Relevant bibliographies by topics / Design of axial compressors

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Academic literature on the topic 'Design of axial compressors'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 1 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Design of axial compressors"

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Gallimore, S. J. "Axial flow compressor design†." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 213, no. 5 (May 1, 1999): 437–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/0954406991522680.

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The purpose of this paper is to set out some of the basic principles and rules associated with the design of axial flow compressors, principally for aero-engines, as well as the practical constraints that are inevitably present. The thrust is primarily on the aerodynamic design but this cannot be divorced from the mechanical aspects and so some of these are touched upon but are not gone into so deeply. The paper has been written from the point of view of the designer and tries to cover most of the points that need to be considered in order to produce a successful compressor. The emphasis has been on the theory behind the design process and on minimizing the reliance on empirical rules. However, because of the complexity of the flow, some empiricism still remains.
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Hönen, H. "Axial Compressor Stall and Surge Prediction by Measurements." International Journal of Rotating Machinery 5, no. 2 (1999): 77–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/s1023621x9900007x.

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The paper deals with experimental investigations and analyses of unsteady pressure distributions in different axial compressors. Based on measurements in a single stage research compressor the influence of increasing aerodynamic load onto the pressure and velocity fluctuations is demonstrated. Detailed measurements in a 14-stage and a 17-stage gas turbine compressor are reported. For both compressors parameters could be found which are clearly influenced by the aerodynamic load.For the 14-stage compressor the principles for the monitoring of aerodynamic load and stall are reported. Results derived from a monitoring system for multi stage compressors based on these principles are demonstrated. For the 17-stage compressor the data enhancement of the measuring signals is shown. The parameters derived from these results provide a good base for the development of another prediction method for the compressor stability limit. In order design an on-line system the classification of the operating and load conditions is provided by a neural net. The training results of the net show a good agreement with different experiments.
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Leichtfuß, Sebastian, Johannes Bühler, Heinz-Peter Schiffer, Patrick Peters, and Michael Hanna. "A Casing Treatment with Axial Grooves for Centrifugal Compressors." International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power 4, no. 3 (August 16, 2019): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijtpp4030027.

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This paper provides an investigation of a casing treatment (CT) approach for pressure ratio improvements of centrifugal compressors between peak efficiency and surge. Results were experimentally verified for a variety of automotive turbocharger compressors and analyzed with 3D CFD. The CT design is an adaptation from an axial high-pressure compressor, which was successfully applied and intensively investigated in recent years. The aerodynamic working principle of the applied CT design and the achievable improvements are shown and described. The demand of operating range for automotive applications typically dictates high inlet shroud to outlet radius ratio (high trim) and past experiences indicate that a recirculation zone is formed in the inducer for those centrifugal compressors. This recirculation at the inlet shroud causes losses, a massive blockage and induces a co-rotating swirl at the inlet of the impeller. The result is a reduced pressure ratio, often leading to flat speed lines between the onset of recirculation and surge. This paper provides an understanding of inducer recirculation, its impacts and suggests countermeasures. The CT design for centrifugal compressors only influences flow locally at the inducer and prevents recirculation. It differs substantially in design and functionality from the classical bleed slot system commonly used to increase operating range. An experimental and CFD comparison between these designs is presented. While the classical bleed slot system often provides a massive increase in operating range, it often fails to increase the pressure ratio between onset of inducer recirculation and surge. In contrast, the CT design achieves a gain in pressure ratio near surge.
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Kalinkevych, M., V. Ihnatenko, O. Bolotnikova, and O. Obukhov. "Design of high efficiency centrifugal compressors stages." Refrigeration Engineering and Technology 54, no. 5 (October 31, 2018): 4–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15673/ret.v54i5.1239.

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The modern trend in compressor industry is an extension of the use of multi-shaft centrifugal compressors. Multi-shaft compressors have a number of advantages over single-shaft. The design of such compressors gives opportunity to use an axial inlet for all stages and select the optimum rotational speed for each pair of impellers, which, along with the cooling of the gas after each stage, makes possible to achieve high levels of efficiency. The design of high-efficiency centrifugal compressor stages can be performed on the basis of highly effective stage elements. Such elements are: impellers with spatial blades, vaned and channel diffusers with given velocity distribution. In this paper, impellers with axial-radial blades are considered. The blade profile is determined by the specified pressure distribution along the blade. Such design improves the structure of the gas flow in the interblade channels of the impeller, which leads to an increase in its efficiency. Characteristics of loss coefficients from attack angles for impellers were obtained experimentally. Vaned and channel diffusers, the characteristics of which are given in this article, are designed with the given velocity distribution along the vane. Compared to the classic type of diffuser, such diffusers have lower losses and a wider range of economical operation. For diffusers as well as for impellers, characteristics of loss coefficients from attack angles were obtained. High efficient impellers and diffusers and obtained gas-dynamic characteristics were used in the design of a multi-shaft compressor unit for the production of liquefied natural gas. The initial pressure of the unit is 3bar. The obtained characteristics of loss coefficients from attack angles for the considered impellers and diffusers make it possible to calculate the gas-dynamic characteristics of high-efficient centrifugal compressors stages. The high-efficient centrifugal compressors stages can be designed using high-efficient elements, such as: impeller with spatial blades and vaned diffuser with given velocity distribution.
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Sehra, A., J. Bettner, and A. Cohn. "Design of a High-Performance Axial Compressor for Utility Gas Turbine." Journal of Turbomachinery 114, no. 2 (April 1, 1992): 277–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2929141.

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An aerodynamic design study to configure a high-efficiency industrial-size gas turbine compressor is presented. This study was conducted using an advanced aircraft engine compressor design system. Starting with an initial configuration based on conventional design practice, compressor design parameters were progressively optimized. To improve the efficiency potential of this design further, several advanced design concepts (such as stator ends bends and velocity controlled airfoils) were introduced. The projected poly tropic efficiency of the final advanced concept compressor design having 19 axial stages was estimated at 92.8 percent, which is 2 to 3 percent higher than the current high-efficiency aircraft turbine engine compressors. The influence of variable geometry on the flow and efficiency (at design speed) was also investigated. Operation at 77 percent design flow with inlet guide vanes and front five variable stators is predicted to increase the compressor efficiency by 6 points as compared to conventional designs having only the inlet guide vane as variable geometry.
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Jianguo, Q. "Modification for scroll wrap height of a scroll compressor." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 226, no. 3 (September 14, 2011): 763–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954406211414640.

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In order to obtain better axial hermetic seal of scroll compression chambers and hence a better performance for a scroll compressor, two modification methods for scroll wrap height are proposed based on the axial deformation of the scroll wrap. First, the design modification, which allows the scroll wrap height and its dimensional tolerances to be designed based on the axial deformation of scroll wrap in the basic shaft system, is suitable for mass production of scroll compressors. Second, the special modification, which allows the scroll wrap height to be modified based on the axial deformation of scroll wrap after its manufacturing, can be used for single-piece production of scroll compressor or for the scroll compressors available. A special modification was conducted for a scroll compressor, in which the orbiting scroll wrap was modified based on the simulation results of its axial deformation. According to the tests conducted later, the performance of the scroll compressor with modified scroll wrap can significantly be improved without deteriorating its original manufacturing precision.
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Khalid, S. A., A. S. Khalsa, I. A. Waitz, C. S. Tan, E. M. Greitzer, N. A. Cumpsty, J. J. Adamczyk, and F. E. Marble. "Endwall Blockage in Axial Compressors." Journal of Turbomachinery 121, no. 3 (July 1, 1999): 499–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2841344.

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This paper presents a new methodology for quantifying compressor endwall blockage and an approach, using this quantification, for defining the links between design parameters, flow conditions, and the growth of blockage due to tip clearance flow. Numerical simulations, measurements in a low-speed compressor, and measurements in a wind tunnel designed to simulate a compressor clearance flow are used to assess the approach. The analysis thus developed allows predictions of endwall blockage associated with variations in tip clearance, blade stagger angle, inlet boundary layer thickness, loading level, loading profile, solidity, and clearance jet total pressure. The estimates provided by this simplified method capture the trends in blockage with changes in design parameters to within 10 percent. More importantly, however, the method provides physical insight into, and thus guidance for control of, the flow features and phenomena responsible for compressor endwall blockage generation.
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Camp, T. R., and J. H. Horlock. "An Analytical Model of Axial Compressor Off-Design Performance." Journal of Turbomachinery 116, no. 3 (July 1, 1994): 425–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2929429.

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An analysis is presented of the off-design performance of multistage axial-flow compressors. It is based on an analytical solution, valid for small perturbations in operating conditions from the design point, and provides an insight into the effects of choices made during the compressor design process on performance and off-design stage matching. It is shown that the mean design value of stage loading coefficient (ψ = Δh0/U2) has a dominant effect on off-design performance, whereas the stage-wise distribution of stage loading coefficient and the design value of flow coefficient have little influence. The powerful effects of variable stator vanes on stage-matching are also demonstrated and these results are shown to agree well with previous work. The slope of the working line of a gas turbine engine, overlaid on overall compressor characteristics, is shown to have a strong effect on the off-design stage-matching through the compressor. The model is also used to analyze design changes to the compressor geometry and to show how errors in estimates of annulus blockage, decided during the design process, have less effect on compressor performance than has previously been thought.
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Wennerstrom, A. J. "Low Aspect Ratio Axial Flow Compressors: Why and What It Means." Journal of Turbomachinery 111, no. 4 (October 1, 1989): 357–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3262280.

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One of the more visible changes that has occurred in fans and compressors for aircraft turbine engines that have entered development since about 1970 has been a significant reduction in the aspect ratio of the blading. This has brought with it a greatly reduced engine parts count and improved ruggedness and aeroelastic stability. This paper traces the evolution of thinking concerning appropriate aspect ratios for axial flow compressors since the early years of the aircraft turbine engine. In the 1950’s, moderate aspect ratios were favored for reasons of mechanical design. As mechanical design capability became more sophisticated, several attempts were made, primarily in the 1960s, to employ very high aspect ratios to reduce engine size and weight. Four of these programs are described that were largely unsuccessful for both mechanical and aerodynamic reasons. After 1970, the pendulum swung strongly in the other direction and designs of very low aspect ratio began to emerge. This has had a significant impact on compressor design systems, and a number of the ways in which design systems have been affected are discussed. Some concluding remarks are made concerning the author’s opinion of trends in the near future in aerodynamic design technology.
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Sieverding, Frank, Beat Ribi, Michael Casey, and Michael Meyer. "Design of Industrial Axial Compressor Blade Sections for Optimal Range and Performance." Journal of Turbomachinery 126, no. 2 (April 1, 2004): 323–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1737782.

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Background: The blade sections of industrial axial flow compressors require a wider range from surge to choke than typical gas turbine compressors in order to meet the high volume flow range requirements of the plant in which they operate. While in the past conventional blade profiles (NACA65 or C4 profiles) at moderate Mach number have mostly been used, recent well-documented experience in axial compressor design for gas turbines suggests that peak efficiency improvements and considerable enlargement of volume flow range can be achieved by the use of so-called prescribed velocity distribution (PVD) or controlled diffusion (CD) airfoils. Method of approach: The method combines a parametric geometry definition method, a powerful blade-to-blade flow solver and an optimization technique (breeder genetic algorithm) with an appropriate fitness function. Particular effort has been devoted to the design of the fitness function for this application which includes non-dimensional terms related to the required performance at design and off-design operating points. It has been found that essential aspects of the design (such as the required flow turning, or mechanical constraints) should not be part of the fitness function, but need to be treated as so-called “killer” criteria in the genetic algorithm. Finally, it has been found worthwhile to examine the effect of the weighting factors of the fitness function to identify how these affect the performance of the sections. Results: The system has been tested on the design of a repeating stage for the middle stages of an industrial axial compressor. The resulting profiles show an increased operating range compared to an earlier design using NACA65 profiles. Conclusions: A design system for the blade sections of industrial axial compressors has been developed. Three-dimensional CFD simulations and experimental measurements demonstrate the effectiveness of the new profiles with respect to the operating range.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Design of axial compressors"

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Piscopo, Giovanni. "Preliminary aerothermal design of axial compressors." Thesis, Cranfield University, 2013. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/7909.

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The research work disclosed in this publication is partially funded by the Strategic Educational Pathways Scholarship Scheme (Malta). The scholarship is part-financed by the European Union – European Social Fund under Programme II – Cohesion Policy 2007-2013.
This dissertation documents a compressor preliminary design study conducted by the author in fulfilment of his MSc thesis requirements. The compressor is intended for a new development engine within the 20Klbf thrust category, planned to be used on a short-haul aircraft, namely the ERJ-190. A market research suggests that there exists a definite opportunity for a commercially profitable engine within this thrust class. Furthermore, the proposed new engine is projected to outperform current production engines on critical issues such as fuel efficiency and operability. By and large, the objectives of this work have been achieved and a compressor design and layout is suggested, which matched or exceeded all the initial requirements. The quality of the results from this study are thought to be of sufficient detail to allow a further, more detailed development study to resolve some subtle pending issues. It is expected that, some compressor stages may have to be altered slightly during detailed design to augment their performance and ease of manufacture and assembly. Throughout this study, the importance of the compressor design figure of merits, pertaining to a short haul engine, has been outlined and their interaction on the design process is well documented. Furthermore, some rather unorthodox objectives such as compressor performance retention and reliability have been discussed. The author approached these subjects in an innovative way due to the limited non-proprietary knowledge available on these issues, especially considering their implications within preliminary design. Furthermore, the author developed and tested a new preliminary turbomachinery design code, named Turbodev, which can be used as an aid in future compressor design endeveours. Turbodev can handle most types of compressor layouts and generates an overall aerodynamic assessment of the turbomachinery performance. In conclusion; this documentation and the associated literature review aim to provide the reader with an overview of the work done and yield a better understanding of the decisions that face any design bureau when developing a new or modified engine component.
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Lopes, Fernando de Oliveira. "Modelo computacional para projeto de compressores axiais." [s.n.], 2007. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/265338.

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Orientador: Jorge Isaias Llagostera Beltran
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-08T17:53:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lopes_FernandodeOliveira_M.pdf: 4254683 bytes, checksum: 3714a253c99b8967319409a00b69058a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007
Resumo: Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de um programa computacional para modelagem inicial de compressores axiais de vários estágios pertencentes ao conjunto de turbinas a gás. O desenvolvimento do programa se baseia na metodologia adotada por Saravanamutto et al. (2001), faz uso da Primeira Lei da Termodinâmica para cálculo de potência consumida pelo compressor e da Segunda Lei da Termodinâmica para determinar o grau de irreversibilidade do sistema. O programa calcula a quantidade de estágios necessária para uma dada relação de pressão, a quantidade de palhetas por estágio e outros dados construtivos do compressor. O trabalho analisa a eficiência global de uma turbina a gás, avalia rendimento utilizando diferentes tipos combustíveis, estuda a influência da temperatura de entrada do ar no compressor, temperatura de entrada dos gases na turbina, e eficiência isentrópica do compressor e da turbina. Fatores que geram instabilidade no compressor são discutidos e algumas sugestões são apresentadas para evitar que compressores operem fora das condições iniciais. O trabalho apresenta procedimentos claros e detalhados para o préprojeto de um compressor de fluxo axial. Finalmente, o trabalho apresenta uma breve discussão sobre eficiência exergética de máquinas térmicas
Abstract: This work presents the developing of a computational program for designing axial compressors that hold multistage belonged gas turbine. The developing of the program is based on methodology adopted by Saravanamutto et al.(2001), it makes use of the First Law of Thermodynamic to calculate the power required by the axial compressor e the Second Law to calculate the level of irreversibilities. Beside of this the program presents the numbers of stages required for a given pressure ratio, the amount of blades per stage and other building parameters has been included to make a better analyze about the equipment. The work contains thermal efficiency analyzes of a gas turbines, where parameters such as fuels, temperature intlet turbine, environmental conditions, efficiency of the compressor and turbine are included. Other factors such as unstable conditions are discussed and solutions to avoid that axial compressors running in off design conditions. In summary the work provides a global view about thermal machines and how their parameters can influence both in the thermal and exergetic efficiency
Mestrado
Termica e Fluidos
Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica
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Nucara, Pascal. "Design of gas turbine axial compressors for fuel flexibility." Thesis, University of Sussex, 2014. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/48905/.

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Current gas turbine technology for power generation is generally optimised for natural gas. On the basis of current instabilities in natural gas price and supply, the use of alternative fuels, such as syngas, has recently gained high interest. Due to the different thermodynamic properties of syngas compared to natural gas the behaviour of existing gas turbine components may significantly change. From practical and economic points of view, it is generally considered that in order to meet the new fuel properties, the main effort should be put on the adaptation of conventional gas turbines in integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants rather than producing a new generation of gas turbine designs from scratch. In addition to the requirement of new combustion technologies, main critical issues are represented by the reduction of compressor surge margin and turbine blade overheating. Solutions might include thermodynamic cycle as well as turbine geometry modifications. The latter would be preferred in terms of power plant performance. The main aim of this thesis is to explore suitable solutions to be applied to gas turbine compressors in order to accommodate syngas combustion. Among others, the use of variable stator vanes (VSVs) and blade radial stacking line modifications are considered. These are investigated on reference geometries available in the public domain. A baseline compressor geometry representative of a conventional heavy-duty gas turbine fueled with natural gas is generated and modified according to the understating gained during this study. The re-designed machine is a result of the application of stator vanes re-staggering in the front stages and blade sweep in the rear stages in order to cope with compressor air supply control and critical flow separation regions respectively. The obtained results show that efficient and stable operation during power modulation can be achieved, while reducing the need of other modifications to the combined cycle plant. It was therefore concluded that the proposed option can be considered a viable option to satisfy some important technical and economic constraints imposed by the integration of an existing gas turbine within an IGCC plant.
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Camp, Timothy Richard. "Aspects of the off-design performance of axial flow compressors." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.387517.

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Robinson, Christopher J. "End-wall flows and blading design for axial flow compressors." Thesis, Cranfield University, 1991. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/6929.

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The flow in multistage axial flow compressors is particularly complex in nature because of the proximity of moving bladerows, the growth of end-wall boundary layers and the presence of tip and seal leakages and secondary flow. The problems associated with these phenomena are at their most acute in the latter, subsonic stages of the core compressor, where Reynolds numbers are modest and the blading has low aspect ratio. Indeed, much of the inefficiency of axial stages is believed to be associated with the interaction between blading and end-wall flows. The fact that the end-wall flow phenomena result in conditions local to the blade which are quite different from those over the major part of the annulus was appreciated by many of the earliest workers in the axial turbomachinery field. However, experiments on blading designs aimed specifically at attacking the end-loss have been sparse. This thesis includes results from tests of conventional and end-bent blading in a four-stage, low-speed, axial compressor, built specifically for the task, at a scale where high spatial measurement resolution could be readily achieved within the flowpath. Two basic design styles are considered: a zero a0 stage with DCA aerofoils and a low-reaction controlled-diffusion design with cantilevered stators. The data gives insight into the flow phenomena present in 'buried' stages and has resulted in a much clearer understanding of the behaviour of end-bent blading. A 3D Navier-Stokes solver was calibrated on the two low-reaction stators and was found to give good agreement with most aspects of the experimental results. An improved design procedure is suggested based on the incorporation of end-bends into the throughflow and iterative use of the 3D Navier-Stokes solver.
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Ando, Victor Fujii. "Genetic algorithm for preliminary design optimisation of high-performance axial-flow compressors." Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica, 2011. http://www.bd.bibl.ita.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=1969.

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This work presents an approach to optimise the preliminary design of high-performance axial-flow compressors. The preliminary design within the Gas Turbine Group at ITA, is carried on with an in-house computational program based upon the streamline curvature method, using correlations from the literature to assess the losses. The choice of many parameters of the thermodynamic cycle and of geometries relies upon the expertise from the members of the Group. Nevertheless, it is still a laborious and time-consuming task, requiring successive trial and errors. Therefore, to support the compressor designer in the choice of some parameters, an optimisation program, named REMOGA, was written in FORTRAN language, allowing an easy integration with the programs developed by the Gas Turbine Group. The program is based upon a multi-objective genetic algorithm, with real codification and elitism. Then the REMOGA and the preliminary design program were integrated to design a 5-stage axial-flow compressor. Therefore, the stator air outlet angles, the temperature distribution and the hub-tip ratio were varied aiming at higher efficiencies and higher pressure ratios, but controlling the de Haller number and the camber angle. Thanks to the REMOGA, thousands of designs could be quickly evaluated. Finally, using a choice criterion, four solutions were selected for further analysis, revealing that the developed program was successful in finding more efficient and feasible compressor designs.
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Birkenheier, David Andrew. "Non-uniform radial meanline method for off-design performance estimation of multistage axial compressors." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/119062.

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Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2018.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 111-112).
The increasing use of renewable energy sources necessitates power-generating gas turbines capable of frequently and rapidly starting up to supplement the energy supply when renewable sources alone cannot meet demand [1], [21. This makes the off-design performance of such gas turbines more important as they spend more of their operational life off the design point. Currently off-design performance cannot be estimated with high fidelity until late in the gas turbine compressor design process at which point the design is largely fixed and only limited changes can be made. This thesis presents a Non-Uniform Radial Meanline method for multistage axial compressor off-design performance estimation, capturing the transfer of radial flow non-uniformity and its impact on compressor blade row performance. This method enables the high-fidelity characterization of blade row performance and the stage matching of multistage compressors with non-uniformity effects included. A new representation of non-uniform radial flow profiles using orthonormal basis functions was developed to provide a compact representation suitable for inclusion in a one-dimensional performance estimation method. The link between radial flow non-uniformity and compressor blade row performance was characterized using three-dimensional embedded stage calculations. An initial implementation of the Non-Uniform Radial Meanline method was demonstrated for different compressor inlet non-uniformities. The computations show that the new approach provides an effective means of incorporating radial flow non-uniformity into a one-dimensional compressor performance estimation method.
by David Andrew Birkenheier.
S.M.
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Iyengar, Vishwas. "A First Principles Based Methodology for Design of Axial Compressor Configurations." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/16163.

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Axial compressors are widely used in many aerodynamic applications. The design of an axial compressor configuration presents many challenges. Until recently, compressor design was done using 2-D viscous flow analyses that solve the flow field around cascades or in meridional planes or 3-D inviscid analyses. With the advent of modern computational methods it is now possible to analyze the 3-D viscous flow and accurately predict the performance of 3-D multistage compressors. It is necessary to retool the design methodologies to take advantage of the improved accuracy and physical fidelity of these advanced methods. In this study, a first-principles based multi-objective technique for designing single stage compressors is described. The study accounts for stage aerodynamic characteristics, rotor-stator interactions and blade elastic deformations. A parametric representation of compressor blades that include leading and trailing edge camber line angles, thickness and camber distributions was used in this study A design of experiment approach is used to reduce the large combinations of design variables into a smaller subset. A response surface method is used to approximately map the output variables as a function of design variables. An optimized configuration is determined as the extremum of all extrema. This method has been applied to a rotor-stator stage similar to NASA Stage 35. The study has two parts: a preliminary study where a limited number of design variables were used to give an understanding of the important design variables for subsequent use, and a comprehensive application of the methodology where a larger, more complete set of design variables are used. The extended methodology also attempts to minimize the acoustic fluctuations at the rotor-stator interface by considering a rotor-wake influence coefficient (RWIC). Results presented include performance map calculations at design and off-design speed along with a detailed visualization of the flow field at design and off-design conditions. The present methodology provides a way to systematically screening through the plethora of design variables. By selecting the most influential design parameters and by optimizing the blade leading edge and trailing edge mean camber line angles, phenomenon s such as tip blockages, blade-to-blade shock structures and other loss mechanisms can be weakened or alleviated. It is found that these changes to the configuration can have a beneficial effect on total pressure ratio and stage adiabatic efficiency, thereby improving the performance of the axial compression system. Aeroacoustic benefits were found by minimizing the noise generating mechanisms associated with rotor wake-stator interactions. The new method presented is reliable, low time cost, and easily applicable to industry daily design optimization of turbomachinery blades.
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Ramakdawala, Rizwan R. "Preliminary design code for an axial stage compressor." Thesis, Monterey, Calif. : Springfield, Va. : Naval Postgraduate School ; Available from National Technical Information Service, 2001. http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA397395.

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Thesis (M.S. in Aeronautical Engineering)--Naval Postgraduate School, Sept. 2001.
Thesis advisor, Shreeve, Raymond P. "September 2001." Includes bibliographical references (p. 117-119). Also available in print.
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Merchant, Ali A. (Ali Abbas). "Design and analysis of axial aspirated compressor stages." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/9362.

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Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1999.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 145-150).
The pressure ratio of axial compressor stages can be significantly increased by controlling the development of blade and endwall boundary layers in regions of adverse pressure gradient by means of boundary layer suction. This concept is validated and demonstrated through the design and analysis of two unique aspirated compressor stages: a low-speed stage with a design pressure ratio of 1.6 at a tip speed of 750 ft/s, and a high-speed stage with a design pressure ratio of 3.5 at a tip speed of 1500 ft/s. The aspirated compressor stages were designed using a new procedure which is a synthesis of low speed and high speed blade design techniques combined with a flexible inverse design method which enabled precise independent control over the shape of the blade suction and pressure surfaces. Integration of the boundary layer suction calculation into the overall design process is an essential ingredient of the new procedure. The blade design system consists of two axisymmetric through-flow codes coupled with a quasi three-dimensional viscous cascade plane code with inverse design capability. Validation of the completed designs were carried out with three-dimensional Euler and Navier-Stokes calculations. A single spanwise slot on the blade suction surface is used to bleed the boundary layer. The suction mass flow requirement for the low-speed and high-speed stages are 1 % and 4% of the inlet mass flow, respectively. Additional suction between 1-2% is also required on the compressor end walls near shock impingement locations. The rotor is modeled with a tip shroud to eliminate tip clearance effects and to discharge the suction flow radially from the flowpath. Three-dimensional viscous evaluation of the designs showed good agreement with the quasi three-dimensional design intent, except in the endwall regions. The suction requirements predicted by the quasi three-dimensional calculation were confirmed by the three-dimensional viscous calculations. The three-dimensional viscous analysis predicted a peak pressure ratio of 1.59 at an isentropic efficiency of 89% for the low-speed stage, and a peak pressure ratio of 3.68 at an isentropic efficiency of 94% for the high-speed rotor.
by Ali M. Merchant.
Ph.D.
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Books on the topic "Design of axial compressors"

1

Design of highly loaded axial-flow fans and compressors. White River Junction, Vt: Concepts ETI, 2000.

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Steinke, Ronald J. Design of 9.271-pressure-ratio five-stage core compressor and overall performance for first three stages. Cleveland, Ohio: Lewis Research Center, 1986.

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Axial-flow compressors: A strategy for aerodynamic design and analysis. New York: ASME Press, 2003.

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Riggle, Peter. Investigation of axial positioning for flexural compressors: Final technical report. Richland, WA: Tri-Cities University Center, University of Washington, 1991.

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Schmidt, James F. Off-design computer code for calculating the aerodynamic performance of axial-flow fans and compressors: User's manual. [Washington, D.C.]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1995.

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Buisine, D. Modelisation du grand decrochage dans les compresseurs axiaux. Rhode Saint Genese, Belgium: Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, 1988.

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Wilde, Geoffrey. Flow matching of the stages of axial compressors. Derby: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, 1999.

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Paduano, James D. Active control of rotating stall in axial compressors. Cambridge, Mass: Gas Turbine Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1992.

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Cyrus, Václav. Secondary flow in axial compressors and its effect on aerodynamic characteristics. Praha: National Research Institute for Machine Design, Praha-Běchovice, 1988.

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Moore, F. K. A theory of post-stall transients in multistage axial compression systems. [Washington, D.C.?]: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, 1985.

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Book chapters on the topic "Design of axial compressors"

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Gambini, Marco, and Michela Vellini. "Preliminary Design of Axial Flow Compressors." In Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering, 155–97. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51299-6_4.

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Du, W. H., H. Wu, and L. Zhang. "Off-design Performance Analysis of Multi-Stage Transonic Axial Compressors." In New Trends in Fluid Mechanics Research, 504. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-75995-9_167.

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Barthmes, Sebastian, Jakob P. Haug, Andreas Lesser, and Reinhard Niehuis. "Unsteady CFD Simulation of Transonic Axial Compressor Stages with Distorted Inflow." In Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics and Multidisciplinary Design, 303–21. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21127-5_18.

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Dick, Erik. "Axial Compressors." In Fundamentals of Turbomachines, 459–507. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9627-9_13.

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Kim, Hyung-Jin, Hyeon-Jae Noh, and Youn-Jea Kim. "Optimal Design of Rotor Blades for an Axial Compressor Using the Gradient Based Method." In EngOpt 2018 Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Engineering Optimization, 498–509. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97773-7_45.

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El-Sayed, Ahmed F. "Centrifugal and Axial Compressors." In Fundamentals of Aircraft and Rocket Propulsion, 703–838. London: Springer London, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6796-9_9.

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Bose, Tarit. "Axial Compressors and Turbines." In Airbreathing Propulsion, 163–95. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3532-7_7.

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Balsaraf, NB, and S. Kishore Kumar. "Sensitivity Analysis of Weight Coefficients Used in Multiobjective Optimization in Genetic Algorithm Method for Axial Flow Compressor Design." In Proceedings of the National Aerospace Propulsion Conference, 27–38. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5039-3_2.

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Serovy, George K. "Secondary Flows in Axial-Flow Compressors." In Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics of Turbomachinery, 601–19. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1985. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5153-2_17.

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Breugelmans, F. A. E. "Unsteady Flow in Axial Flow Compressors." In Modern Research Topics in Aerospace Propulsion, 275–95. New York, NY: Springer New York, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-0945-4_15.

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Conference papers on the topic "Design of axial compressors"

1

Bruni, Giuseppe, James Taylor, Senthil Krishnababu, Robert Miller, and Roger Wells. "Squealer Tip Treatment Design for Axial Compressors." In ASME Turbo Expo 2020: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2020-14906.

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Abstract End-wall flows are amongst the main sources of losses in the rear stages of a typical multi-stage axial compressor. Reducing the tip leakage losses in the rotor blades and vanes can provide an increased efficiency and stall margin of a given axial compressor stage. One approach is to use squealer tips, which are traditionally designed to minimize the effect of tip rubbing. However, squealers can also provide a significant performance benefit, when designed considering aerodynamics from the beginning, as shown in this paper. A CFD based methodology, in which the blade or vane thickness distribution is varied in a controlled manner was developed. This design methodology was used to create different types of squealer tip geometry for a representative stage in a low speed compressor rig. Three different tip concepts were designed, based on a Suction Side Squealer, on a Pressure Side Squealer and on the combination of the two being merged between the leading edge and trailing edge, this new design is called the SuPr Tip. Subsequent experimental tests carried out agreed with the predicted relative ranking of the different squealer designs and on the superior performance of the SuPr tip design over the others, thus validating the methodology and the design process.
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Dickens, Tony, and Ivor Day. "The Design of Highly Loaded Axial Compressors." In ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2009-59291.

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Increasing compressor pressure ratios (thereby gaining a benefit in cycle efficiency), or reducing the number of stages (to reduce weight, cost, etc.), will require an increase in pressure rise per stage. One method of increasing the pressure rise per stage is by increasing the stage-loading coefficient and it is this topic which forms the focus of the present paper. In the past, a great deal of effort has been expended in trying to design highly loaded blade rows. Most of this work has focused on optimizing a particular design rather than looking at the fundamental problems associated with high loading. This paper looks at the flow physics behind the problem, makes proposals for a new design strategy and explains sources of additional loss specific to highly loaded designs. Detailed experimental measurements of three highly loaded stages (Δh0/U2 ≈ 0.65) have been used to validate a CFD code. The calibrated CFD has then been used to show that as the stage loading is increased the flow in the stator passages breaks down first. This happens via a large corner separation which significantly impairs the stage efficiency. The stator can be relieved by increasing stage reaction, thus shifting the burden to the rotor. Fortunately, the CFD calculations show that the rotor is generally more tolerant of high loading than the stator. Thus, when stage loading is increased, it is necessary to increase the reaction to achieve the optimum efficiency. However, the design exercise using the calibrated CFD also shows that the stage efficiency is inevitably reduced as the stage loading is increased (in agreement with the experimental results). In the second part of the paper, the role profile loss plays in the reduction in efficiency at high stage loading is considered. A simple generic velocity distribution is developed from first principles to demonstrate the hitherto neglected importance of the pressure surface losses in highly loaded compressors.
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Khalid, S. Arif, Amrit S. Khalsa, Ian A. Waitz, Choon S. Tan, Edward M. Greitzer, Nicholas A. Cumpsty, John J. Adamczyk, and Frank E. Marble. "Endwall Blockage in Axial Compressors." In ASME 1998 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/98-gt-188.

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This paper presents a new methodology for quantifying compressor endwall blockage and an approach, using this quantification, for defining the links between design parameters, flow conditions, and the growth of blockage due to tip clearance flow. Numerical simulations, measurements in a low speed compressor, and measurements in a wind tunnel designed to simulate a compressor clearance flow are used to assess the approach. The analysis thus developed allows predictions of endwall blockage associated with variations in tip clearance, blade stagger angle, inlet boundary layer thickness, loading level, loading profile, solidity and clearance jet total pressure. The estimates provided by this simplified method capture the trends in blockage with changes in design parameters to within 10%. More importantly, however, the method provides physical insight into, and thus guidance for control of, the flow features and phenomena responsible for compressor endwall blockage generation.
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Ehrich, Fredric. "Rotor Whirl Forces Induced by the Tip Clearance Effect in Axial Flow Compressors." In ASME 1993 Design Technical Conferences. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc1993-0177.

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Abstract It is now widely recognized that destabilizing forces, tending to generate forward rotor whirl, are generated in axial flow turbines as a result of the non-uniform torque induced by the non-uniform tip-clearance in a deflected rotor — the so called Thomas/Alford force (Thomas, 1958 and Alford, 1965). It is also recognized that there will be a similar effect in axial flow compressors, but qualitative considerations cannot definitively establish the magnitude or even the direction of the induced whirling forces — that is, if they will tend to forward or backward whirl. Applying a “parallel compressor” model to simulate the operation of a compressor rotor deflected radially in its clearance, it is possible to derive a quantitative estimate of the proportionality factor β which relates the Thomas/Alford force in axial flow compressors (i.e., the tangential force generated by a radial deflection of the rotor) to the torque level in the compressor. The analysis makes use of experimental data from the GE Aircraft Engines Low Speed Research Compressor facility comparing the performance of three different axial flow compressors, each with four stages (typical of a mid-block of an aircraft gas turbine compressor) at two different clearances (expressed as a percent of blade length) — CL/L = 1.4% and CL/L = 2.8%. It is found that the value of β is in the range of +0.27 to −0.71 in the vicinity of the stages’ nominal operating line and +0.08 to −1.25 in the vicinity of the stages’ operation at peak efficiency. The value of β reaches a level of between −1.16 and −3.36 as the compressor is operated near its stalled condition. The final result bears a very strong resemblance to the correlation obtained by improvising a normalization of the experimental data of Vance and Laudadio (1984) and a generic relationship to the analytic results of Colding-Jorgensen (1990).
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Madadi, Ali, and Ali Hajilouy Benisi. "Performance Predicting Modeling of Axial-Flow Compressor at Design and Off-Design Conditions." In ASME Turbo Expo 2008: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2008-50550.

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Axial flow compressor is one of the most important parts of gas turbine units. Therefore, its design and performance prediction are very important. One-dimensional modeling is a simple, fast and accurate method for performance prediction of any type of compressors with different geometries. In this approach, inlet flow conditions and compressor geometry are known and by considering various compressor losses, velocity triangles at rotor, and stator inlets and outlets are determined, and then compressor performance characteristics are predicted. Numerous models have been developed theoretically and experimentally for estimating various types of compressor losses. In present work, performance characteristics of the axial-flow compressor are predicted based on one-dimensional modeling approach. In this work, models of Lieblein, Koch-Smith, Herrig, Johnsen-Bullock, Pollard-Gostelow, Aungier, Hunter-Cumpsty Reneau are implemented to consider compressor losses, incidence angles, deviation angles, stall and surge conditions. The model results are compared with experimental data to validate the model. This model can be used for various types of single stage axial-flow compressors with different geometries, as well as multistage axial-flow compressors.
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D’Elia, Gianluca, and Giorgio Dalpiaz. "Incoming Stall Identification in Axial Compressors by Vibration Analysis." In ASME 2013 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2013-12810.

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This work addresses on a complete vibro-acoustic characterization of an axial compressor with the aim to foresee the rotor instability. The tests were performed on a turboshaft Allison 250-C18. The compressor is composed of six axial stages and one centrifugal stage. Four vibration signals were simultaneously measured by means of accelerometers, while the acoustic signals were measured by means of two microphones. Two different kinds of tests have been carried out on the compressor that operates at constant speed: in the course of the first test the six signals were acquired at different positions of the throttle opening, whereas during the second test, the signals were acquired while the throttle was gradually opened. The test results show a sensitive increase of the sub-synchronous activity in the accelerometers spectrum map, moreover, closing the throttle, the amplitude of the spectrum components increases. These phenomena can be related to the rotating stall behavior.
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Beheshti, Behnam H., Kaveh Ghorbanian, Bijan Farhanieh, Joao A. Teixeira, and Paul C. Ivey. "A New Design for Tip Injection in Transonic Axial Compressors." In ASME Turbo Expo 2006: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2006-90007.

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This paper presents a state of the art design for the blade tip injection. The design includes the means to inject high-pressure gas jet directly into a circumferential casing groove formed in the shroud adjacent to the blade tip. The casing groove is positioned over the blade tip and exceeds 30% of the blade axial chord beyond the impeller to both upstream and downstream directions. In order to validate the multi block model used in the tip gap region, main flow characteristics are verified with the experimental data for smooth casing with a design clearance of 0.5% span. Three arbitrary mass flow rates (1.75%, 2.45%, and 4.35% of choked mass flow) have been studied. The results indicate remarkable advantageous effects on the compressor stability margin. Further, compared to classical design for tip injection, the current design can significantly improve the compressor stall margin due to direct injection of flow. An increase of the injected air may enhance the stall margin improvement. Furthermore, results for injection at different angles, shows that the compressor stability margin reaches a maximum when the bleed air in the relative coordinates is aligned with the mean camber line of the blade leading edge. The main objective of this research is to present an improved design for tip injection as well as to determine its effect on the stability enhancement of the compressor. The current research also provides guidelines to an optimum design of tip injection.
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Zhu, Junqiang, Yanhui Wu, and Wuli Chu. "Axial Location of Casing Treatment in Multistage Axial Flow Compressors." In ASME Turbo Expo 2005: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2005-69105.

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Koch in Ref. 1 presented a procedure for estimating the maximum pressure rise potential of axial flow compressor stages. When used in conjunction with a stage stacking off-design performance prediction method, it can indicate which stage is likely to be responsible for stalling a multistage compressor. Based on Koch’s approach, it is believed that the casing over the stage that stalls first (critical stage) should be treated in order to prevent or reduce the possibility of stalling. With the help of a two-stage compressor test rig, experimental investigations on the stage stalling and the ideal axial location of the treated casing in the multistage environment were performed using a recessed circumferential slot casing treatment. Experimental results indicate that it is possible to predict the stage that stalls first using Koch’s engineering method. In addition, it was verified that if the casing treatment was located over the critical stage, the stall margin of the whole multistage compressor could be improved significantly.
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Gbadebo, Semiu A., Nicholas A. Cumpsty, and Tom P. Hynes. "Three-Dimensional Separations in Axial Compressors." In ASME Turbo Expo 2004: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2004-53617.

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Flow separations in the corner regions of blade passages are common. The separations are three dimensional and have quite different properties from the two-dimensional separations that are considered in elementary courses of fluid mechanics. In particular the consequences for the flow may be less severe than the two-dimensional separation. This paper describes the nature of three-dimensional separation and addresses the way in which topological rules, based on a linear treatment of the Navier-Stokes equations, can predict properties of the limiting streamlines, including the singularities which form. The paper shows measurements of the flow field in a linear cascade of compressor blades and compares these with the results of 3D CFD. For corners without tip clearance, the presence of three-dimensional separation appears to be universal and the challenge for the designer is to limit the loss and blockage produced. The CFD appears capable of predicting this.
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Anderson, Mark R. "Comprehensive Smith Charts for Axial Compressor Design." In ASME Turbo Expo 2019: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2019-91569.

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Abstract The “Smith Chart” has been recognized as an indispensable technique when applied to the initial design of axial compressors and turbines. The Smith Chart offers a simple method to locate the region of optimum efficiency which is achievable as a function of flow and work coefficient. The result is a targeted flow state represented by the velocity triangles that result from these coefficients. The process was originally developed, and is best documented, for axial turbines1. Over the years, several publications, of similar methods for axial compressors have been put forward. The author presented one such work2 which made significant use of optimization to develop an improved Smith chart for moderate Mach number compressor designs. In the current work, these results are expanded to both low Mach number (basically incompressible) to high-speed transonic cases as well. Similar to the previous work, the effort makes extensive use of optimization to systematically explore the optimum 2D profile shapes for a wide range of target flow and work coefficients. The method uses an FNS quasi-3D CFD solver, coupled to an efficiently parameterized geometry generator, combined with an automated optimization process. The process was applied independently to dozens of flow and work coefficient points to generate comprehensive maps of performance. Results are shown for three different relative inflow Mach numbers: 0.2, 0.75, and 1.1. The maps are displayed in classic Smith chart format of islands of stage efficiency as a function of the flow and work coefficient. Specifically, the results are for axial compressor stages of 50% reaction, the theoretical ideal reaction for 2D flow. The results and the implications over varying Mach numbers are discussed. Also included is an expanded discussion of the range and accuracy of various meanline modeling methods, along with their ability to determine the optimum design condition.
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Reports on the topic "Design of axial compressors"

1

Liaw, Der-Cherng, Raymond A. Adomaitis, and Eyad H. Abed. Nonlinear Dynamics of Axial Flow Compressors: A Parametric Study. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, March 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada454865.

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Adomaitis, Raymond A., Der-Cherng Liaw, and Eyad H. Abed. Nonlinear Dynamics of Axial-Flow Compressors: A Parametric Study. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, January 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada454959.

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Chen, Jenping, Roberts S. Webster, Michael D. Hathaway, Gregory P. Herrick, and Gary J. Skoch. Numerical Simulation of Stall and Stall Control in Axial and Radial Compressors. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, June 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada455274.

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Bahrami Kouhshahi, Mojtaba. Design and Performance Evaluation of Linear and Axial-Flux Magnetic Gears. Portland State University Library, January 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.15760/etd.6859.

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Cusanelli, Dominic S., and Scott A. Carpenter. Axial Waterjet (AxWJ) Model 5662: Hull Resistance and Model-Scale Powering with LDV Nozzle Design. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, September 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada473572.

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Guo, Yan-Lin, Xiao Yang, Peng Zhou, Jing-Shen Zhu, and Meng-Zheng Wang. DESIGN METHOD OF WALL PANEL STABILITY OF CONCRETE-INFILLED DOUBLE STEEL CORRUGATED-PLATE WALLS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION. The Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction, December 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.18057/icass2018.p.124.

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Lipo, T. A., and P. Tenca. Design and Test of a Variable Speed Wind Turbine System Employing a Direct Drive Axial Flux Synchronization Generator: 29 October 2002 - 31 December 2005. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), July 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/887343.

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Terzic, Vesna, and William Pasco. Novel Method for Probabilistic Evaluation of the Post-Earthquake Functionality of a Bridge. Mineta Transportation Institute, April 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.31979/mti.2021.1916.

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While modern overpass bridges are safe against collapse, their functionality will likely be compromised in case of design-level or beyond design-level earthquake, which may generate excessive residual displacements of the bridge deck. Presently, there is no validated, quantitative approach for estimating the operational level of the bridge after an earthquake due to the difficulty of accurately simulating residual displacements. This research develops a novel method for probabilistic evaluation of the post-earthquake functionality state of the bridge; the approach is founded on an explicit evaluation of bridge residual displacements and associated traffic capacity by considering realistic traffic load scenarios. This research proposes a high-fidelity finite-element model for bridge columns, developed and calibrated using existing experimental data from the shake table tests of a full-scale bridge column. This finite-element model of the bridge column is further expanded to enable evaluation of the axial load-carrying capacity of damaged columns, which is critical for an accurate evaluation of the traffic capacity of the bridge. Existing experimental data from the crushing tests on the columns with earthquake-induced damage support this phase of the finite-element model development. To properly evaluate the bridge's post-earthquake functionality state, realistic traffic loadings representative of different bridge conditions (e.g., immediate access, emergency traffic only, closed) are applied in the proposed model following an earthquake simulation. The traffic loadings in the finite-element model consider the distribution of the vehicles on the bridge causing the largest forces in the bridge columns.
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