Academic literature on the topic 'Desmodontinae'

The subfamily Desmodontinae encompasses the only mammals known to feed exclusively on the blood of other vertebrates. This study provides records of the desmodontine bat Diphylla ecaudata from a major gap in its known distribution in northeastern Brazil. Specimens were captured at five localities, all associated with caves. Two of these sites are located in the state of Sergipe, two in Bahia, and one in Ceará. The record of D. ecaudata from Ceará is the first for this state.

The subfamily Desmodontinae encompasses the only mammals known to feed exclusively on the blood of other vertebrates. This study provides records of the desmodontine bat <em>Diphylla ecaudata</em> from a major gap in its known distribution in northeastern Brazil. Specimens were captured at five localities, all associated with caves. Two of these sites are located in the state of Sergipe, two in Bahia, and one in Ceará. The record of <em>D. ecaudata</em> from Ceará is the first for this state.

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The subfamily Desmodontinae encompasses the only mammals known to feed exclusively on the blood of other vertebrates. This study provides records of the desmodontine bat Diphylla ecaudata from a major gap in its known distribution in northeastern Brazil. Specimens were captured at five localities, all associated with caves. Two of these sites are located in the state of Sergipe, two in Bahia, and one in Ceará. The record of D. ecaudata from Ceará is the first for this state.

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The subfamily Desmodontinae encompasses the only mammals known to feed exclusively on the blood of other vertebrates. This study provides records of the desmodontine bat Diphylla ecaudata from a major gap in its known distribution in northeastern Brazil. Specimens were captured at five localities, all associated with caves. Two of these sites are located in the state of Sergipe, two in Bahia, and one in Ceará. The record of D. ecaudata from Ceará is the first for this state.

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The family Phyllostomidae is a monophyletic clade of Neotropical bats with diverse feeding strategies including sanguivory (subfamily Desmodontinae). The fossil record in open sites of South America (SA) is scarce and patchy. Molecular estimations suggest origination of vampire desmodontines in late Paleogene of SA, but are only recorded in the latest Pleistocene and Holocene. Here we describe the first fossil record of bats for Uruguay from an open site (Raigón Formation, Plio/Pleistocene) based on a complete humerus, accompanied by a comparative analysis, and paleoclimate and paleobiogeographic considerations. Quantitative comparisons show that it belongs to a population of large bats similar to the extinct giant Desmodus draculae. It is not younger than middle Pleistocene suggesting the absence of this clade in the Tertiary of SA is a taphonomic bias. It is the oldest record of a vampire desmodontine (Desmodus) from SA, suggesting a previous history and provides empirical evidence of migration from SA to NA of Neotropical vampires linked to the Great American Biotic Interchange. Tropical to subtropical climates are suggested at these latitudes of SA during the deposition of the bearing beds. Potential prey are medium-large mammals (ground-sloths, notoungulates, litopterns, and large rodents, among others) and large terrestrial birds (terror-birds).

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The family Phyllostomidae is a monophyletic clade of Neotropical bats with diverse feeding strategies including sanguivory (subfamily Desmodontinae). The fossil record in open sites of South America (SA) is scarce and patchy. Molecular estimations suggest origination of vampire desmodontines in late Paleogene of SA, but are only recorded in the latest Pleistocene and Holocene. Here we describe the first fossil record of bats for Uruguay from an open site (Raigón Formation, Plio/Pleistocene) based on a complete humerus, accompanied by a comparative analysis, and paleoclimate and paleobiogeographic considerations. Quantitative comparisons show that it belongs to a population of large bats similar to the extinct giant Desmodus draculae. It is not younger than middle Pleistocene suggesting the absence of this clade in the Tertiary of SA is a taphonomic bias. It is the oldest record of a vampire desmodontine (Desmodus) from SA, suggesting a previous history and provides empirical evidence of migration from SA to NA of Neotropical vampires linked to the Great American Biotic Interchange. Tropical to subtropical climates are suggested at these latitudes of SA during the deposition of the bearing beds. Potential prey are medium-large mammals (ground-sloths, notoungulates, litopterns, and large rodents, among others) and large terrestrial birds (terror-birds).

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The family Phyllostomidae is recognized as representing the most extensive radiation known in any mammalian family. Creating a Linnaean classification for this clade has been difficult and controversial. In two companion papers, we here propose a revised classification drawing on the strengths of genetic and morphological data and reflecting current ideas regarding phylogenetic relationships within this monophyletic clade. We recognize 11 subfamilies (Macrotinae, Micronycterinae, Desmodontinae, Phyllostominae, Glossophaginae, Lonchorhininae, Lonchophyllinae, Glyphonycterinae, Carolliinae, Rhinophyllinae, and Stenodermatinae), 12 tribes (Diphyllini, Desmodontini, Macrophyllini, Phyllostomini, Vampyrini, Glossophagnini, Brachyphyllini, Choeronycterini, Lonchophyllini, Hsunycterini, Sturnirini, and Stenodermatini), and nine subtribes (Brachyphyllina, Phyllonycterina, Anourina, Choeronycterina, Vampyressina, Enchisthenina, Ectophyllina, Artibeina, and Stenodermatina). The proposed arrangement avoids non-monophyletic associations, only keeping those detected based on analyses of DNA sequence data. We propose that a classification based on the strengths of the most complete morphological and genetic data sets will provide the most robust classification for multiple uses by science and society.

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The family Phyllostomidae is recognized as representing the most extensive radiation known in any mammalian family. Creating a Linnaean classification for this clade has been difficult and controversial. In two companion papers, we here propose a revised classification drawing on the strengths of genetic and morphological data and reflecting current ideas regarding phylogenetic relationships within this monophyletic clade. We recognize 11 subfamilies (Macrotinae, Micronycterinae, Desmodontinae, Phyllostominae, Glossophaginae, Lonchorhininae, Lonchophyllinae, Glyphonycterinae, Carolliinae, Rhinophyllinae, and Stenodermatinae), 12 tribes (Diphyllini, Desmodontini, Macrophyllini, Phyllostomini, Vampyrini, Glossophagnini, Brachyphyllini, Choeronycterini, Lonchophyllini, Hsunycterini, Sturnirini, and Stenodermatini), and nine subtribes (Brachyphyllina, Phyllonycterina, Anourina, Choeronycterina, Vampyressina, Enchisthenina, Ectophyllina, Artibeina, and Stenodermatina). The proposed arrangement avoids non-monophyletic associations, only keeping those detected based on analyses of DNA sequence data. We propose that a classification based on the strengths of the most complete morphological and genetic data sets will provide the most robust classification for multiple uses by science and society.

Microplastics (MPs) are polymers smaller than five millimeters, are easily dispersed, and are considered a contaminant of emerging concern. The objective was to quantify and characterize, both by color and shape, the presence of MPs in the stomach, intestine, and lungs of vampire bats, analyzing the difference between organs and their morphometric measurements in relation to the abundance of MPs found in each organ. The bats were collected between 2017 and 2021. In the laboratory, the specimens were euthanized, and the organs of interest were extracted. After removal, the organs were chemically dissolved and then filtered through a suitable membrane. The membranes were inspected through visual analysis of the samples. Our result was significant, we found at least one MP in each organ analyzed, with all individuals being contaminated with particles only in fiber format, mostly white/transparent. The gastrointestinal system had greater contamination compared to the respiratory system. It is not yet known for sure how the ingestion of plastic waste has affected this population of bats, but the presence of plastic waste in the gastrointestinal tract of hematophagous individuals proves the effectiveness of the contagion of these particles.

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) Phyllostomidae (New World leaf-nosed bats), the second most speciose chiropteran family, is one of the best-known and wellstudied chiropteran groups. Due to the ecological and morphological diversity of this family, comparative studies of phyllostomids abound in the literature, and numerous systematic and phylogenetic analyses have been published. Unfortunately, many of these studies have reached different conclusions concerning phyllostomid relationships, and have proposed different classification schemes. This has led to confusion, and highlighted the need for a well-supported and stable classification of the family, particularly at the level of subfamilies and tribes, areas of the greatest controversy. The goal of this paper is to provide morphological diagnoses of higher-level taxa (subtribes, tribes, and subfamilies). Herein we provide morphological diagnoses for 11 subfamilies (Macrotinae, Micronycterinae, Desmodontinae, Lonchorhininae, Phyllostominae, Glyphonycterinae, Glossophaginae, Lonchophyllinae, Carollinae, Rhinophyllinae, and Stenodermatinae), 12 tribes (Desmodontini, Diphyllini, Macrophyllini, Phyllostomini, Vampyrini, Choeronycterini, Glossophagini, Brachyphyllini, Lonchophyllini, Hsunycterini, Sturnirini, and Stenodermatini), and nine subtribes (Anourina, Choeronycterina, Brachyphyllina, Phyllonycterina, Vampyressina, Enchisthenina, Ectophyllina, Artibeina, and Stenodermatina).

Orientador : Dr. Marcio R. Pie<br>Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia. Defesa: Curitiba, 18/05/2015<br>Inclui referências : f. 28-34;98-105;108-120<br>Area de concentração: Zoologia<br>Resumo: Compreender como a variação morfológica está relacionada com as variações ambientais têm sido uma das principais finalidades da Biologia Evolutiva há mais de um século. Diversidade ecológica e climática, além do isolamento das linhagens, podem resultar em grandes graus de diversidade biológica, seja em micro ou macroescalas. Muitos organismos apresentam variações clinais de tamanho de corpo, as quais exibem respostas a gradiente ambientais e geográficos. Alguns padrões biogeográficos, ainda, demonstram a capacidade das espécies em adaptar às condições abióticas flutuantes e ressaltam a forte seleção imposta pelo ambiente. A Regra de Bergmann, o mais conhecido desses padrões, sugere que o tamanho do corpo dos animais aumenta com o aumento da latitude e, portanto, em ambientes mais frios. Já a Regra de Rensch, trata da correlação positiva ou negativa entre o tamanho do corpo e o dimorfismo sexual. Assim, sabendo-se que gradientes ambientais e geográficos são importantes na ecologia das espécies, oCapítulo 1 teve como objetivo principal identificar e descrever possíveis padrões geográficos ehistóricos no tamanho do corpo de morcegos-vampiros (Família Desmodontinae), em resposta às diferenças ambientais, permitindo a compreensão de aspectos ecológicos e evolutivos das espécies. Para tanto, aplicou-se ferramentas de georreferenciamento e biometria, sendo que o tamanho do antebraço foi utilizado como representante do tamanho do corpo. O tamanho do antebraço dos morcegos-vampiros apresentou variação morfológica ao longo da distribuição das espécies. Diphylla ecaudata apresentou tamanho de antebraço condizente com o descrito na literatura, onde machos e fêmeas têm tamanhos semelhantes ao longo da distribuição amostrada. Em Diaemus youngi, fêmeas apresentam antebraços maiores do que machos, ao contrário do que havia sido descrito na literatura. Já em Desmodus rotundus, o tamanho do antebraço variou extremamente, sendo menor em baixa latitude e maior em direção aos pólos, corroborando com a Regra de Bergmann. Além disso, machos e fêmeas de D. rotundus apresentam padrões semelhantes de tamanho de corpo ao longo do neotrópico, embora fêmeas sejam sempre maiores que os machos, portanto não sustentando a Regra de Rensch. É provável que o dimorfismo sexual de tamanho seja resultante das diferenças ecológicas entre machos e fêmeas. Sazonalidade de Temperatura (bio4) foi a variável bioclimática de maior importância para as três espécies de Desmodontinae, podendo refletir não só no tamanho do corpo dos indivíduos, mas principalmente em delimitar a distribuição norte-sul das espécies. As medidas médias de tamanho de antebraço dos machos de D. rotundus tiveram aumento de 2.53 milímetros (cerca de 4.4%) ao longo de 120 anos de indivíduos amostrados. Apesar disso, os resultados não detectaram um momento no tempo evolutivo analisado que marcasse a distinção exata na variação do tamanho do corpo. Mas mesmo assim, o processo de introdução de animais de criação ao longo da Região Neotropical trouxe maior disponibilidade de alimento e pode ter atuado como uma pressão seletiva que levou a um aumento no tamanho do corpo destes machos de D. rotundus. Já no Capítulo 2, integramos dados de diversidade morfológica com dados ambientais para investigar como o ambiente modela a evolução morfológica do morcego-vampiro-comum (Desmodus rotundus) ao longo da América Latina. Descritores de morfometria geométrica foram utilizados para avaliar e quantificar a variação morfológica de tamanho e forma, sendo que o crânio foi utilizado como um representante para o tamanho do corpo. Para entender os padrões espaciais nos dados, foram feitas análises espaciais (PCA, Correlação Linear, Regressão Linear e Seleção de Modelos) a partir de 21 variáveis bioclimáticas para inferir os processos ecológicos e evolutivos, controlando os resíduos de autocorrelação espacial. Por fim, uma Phylogenetic Generalized Least-Squared - PGLS foi testada para inferir se o padrão morfológico encontrado era uma consequência do padrão ambiental predito. Um total de 1266 espécimes de D. rotundus foram analisados, distribuídos ao longo de praticamente toda a distribuição geográfica da espécie. A variável de tamanho (tamanho do centroide) apresentou dimorfismo sexual, sendo 3,53mm±1,38 para fêmeas e 3,48mm±1,33 para machos. Após a Análise Generalizada de Procrustes e PCA, os PC1, PC2 e PC3, os quais explicaram juntos 62,16% (vista ventral) e 65,05% (vista dorsal) a variação de forma, sendo que o dimorfismo sexual foi discreto. Vistas dorsal e ventral apresentaram diferentes resultados, evidenciando que haja uma integração morfológica desigual entre as diferentes regiões do crânio do organismo, provavelmente de acordo com a função ecomorfológica exercida por cada uma destas regiões. O PC1, atribuído essencialmente à variação alométrica, evidenciou alongamento do crânio em direção à região posterior na região inter-orbital na vista dorsal; enquanto que em vista ventral é mais curto na região posterior. Já o PC2, apresentou direção e intensidade de variação semelhantes entre as vistas. Nas análises espaciais, as variáveis bioclimáticas que ofereceram melhores suportes relativos aos dados e, por isso, foram então utilizadas para inferências sobre opadrão ecológico estudado foram bio3 (Isotermalismo) e bio6 (Temperatura mínima no mêsmais frio). Ambas variáveis corroboram fortemente com a literatura a qual assume a importância da temperatura mínima para a ocorrência geográfica da espécie. Variáveis bioclimáticas que tratam de pluviosidade, evapotranspiração e cobertura vegetacional não foram significantes. Na análise de PGLS, o modelo de evolução Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) foi o modelo que melhor se ajustou ao padrão encontrado, frente ao modelo mais simples, o Movimento Browniano (BM). O modelo OU assume seleção estabilizadora, a qual normalmente está envolvida a um caráter que exige restrições, como a capacidade de voar. Assim, este estudo contribuiu para a compreensão dos fatores ecológicos e evolutivos atuantes na morfologia em Desmodontinae, numa escala mais microevolutiva. Além de dar início à compreensão da adaptação aos processos seletivos específicos e a ação da seleção natural durante a especiação no grupo. Contudo, estes resultados são apenas um passo para revelar potenciais mudanças temporais passadas e futuras sobre a morfologia das espécies, inclusive em resposta às mudanças climáticas. Palavras-chave: Tamanho do corpo. Variação morfológica. Variação geográfica. Variação Temporal. Gradiente latitudinal. Dimorfismo sexual de tamanho. Modelo de Evolução. Processo Ornstein-Uhlenbeck.<br>Abstract: Understanding about how morphological variation is relationed with environmental variations is one of central aim of Evolutinary Biology. Ecological diversity and climate diversity, in addition to isolation of lineages, can results in high biological diversity, in micro or macroscale. Many organisms exhibit clinal variation in body size as a response to environmental and geographical gradients. Indeed, some biogeographical patterns are indicative of species' capabilities of adaptation to fluctuating abiotic conditions, which evidence the strong selection pressure imposed by the environment. Bergmann's Rule, the best biogeographical pattern known, suggests that body size increases with latitude and, thus, with colder temperatures. Rensch's Rule, in turn, explains correlation, either negative or positive, between body size and sexual dimorphism. So, given that environmental and geographical gradients are crucial for the ecology of species, the Chapter 1 aims to identify and characterize potential geographical and historical patterns of body size in vampire bats (Desmodontinae), in response to enviromnetal variation, understanding of ecological and evolutionary aspects of species. Georeferencing and biometric tools were used to approach this question. We recognized variation in forearm size of vampire bats across the species' distribution. We found a consistent pattern of forearm's size in Diphylla ecaudata with the literature, where males and females have similar sizes over the sampled distribution. In D. youngi females have longer forearms than males, as opposed to what have been showed in the literature. In Desmodus rotundus, on the other hand, forearm size variability was enormous, with smaller sizes found in low latitudes, and an increase in size towards the poles, a pattern accordant with Bergmann's Rule. Furthermore, our findings about the body size of D. rotundus over the Neotropics do not support Rensch's Rule, as both males and females sampled showed similar body size patterns, even though females were always overall larger than males. Sexual dimorphism in body size is likely a result of ecological differences between males and females. For all three species of Desmodontinae studied here, temperature seasonality (bio4) was the most important bioclimatic variable, which had effects not only on body size, but also on the north-south distribution of species. We sampled individuals of D. rotundus over an interval of 120 years, and we found out that the average measurements of male forearms had an increase of 2.53 mm (approximately 4.4%) during that period. Nevertheless, it was not possible to infer the exact evolutionary time where significant differences in body size occurred. An explanation for the average increase in body size of D. rotundus males might be the introduction of domesticated animals to the Neotropical region, which resulted in an increase in food availability for these bats. In Chapter 2, we integrate morphological diversity data with environmental data to investigate how the environment shapes the morphological evolution of the common vampire bat throughout Latin America. Geometric morphometric descriptors were used to evaluate and quantify the morphological change in size and shape, with the skull used as a proxy for body size. To understand the spatial patterns in the data, spatial analyses were made (PCA, linear correlation, linear regression and model selection) from 21 bioclimatic variables to infer the ecological and evolutionary processes, controlling for spatial autocorrelation. Finally, a phylogenetic generalized least-squared - PGLS was tested to infer whether the morphological pattern found was a consequence of the predicted environmental standards. A total of 1266 specimens of D. rotundus were examined, distributed over almost the entire geographical distribution of the species. The size variable (centroid size) showed sexual dimorphism, with 3.53mm ± 1.38 for females and 3.48mm ± 1.33 for males. Both the generalized procrustes analysis and the PCA showed no discrepant sexual dimorphism, and the PC1, PC2 and PC3 combined explained 62.16% (ventral view) and 65.05% (dorsal view) of the variation of shape. Dorsal and ventral views pointed out different results, showing that there is an uneven morphological integration between different parts of the body, according to the function performed by this region. The PC1, primarily attributable to the allometric variation, showed skull stretching toward the posterior region on the inter-orbital area in dorsal view, while in ventral view the skull is shorter in the posterior region. On the other hand, PC2 presented direction and intensity with similar variation in both views. In the spatial analysis, the bioclimatic variables that offered the best fit for the data and, therefore, were used in inferences about the ecological pattern studied, were Bio3 (isotermality) and bio6 (minimum temperature in the coldest month). Both variables strongly corroborate the literature, which takes the importance of minimum temperature for the geographical distribution of species into account. Bioclimatic variables that deal with rainfall, evapotranspiration and vegetation cover were not significant. In the PGLS analysis, Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) was the model of evolution that best fit the pattern found, which was better fitted than the simplest model, the Brownian Motion (BM). OU model assumes stabilizing selection, which is normally involved with a character that requires restrictions, such as the ability to fly. In this sense, investigating the morphological variation of D. rotundus in a more microevolutionary scale is the basis to understanding adaptation to specific selection processes and the action of natural selection during speciation. Moreover, it is an important step to assess possible past and future temporal changes in the morphology of the species, even in response to climate change. Keywords: Body size. Morphological variation. Geographical variation. Temporal variation. Latitudinal gradients. Sexual Size Dimorphism. Evolution Model. Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process.

Apesar dos morcegos hematófagos serem muito estudados, diversos aspectos de sua biologia e de seu papel na transmissão da raiva ainda não são conhecidos. O objetivo da presente tese foi estudar os abrigos diurnos, os agrupamentos e o comportamento agonístico do morcego hematófago comum, Desmodus rotundus, e sua relação com a raiva dos herbívoros no Vale do Paraíba. Foi possível também obter informações sobre as duas outras espécies de morcegos hematófagos, especialmente de Diphylla ecaudata. Entre 2011 e 2014, dados sobre abrigos diurnos, composição dos agrupamentos, lesões corporais, diagnóstico de raiva e sorologia antirrábica de D. rotundus foram obtidos nos municípios de Jacareí, Paraibuna, Pindamonhangaba, Salesópolis, Santa Branca e São Luiz do Paraitinga no Vale do Paraíba, Sudeste do estado de São Paulo, Sudeste do Brasil. Foram estudados 14 abrigos diurnos de D. rotundus, dos quais 12 eram construções abandonadas na área rural. Desmodus rotundus partilhou abrigos diurnos com apenas cinco espécies de filostomídeos: Diphylla ecaudata, Chrotopterus auritus, Carollia perspicillata, Glossophaga soricina e Anoura caudifer. O tempo de recolonização desses abrigos diurnos por D. rotundus foi em média 12,5 meses, com uma variação entre três e 25 meses. O tamanho dos agrupamentos variou de dois a 79 indivíduos, com uma média de 15,6 morcegos/grupo. Fêmeas foram encontradas em 15 agrupamentos, com uma média de 13 fêmeas e uma variação entre uma e 55 fêmeas/grupo. Por outro lado, machos estiveram mais presentes nos agrupamentos, ocorrendo em quase todos (N=21), com uma média de 7,1 machos/grupo e uma variação de um a 24 machos. Sete agrupamentos foram considerados de machos solteiros. Onze dos 22 agrupamentos eram constituídos de colônia e grupo de machos solteiros. O dimorfismo sexual no comprimento do antebraço de D. rotundus do Vale do Paraíba foi estatisticamente significativo e sugere que as fêmeas são maiores 13 do que os machos. Lesões corporais, atribuídas às mordeduras provocadas por outros morcegos, foram encontradas em 76,7 por cento dos indivíduos de D. rotundus, tanto em machos como em fêmeas. A região mais atingida foram as membranas alares, com 68 por cento , porém lesões nas orelhas, face e membros foram menos frequentes (23,1 por cento nas fêmeas e 26,9 por cento nos machos). Acredita-se que as lesões nessas regiões sejam mais importantes nos mecanismos de transmissão de raiva. Apesar de ter analisado 310 amostras de encéfalos de D. rotundus do Vale do Paraíba, o resultado foi negativo em todas as amostras. A sorologia mostrou que todos os morcegos apresentaram positividade em diferentes graus. Contudo, se considerarmos o ponto de corte 0,5 UI/ml, o número de indivíduos positivos caiu para 30,1 por cento (N=90), sendo 30,9 por cento nas fêmeas e 28,8 por cento em machos. Apesar de nenhum indivíduo de D. rotundus positivo para a raiva ter sido encontrado no Vale do Paraíba durante a presente tese, a sorologia positiva de, pelo menos, 30 por cento mostra que há vírus da raiva circulando em sua população. Essa alta circulação viral pode ter sido favorecida pelas interações agonísticas, que causam lesões em mais de 75 por cento dos morcegos, a formação compacta (em penca) dos agrupamentos, o grooming social, a reciprocidade e partilha alimentar<br>Despite the hematophagous bats are very studied, many aspects of their biology and their role in the transmission of rabies are not yet known. The aim of this thesis was to study the diurnal shelters, groups and the agonistic behavior of the common hematophagous, Desmodus rotundus, and its relation to the cattle rabies in the Paraíba Valley. It was also possible to obtain information about the two other species of vampire bats, especially Diphylla ecaudata. Between 2011 and 2014, data on diurnal shelters, composition of groups, body injuries, diagnosis of rabies and rabies serology D. rotundus were gathered from the cities of Jacarei, Paraibuna, Pindamonhangaba, Salesópolis, Santa Branca and São Luiz do Paraitinga in the Valley Paraíba, Southeastern of São Paulo State, Southeastern Brazil. Fourteen diurnal shelters of D. rotundus were studied here and 12 were abandoned buildings in rural areas. Desmodus rotundus shared daytime shelters with only five species of phyllostomid bats: Diphylla ecaudata, Chrotopterus auritus, Carollia perspicillata, Glossophaga soricina and Anoura caudifer. The time of recolonization of these roosts by D. rotundus was on average 12.5 months, ranging from three to 25 months. The size of the groups ranged from two to 79 individuals, with a mean of 15.6 bats/group. Females were found in 15 groups with an average of 13 females/group and ranging between one and 55 females. Moreover, males were present in most groups from Paraíba Valley, occurring in almost all (N = 21), with an average of 7.1 males/group, and a variation of 24 males. Seven groups were considered to be single males groups. Eleven of the 22 groups were made up of colony and single male groups. Sexual dimorphism in the forearm length of D. rotundus from the Paraíba Valley was statistically significant and suggests that females are larger than males. Body Injuries, attributed to bites caused by other bats were found in 76.7 per cent of individuals of D. rotundus, in both males and females. The most affected region was the wing membranes, with 68 per cent , but lesions on the ears, face and limbs were less frequent (23.1 per cent in females and 26.9 per cent in males). It is believed that injuries in these regions are more important in the rabies transmission mechanism. Despite having analyzed 310 samples of brains of D. rotundus from the Paraíba Valley, the result was negative in all samples. Serology showed that all bats were positive in varying degrees. However, if we consider the cut off 0.5 IU/ml, the number of positive samples dropped to 30.1 per cent (N = 90) and 30.9 per cent in females and 28.8 per cent males. Although no individual of D. rotundus positive for rabies was found in the Paraíba Valley during this thesis, the positive serology at least 30 per cent shows that there is rabies virus circulating in this bat population. This high viral circulation may have been favored by agonistic interactions, that cause lesions in more than 75 per cent of the bats, the compact formation (in clusters) of groups, social grooming, reciprocity and food sharing.

Four bones of the extinct vampire bat Desmodus stocki Jones were recovered from New Trout Cave, Pendleton County, West Virginia. Three of the four elements were located in a level 30 cm below a level radio-carbon dated to 29,400±1700 years before present (BP); the fourth was located in a younger layer but is suspected to have been redeposited. This is the first record of Desmodus stocki from the central Appalachians.

Abstract Although bats (Chiroptera) are unique among mammals because of their ability to fly, they also exhibit quadrupedal locomotion during a variety of nonflight behaviors. This chapter concerns the evolution, morphology, and behavior associated with quadrupedal locomotion in bats. Although many bat families contain members that exhibit some degree of quadrupedal locomotion, we concentrate on three groups of bats that exhibit extensive quadrupedal behavior: vampire bats (Phyllostomidae: Desmodontinae); naked bulldog bats, Cheiromeles (Molossidae); and the New Zealand short-tailed bat, Mystacina tuberculata (Mystacinidae). Numerous morphological traits that apparently facilitate quadrupedal locomotion have evolved independently in these three lineages. INTRODUCTION When bats are not flying or resting in their roosts, they often exhibit some type of quadrupedal behavior while moving around on various substrates. The awkward appearance of quadrupedal locomotion in most bats is primarily a reflection of the fact that chiropteran limbs are markedly different from those of a typical quadrupedal mammal. Obviously, the forelimbs of bats have evolved into wings. Less obvious, but just as important, are the changes in the morphology and orientation that have evolved in their hindlimbs. Vaughan (1970: 135) divided bats into three groups based on ‘‘variation in the posture and proportions of the hind limbs.’’ Such variation was thought to be ‘‘related principally to the great differences that occur in roosting habits and in modes of terrestrial locomotion.’’ One group of bats, typified by phyllostomids such as Glossophaga and Macrotis, have hindlimbs that are rotated approximately 180o from the condition in a typical quadrupedal mammal. In these forms, which we refer to as ‘‘Type 1’’ bats, the thin femora project caudally and slightly dorsad, and the head of the femur is in line with the long axis of the bone. The distal section of the leg (the shank) is directed caudally and ventrad. The feet are directed caudally (figure 8.1A).