus-Manchu, Mongolian, and Turk), which have been more or less in contact with Chinese. In this work, we study Khorchin (qorcin, ch. keerqin), an Eastern Mongolian dialect that has been in contact with Chinese significantly in time and space. Linguists from Inner Mongolia have noted the phenomena of " language mixing" in Khorchin, revealing a considerable amount of loan words from Chinese. This work attempts to show, through a phonological, morphological and syntactic description, some linguistic phenomena that are specific to this dialect. To understand the mechanisms involved and identify internal and / or external factors, this description relies on a comparison between the Khorchin and other Mongolian dialects, and in particular Oirat. This research is related to the NRA projects led by R. Djamouri "Language contact and language change: the case of Chinese and Altaic languages", and by Ms. Dan Xu, "Do languages and genes correlate? - A case study in Northwestern China "

Affixes have been treated globally without adequate regard to their use in the discipline, and without proper consideration of translation problems. What is actually needed is a thorough treatment of affixes from the point view of terminological translation, and in the light of Arabic word-formation devices. This study is a contribution in this respect. It considers the translation of ten suffixes in linguistics terminology from English into Arabic. These suffixes are: -able, -ization, -lect, -eme, -nym, -graph, -graphy, -gram, -logy and -ics. In discussing the issues related to translating these suffixes, the following six-procedure approach was adopted: (1) identification of the origin and general use(s) in English of each suffix, (2) identification of the technical sense(s) of each suffix in linguistics, (3) identification of the ways through which Arabic expresses the concepts denoted in English by the discussed suffix, (4) critical discussion of the translation equivalents offered by Arab terminographers for the linguistic terms formed each of the above suffixes, (5) identification or suggestion of suitable translation technique(s) that achieve(s) precision, concision, and consistency, and maintain(s) formal and conceptual relationships between morphologically and semantically related terms, and (6) verification of the adopted translation techniques and linguistic devices by suggesting suitable translation equivalents for all included terms. The study is divided into six chapters the first of which is an introduction . The second chapter is devoted to some linguistic and terminological preliminaries, including (a) special nature of technical terms in general, (b) nature of linguistics terminology in English and its impact on translation, (c) significance of word-formation and its implications for terminological translation, (d) word-structure and word-formation in Arabic, and (e) nature of English suffixes and its implications for terminological translation into Arabic. Issues related to translating the selected suffixes proper are discussed in the core chapters as follows: the suffixes -able and -ization in chapter three, the suffixes -lect, -eme and -nym in chapter four, the suffixes -graph, -graphy and -gram in chapter five, and the suffixes -logy and -ics in chapter six.

This study examines seven deverbal nominalizing suffixes through theoretical framework and previous research. They include the morphological aspects, productivity of suffixes, base-driven approach and phonological neutral and nonneutral suffixes. Learners participated in an instrument to account for their competence of verb-noun derivation. The participants presented knowledge of relational, syntactic and relatively distributional morphology. Also, some suffixes are more productive than others and that was shown through the level of accuracy of these suffixes. The suffixes -ing, -er, and (at)-ion are of high accuracy and thus productive. Whereas the suffixes -ment, -ent/-ant, -ence/-ance and -al are less accurate and less productive. The underlying reason behind the productivity and non-productivity of these suffixes is because of the phonological transparency factors. Suffixes that do not cause internal phonological changes in the base presented high accuracy and easily learned, while suffixes that require internal phonological changes posed challenges to learners. The -ment suffix is neutral, no internal change required, however; its accuracy went down in this study.

Veiksmo pavadinimo konstrukcijos – būdingi šiuolaikinių technologijų, mokslo, teisės verslo ir daugelio kitų sričių kalbos bruožai. Šie žodžiai suteikia pavadinimą įvairiems procesams, procedūroms, metodams ir kt., todėl jie plačiai vartojami įvairiuose oficialiuose dokumentuose, ir būtent šie dokumentai dažnai apibūdinami kaip turintys bene daugiausia veiksmų pavadinimų konstrukcijų. Šiais laikais žmonės, kalbantys skirtingomis kalbomis, nuolat turi bendrauti, ir todėl dažnai atsiranda būtinybė versti oficialius dokumentus iš vienos kalbos į kitą. Taigi, pagrindinė keliama hipotezė, kad vertėjai, versdami oficialius dokumentus, vartoja tam tikrus žodžius, kurie apibrėžia skirtingus veiksmus, ir jie verčia šiuos žodžius pasitelkdami pačias produktyviausias priemones, t.y. produktyviausias priesagas anglų ir lietuvių kalbose, tuo tarpu kitas priesagas vartodami labai retai. Šio magistrinio darbo tema – „Veiksmo pavadinimo konstrukcijos dalykinio stiliaus tekstuose” (lyginamoji analizė). Nors praeityje daugelis mokslininkų tyrinėjo veiksmo pavadinimo konstrukcijas tiek anglų, tiek lietuvių kalboje, šios konstrukcijos dar nebuvo nagrinėjamos oficialiuose dokumentuose bei lyginamos tarpusavyje. Magistrinio darbo tikslas – atskleisti būdus, kaip yra sudaromi veiksmų pavadinimai, ir kaip jie yra verčiami anglų ir lietuvių kalbų dalykinio stiliaus tekstuose, atsižvelgiant tiek į jų formą, tiek į prasmę. Šiame darbe buvo apibrėžta veiksmo sąvoka, išskirta derivacinės morfologijos... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
Action defining words are characteristic features of the modern language style of technology, science, law, business and many other fields. They create an individual subgroup of naming units in the vocabulary inventory. From the point of view of terminological use, action defining words may designate processes, procedures, methods, ways of processing materials and administration acts. Such words are widely used in different formal documents, and, therefore, the texts are characterized as having a great many of action defining words. Nowadays, as different language speakers regularly communicate, formal documents are facing the necessity to be translated from one language to another. Thus, the main hypothesis of the research is suggested by the fact that in formal texts translators use a determined set of words which define actions and consequently their translations often are performed in a particular manner: they use the most productive English and Lithuanian suffixes leaving aside other linguistic means. In other words, translators do not vary and choose the easiest ways how to express the action in the process of translating. Although there are many research studies carried out on the action defining words by the English and Lithuanian linguists, such as Quirk (1972), Holvoet (2006), Keinys (1999), Pakerys (2006), comparative investigations on the issue of the action defining words in English and Lithuanian are not widespread. This Master thesis aims at revealing the means... [to full text]

The central concern of this thesis is a group of derivational suffixes characteristic of the Bantu languages known as verbal extensions yielding such derived verbs as causative, frequentative, passive, reciprocative. The study is based on a textual corpus from Emakhuwa, a Bantu language of Mozambique, supplemented by the author's native knowledge of the language. The theoretical background is provided by Lexical Functional Grammar (Bresnan (1982)), which provides a means of relating theta roles (agent, instrument, theme etc.) to grammatical functions through the Lexical Mapping sub-theory. After exploring in chapter two the morphology of these suffixes and their suppletive relationship within the lexicon, chapter three examines the syntax of primitive verbs, classified principally as ergative, unergative and unaccusative. In this analysis "objecthood" and "restrictedness" prove difficult to establish, since object c1iticization is largely restricted to human reference, while passivization (chapter five) is applied to all roles below the highest, including roles such as time and manner, normally perceived as adverbial. Furthermore, word order is little constrained and not decisive of function. Certain constructions allow variable mapping of roles to functions and introduction of supplementary objects corresponding to co-referent patients or reason, but without morphological verbal indexation. Focus in chapters four and five is narrowed to thematic extensions adding or dropping roles. The applicative introduces a beneficiary, instrument or goal, interpreted partially according to animacy; the repeated extensions may introduce multiple roles. The causative constructions include the inductive, introducing a reason/instrument role with optional suppression of agent and/or theme. The reciprocative may have a quasi-causative reading introducing an involved but unequal participant. Uses of these extensions with the passive and stative, singly or in combination, are systematically explored. The conclusion casts doubts on the adequacy of theories relying heavily on the traditional morpho-syntactic manifestations of object.

La tesi Els sufixos verbalitzadors del català. Relacions semàntiques i diccionari és un treball interdisciplinari en què intervenen aspectes de morfologia i semàntica lèxiques i lexicografia, que té un objectiu doble: d'una banda, analitzar els verbs sufixats de manera que quedin recollits els punts de divergència i de contacte entre els diversos verbs, i de l'altra, proposar una representació lexicogràfica per als sufixos verbalitzadors en forma de prototip de diccionari. Amb aquest objectiu, es parteix de la premissa que és important que els afixos en general, i els sufixos verbalitzadors en particular, passin a formar part de la macroestructura del diccionari, per tal de millorar les definicions lexicogràfiques de les entrades que els contenen.



Així, s'analitzen com a objecte d'estudi les sèries derivatives verbals coradicals, és a dir: verbs que comparteixen la mateixa base, però que es construeixen per mitjà de processos diferents, ja que el fet de confrontar els diversos elements que forman una sèrie derivativa havia de permetre precisar quines són les característiques de cada procés i/o cada sufix, i, en concret, quines són les diferències semàntiques i sintàctiques que hi ha entre cada element. El treball aconsegueix establir tres tipus de factors que expliquen que no es donin sèries sinonímiques completes en els verbs construïts per sufixació: pragmàtics, temàtics i distribucionals.



La proposta de representació lexicogràfica dels sufixos analitzats es presenta dins d'un projecte futur de Diccionari d'afixos. Aquesta representació intenta millorar la dels diccionaris existents, sistematitzant les informacions de cada afix i incloent-hi les relacions semàntiques que s'estableixen entre les paraules construïdes del mateix tipus i les regles que les construeixen.
The dissertation Els sufixos verbalitzadors del català. Relacions semàntiques i diccionari (en.: The verbalizing suffixes of Catalan. Semantic relations and dictionary) is an interdisciplinary work, where aspects of lexical morphology, lexical semantics and lexicography are involved. The work has a double goal: first, to analyze the verbs to determine the points of divergence and contact among them, and second, to propose a lexicographic representation for the suffixes in a prototype of dictionary. We started from the premise that it is important that affixes in general, and the verbalizing suffixes in particular, should be part of the macrostructure of the dictionary, in order to improve the lexicographic definitions of the entries that contain them.



Thus, verbal derivative strings are analized, but only those verbs that share the same base, but built by different processes. We thought that to confront the several elements that form a derivative string will allow us how to determine which are the characteristics of each process and/or each suffix, and, in particular, which are the semantic and syntactic differences that exist between each element. The work achieves to establish three types of factors that explain why complete synonymic strings do not exist: pragmatic, thematic and distributional.



The proposal of lexicographic representation for suffixes is shown in a future project of Dictionary of affixes. This representation attempts to improve that of the published dictionaries, giving the information of each affix systematically and including the semantic relations that are established between the words built by the same rule.

Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude du suffixe protoroman */-'ur-a/ et, par ce biais, à l’étude de la morphologie dérivationnelle du protoroman. D’une part, nous fournissons un examen approfondi et détaillé des unités lexicales protoromanes présentant le suffixe */-'ur-a/ et, d’autre part, nous offrons une analyse pointue des propriétés phonologiques, morphologiques et sémantiques du suffixe */-'ur-a/. La première partie de ce travail consiste en une brève introduction et en la présentation de la méthodologie dont nous nous sommes servie pour nos recherches : celle de la reconstruction comparée et celle de la reconstruction interne. Ensuite, nous jetons un coup de projecteur sur les deux domaines qui sont particulièrement intéressants dans le cadre de l’étude d’un suffixe protoroman : la reconstruction en domaine roman et la reconstruction morphologique. Cette première partie se conclut par l’explication de notre choix de nomenclature – avec une brève analyse des lexèmes rejetés –, par l’explicitation de nos processus de recherche et par la présentation de la microstructure utilisée pour les articles étymologiques. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse figurent les articles étymologiques des 45 étymons protoromans portant le suffixe */-'ur-a/ que nous avons pu reconstruire. Chaque article étymologique est accompagné d’une carte linguistique qui donne une vue globale sur la distribution aréologie de l’étymon en question.Enfin, la troisième partie de notre travail se veut une analyse approfondie et détaillée des propriétés phonologiques, morphologiques et sémantiques du suffixe */-'ur-a/ ainsi qu’une analyse de la variation diasystémique de la protolangue
This thesis is dedicated to studying the Protoromance suffix */-'ur-a/ and, hence, to studying derivational morphology of Protoromance. On the one hand, we provide an extensive and detailed exam of Protoromance lexical units presenting the suffix */-'ur-a/ and, on the other hand, we produce a thorough analysis of the phonological, morphological and semantic properties of the suffix */-'ur-a/.The first part of this work consists of a short introduction and of the presentation of the methodology that we used in our research : the methodology of compared reconstruction and of internal reconstruction. Then, we focus on the two fields that are particularly interesting in the context of studying a Protoromance suffix : reconstruction in Romance studies and morphological reconstruction. This first part closes up with an explanation of our nomenclature – including a short analysis of the rejected words –, a specification of our research process and a presentation of the microstructure used for our etymological articles.In the second part of our thesis appear the etymological articles of all 45 Protoromance etymons with the suffix */-'ur-a/ that we were able to reconstruct. Each etymological article comes with a linguistic map that provides a global view of the geographical distribution of the concerned etymon.Finally, the third part of our work is a thorough and detailed analysis of the phonological, morphological and semantic properties of the Protoromance suffix */-'ur-a/ and of the diasystemic variation of the Protoromance language

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
英語學系在職進修碩士班
100
The present study aimed to investigate Taiwanese twelfth graders’ productive and receptive English derivational suffix knowledge. The accuracy orders of English derivational suffix production and recognition were established; the correlations between both suffix knowledge and vocabulary size as well as general English proficiency were calculated. The subjects were 170 twelfth graders from a complete school. From the school authorities the researcher obtained the subjects’ SAET scores, which were gathered to determine their general English proficiency. Then the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) was administered to measure the subjects’ vocabulary size while the Productive Derivational Suffix Test (PT) and the Receptive Derivational Suffix Test (RT) were designed to assess their productive and receptive suffix knowledge. In the PT, the subjects were given twenty prompt words and required to produce appropriate derivatives corresponding to four word classes, namely noun, adjective, verb, and adverb. In the RT, the test items were the same as those in the PT, except that a list of possible suffixes followed each prompt, from which allowable suffixes were to be circled. The results of the PT show that the top five productive suffixes in noun were -ion/-tion, -ation, -er/-or, -ity, and -ic, whereas those in adjective were -ive, -al, -able/-ible, -ic, and -ful. However, simply three verbal derivational suffixes (-ize, -fy, and -ate) were supplied by all the subjects and only one adverbial suffix, -ly, contributed to the formation of adverbs. Irrespective of parts of speech, -ly, -able/-ible, -er/-or, and -al were the most productive suffixes in terms of variety. In terms of frequency, the most productive suffixes became -ion/-tion, followed by -ly and -ive. The findings of the RT helped to establish an accuracy order of derivational suffix recognition: -ship > -ary > -ure > -ity > -ize > -ic > -fy > -ful > -ation > -ly > -less > -ion > -ive > -al > -able > -er/-or. The subjects’ performance in the PT was significantly worse than that in the RT. The correlation results among vocabulary size, general English proficiency, productive suffix knowledge, and receptive suffix knowledge show that the four measures were positively and significantly correlated with one another. The findings of the current study suggest that derivational suffixes might be an important and appropriate target of instruction for senior high school students because of its close relationship with the SAET score and general English ability. To help students learn the derivational suffixes, a selected number of derivational suffixes should first be introduced to students and Nation’s (2001) Sequenced List provides a useful set of learning goals. The teaching and learning of derivational suffixes should start from the widely-attached, frequently-occurring ones. Next, learners should be taught to recognize the suffixes in words and to learn the meanings of these suffixes. Time and effort should also be devoted to the teaching of suffixes’ syntactic functions, especially the word class of the suffix. English teachers could consider including other members of the same word family in the teaching plan when introducing new words, which may assist students in dealing with semantically opaque words. Besides, teaching word families may attract students’ attention to word formation regularities and processes, which can develop the concepts of prefixed words and compounds along with those of suffixed words. High school students should also be specifically instructed to produce derivatives whose stem or suffix undergoes orthographic changes. However, it is advised to provide distributional knowledge only for Taiwanese senior high school students of a higher level of proficiency in English, such as the gifted and talented students.

Η παρούσα έρευνα επικεντρώθηκε στη μελέτη ζητημάτων που αφορούν στη μορφολογική πλευρά της ορθογραφίας, γιατί σε αυτήν φαίνεται να είναι μεγαλύτερες οι δυσκολίες που συναντούν οι μαθητές με και χωρίς δυσκολίες στο γραπτό λόγο. Ειδικότερα, η έρευνα αυτή επιχείρησε να εξετάσει την ορθογραφική απόδοση των βασικών λέξεων και των μορφολογικά πολύπλοκων παράγωγών τους, από ελληνόφωνους μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης και μαθητές με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες, που φοιτούν στο δημοτικό σχολείο. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, δείγμα της έρευνας αποτέλεσαν 66 μαθητές που φοιτούσαν στις Δ΄ και Στ΄ τάξεις του δημοτικού σχολείου. Αρχικά, οι μαθητές εξετάστηκαν σε ορισμένες προδοκιμασίες, οι οποίες αξιολογούσαν τη μη λεκτική νοημοσύνη, τη βραχύχρονη μνήμη και τις αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δεξιότητές τους. Τα αποτελέσματα από τις δοκιμασίες αυτές, οδήγησαν στην επιλογή των μαθητών που θα συγκροτούσαν την κάθε ομάδα αλλά και στις εξισώσεις των ομάδων μεταξύ τους. Οι ερευνητικές ομάδες ήταν τρεις: η πειραματική ομάδα και οι δύο ομάδες ελέγχου. Η πειραματική ομάδα περιείχε 21 μαθητές της Στ΄ τάξης με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες, η ομάδα ελέγχου Ι περιείχε 21 μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης της Στ΄ τάξης και η ομάδα ελέγχου ΙΙ απαρτιζόταν από 24 μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης της Δ΄ τάξης. Η πειραματική ομάδα εξισώθηκε ως προς τη χρονολογική ηλικία και το νοητικό επίπεδο με την ομάδα ελέγχου Ι και με την ομάδα ελέγχου ΙΙ ως προς το αναγνωστικό, ορθογραφικό και νοητικό επίπεδο. Έπειτα, οι μαθητές εξετάστηκαν στην πειραματική ορθογραφική δοκιμασία με στόχο την εξέταση της ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας, της ορθογραφικής συνέπειας και του συνυπολογισμού της ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας και συνέπειάς τους, σε σχέση με την απόδοση λεξικών μορφημάτων και παραγωγικών επιθημάτων λέξεων της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Οι λέξεις που συμπεριλήφθηκαν στη δοκιμασία αυτή έλαβαν τη μορφή ‘Βάση – Παράγωγη’ λ.χ. διαφημίζω-διαφημίσεις. Για τον υπολογισμό της ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας, τα λεξικά μορφήματα και τα παραγωγικά επιθήματα των λέξεων χωρίστηκαν σε 140 λεξικά τμήματα-στόχοι. Για τον υπολογισμό της ορθογραφικής συνέπειας, ομαδοποιήθηκαν τα λεξικά τμήματα που θα συγκρίνονταν μεταξύ τους σε 52 ομάδες λεξικών τμημάτων. Τα κυριότερα αποτελέσματα ήταν τα εξής: όσον αφορά στις συσχετίσεις, προέκυψαν στατιστικώς σημαντικοί δείκτες μεταξύ όλων των τιμών των ανεξάρτητων μεταβλητών μεταξύ τους, καθώς και μεταξύ των τελευταίων και των εξαρτημένων μεταβλητών «ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας», «ποσοστό ορθογραφικής συνέπειας» και «ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας και συνέπειας» της πειραματικής ορθογραφικής δοκιμασίας, με εξαίρεση τη μη λεκτική νοημοσύνη, η οποία φάνηκε να συσχετίζεται σημαντικά μόνο με τις δύο τελευταίες. Επιπλέον, σε όλες τις μετρήσεις της πειραματικής ορθογραφικής δοκιμασίας, οι μαθητές της Στ΄ τάξης με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες σημείωσαν χαμηλότερη επίδοση στην ορθογραφική απόδοση των λεξικών μορφημάτων και παραγωγικών επιθημάτων των λέξεων-στόχων συγκριτικά με τους τυπικούς συνομηλίκους τους. Παράλληλα, είχαν παρόμοια επίδοση σε σχέση με τους νεαρότερους τυπικούς μαθητές της Δ΄ τάξης. Ακόμα, οι τρεις ομάδες είχαν καλύτερη επίδοση στην ορθογραφική απόδοση των λεξικών μορφημάτων και παραγωγικών επιθημάτων των ουσιαστικών και των επιθέτων συγκριτικά με αυτήν των ρημάτων. Τα ευρήματα αυτά, επιβεβαιώνουν το προφίλ των μαθητών με δυσκολίες στο γραπτό λόγο που έχει φανεί σε προγενέστερες έρευνες, δηλαδή ότι υπάρχει μία καθυστέρηση στις ορθογραφικές δεξιότητες των μαθητών με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες σε σχέση με την ηλικία που διανύουν. Επιπρόσθετα, τα υψηλά ποσοστά των τριών ομάδων στην ορθογραφική συνέπεια μάς επιτρέπουν τον ισχυρισμό πως οι μαθητές χρησιμοποιούν μορφολογικές στρατηγικές κατά την παραγωγή ορθογραφημένης γραφής. Ωστόσο, οι τυπικοί μαθητές της Στ΄ φαίνεται να χρησιμοποιούν πιο εκτεταμένα τις μορφολογικές στρατηγικές, αφού παρήγαγαν περισσότερες συνεπείς και σωστές ορθογραφικές αποδόσεις των κοινών λεξικών τμημάτων σε σύγκριση με τους συνομήλικους μαθητές με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες και τους τυπικούς μαθητές της Δ΄ τάξης. Αν και τα αποτελέσματα της ορθογραφικής συνέπειας ενισχύουν τη χρήση μορφολογικών στρατηγικών, δεν αποκλείουν τη χρήση άλλων στρατηγικών στις οποίες εμπλέκεται ο παράγοντας της μνήμης (λ.χ. απομνημονευτικές στρατηγικές. Τέλος, αν και οι τυπικοί μαθητές της Στ΄ τάξης είχαν σημείωσαν υψηλότερο συνολικό ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας σε σύγκριση με τις άλλες δύο ομάδες, υπήρξαν περιπτώσεις λεξικών τμημάτων, κατά την ορθογραφική απόδοση των οποίων, οι μαθητές και των τριών ερευνητικών ομάδων σημείωσαν είτε υψηλό είτε χαμηλό ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας. Η απουσία στατιστικώς σημαντικής διαφοράς στις περιπτώσεις αυτές, αποτελεί πηγή προβληματισμού και αναδεικνύει το ζήτημα του ρόλου της ορθογραφικής επεξεργασίας εκάστης λέξης.
The present study focused on the examination of matters related to the morphological aspect of spelling. This seems to pose great difficulties to students with or without reading and spelling difficulties. Particularly, this study attempts to examine the spelling of the base and the derived words by Greek-speaking typical achievement students and students with reading and spelling difficulties, all which attended primary school. The participants of this study were 66 fourth and sixth graders. Initially, as part of the testing, students completed a battery of pretests which evaluated their nonverbal intelligence, short-term memory and reading and spelling skills. The results of these tests led to the selection of the students that would form each group and the matching of the groups. Three research groups of participants took part in this study: an experimental group and two control groups. The experimental group consisted of 21 typical achievement sixth graders, control group I consisted of 21 sixth graders with reading and spelling difficulties and control group II comprised 24 typical achievement sixth graders. A reading/spelling level match design was employed. The experimental group was matched in terms of chronological age and intellectual level (chronological age-matched group) with control group I whereas with control group II in terms of reading, spelling and intellectual level (reading/spelling level-matched group). In addition, students were assessed on a spelling task that was designed to examine their spelling accuracy, their spelling consistency and their spelling accuracy-consistency in spelling lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes of Greek words. The experimental items in the spelling task were morphologically related word-pairs (base and derivation). To test the spelling accuracy, lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes of words were divided into 140 lexical parts. To test the spelling consistency, these lexical parts were grouped in 52 groups. The main results are as follows: as far as the correlations are concerned, apart from non-verbal intelligence, there is statistically significant indicators among all independent variables and between the independent and the dependent variables “percentage of spelling accuracy”, “percentage of spelling consistency” and “percentage of spelling accuracy and consistency” of the spelling task. Moreover, in the measurements of the spelling task, students with reading and spelling difficulties performed poorly in spelling lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes compared to their typical achievement peers. At the same time, their performance was similar to the performance of typical achievement fourth graders. In addition, the three groups had a better performance in spelling the lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes of nouns and of adjectives than of verbs. These findings confirm the profile of students with reading and spelling difficulties that has been shown in previous studies. In particular, it seems that there is a delay in the spelling skills of students with reading and spelling difficulties. This is consistent with a spelling delay hypothesis, rather than a spelling deviance hypothesis. Furthermore, the groups’ high percentages in spelling consistency allow us to claim that students use morphological strategies when they spell morphologically related words. However, typical achievement sixth graders seem to make greater use of morphological strategies, since they produce more consistent and correct spellings of the lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes compared to their peers with reading and spelling difficulties and typical achievement fourth graders. Our results suggest the use of morphological strategies, yet they do not exclude the use of other strategies which rely on memory such us memory strategies. Finally, typical achievement sixth graders scored a higher percentage in spelling accuracy compared to the other two groups. However, there were certain parts in which the students’ spellings didn’t differ. Our data show that in these parts students of the three groups scored high or low percentages of spelling accuracy. The absence of statistically significant differences between the three groups in these cases is an area of concern and highlights the role of the orthographic processing of each word.

This is a sketch of polysynthesis in Central Alaskan Yupik (CAY) based on the Cup’ik dialect of Chevak, Alaska. CAY has well-defined words whose content is often holophrastic and whose parts are often word-like. Holophrasis is achieved by a combination of rich inflectional suffixation and by a derivational morphology in which several hundred productive suffixes bearing different lexical and grammatical meanings and functions may be added, recursively, to a lexical base. Each suffix selects the category of its base, over which it normally has scope, and determines the category of the resultant base. This simple but prolific suffixation-based system, termed ‘morphological orthodoxy’, yields long, polysynthetic words. Three cases are then discussed where suffixal elements govern constructions that in one way or another stretch CAY’s orthodox morphology, motivating them by showing parallel constructions governed by elements with similar grammatical and semantic content in languages with more heterodox morphology and syntax.

Caddo is a member of the Caddoan language family, which includes also Wichita, Kitsai, Pawnee, and Arikara. Its verbs are typically polysynthetic, with a base composed of a variety of elements that include incorporated noun roots and various derivational prefixes and suffixes. This base is accompanied by pronominal prefixes expressing person and number and their role as agents, patients, or beneficiaries. Unusual is the division of these pronominal prefixes into realis and irrealis sets that have scope over an entire event or state. The base is followed by suffixes expressing tense and aspect. Caddo is not only polysynthetic but also highly fusional as a result of extensive sound changes that have obscured morpheme boundaries as well as resemblances between different parts of a paradigm. Morphological analysis requires the internal reconstruction of an earlier stage of the language when the composition of a verb was more transparent.

This chapter is a grammatical sketch of Proto-Germanic, parallel to the sketch of Proto-Indo-European in Chapter 2. The section on phonology discusses the Verner’s Law alternation; automatic vocalic alternations; and the ablaut system at length. The section on inflectional morphology discusses the classes of strong, weak, preterite-present, and anomalous verbs, as well as the various classes of nominals. Short sections on derivational morphology, syntax, and the lexicon are included; the last concentrates on loanwords in Proto-Germanic.

This chapter is a grammatical sketch of Proto-Indo-European. It describes the phonology of the language, including the system of surface contrasts; peculiarities of subsystems and individual segments; syllabification of sonorants; ablaut; rules affecting obstruents (including laryngeals); the accent system; and Auslautgesetze. The inflectional morphology is described, including the system of inflectional categories and their formal expression; the complex inflection of the verb (organized around aspect stems and inflected also for mood, voice, the person and number of the subject, and—marginally—tense); and the inflection of the various classes of nominals, with emphasis on the accent and ablaut paradigms of nouns. Short sections on derivational morphology, syntax, and the lexicon are included.

Deminutive vocabulary is a vivid means of emotional and allegorical expression of a literary text, especially when it comes to Ukrainian folk songs. The need for its further study in terms of word formation, semantics and expressive possibilities in the literary text will clarify the idea of reduction as a word-forming category, the peculiarities of its use in Ukrainian folk songs. High derivational activity of diminutive suffixes in the modern Ukrainian language is a manifestation of the nominative function – the desire to call small objects (rarely – minor phenomena of reality) a derivative with a diminutive formant. With the help of diminutive suffixes the aesthetic function of the word is realized – the desire to give the lexical unit of expression, to introduce into it an additional shade of expression. Diminutives often used in adult language addressed to children, and in children's language. Each group of words of subjective evaluation characterized by certain forms used in the formation of derivatives and express an inexhaustible number of different shades of meaning. Derivational analysis can be complicat by the specific possibilities of context and intonation, as in language and speech there may be an erasure of the basic meaning of the subjective-evaluation token and its transition from one group of words of subjective evaluation to another. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the multi-vector exploration: an attempt to generalize the idea of diminutives as a word-forming category, including typical suffixes with which they are formed, their word-forming meanings and productivity, types of creative bases, and to trace the stylistic role of diminutives on Ukrainian folk songs. The relevance of the proposed exploration determined by the insufficient development of the topic of diminutive derivation in song folklore, the importance and role of diminutives in Ukrainian folk songs. The connection of the researched topic with the general problems of Ukrainian stylistic word formation also seems to be theoretically important and relevant. The aim of the research is to reveal the lexical-semantic and word-forming features of diminutives, as well as their stylistic load in the texts of Ukrainian folk songs. To achieve this goal it is necessary to perform the following research tasks: to outline the theoretical foundations of the study of diminutives as a type of derived words in modern linguistic literature; to characterize the specifics of Ukrainian diminutives; to carry out semantic classification of the considered diminutives; analyze the grammatical and structural properties of diminutives; to determine the stylistic role of diminutives in Ukrainian folk songs. Research methods: the main thing in the work is the descriptive method, with its universal methods of observation, systematization and interpretation of linguistic facts and phenomena. The presentation of the researched material is subject to clear logicization: substantiation of theoretical bases, presentative-analytical presentation of the fact, formulation of the concluding part.

The paper is devoted to the word formation of diminutive forms of nouns of the neuter gender (NG) in Russian and Czech. The paper presents diminutive suffixes of NG nouns in Russian and Czech according to grammars, as well as derivational dictionaries of both languages. In the last part of the paper, corpus data is provided regarding diminutives formed from the words слово, окно / slovo, okno that belong to the basic vocabulary of both languages.