Academic literature on the topic 'Digging sticks'

In this work, we present a study on experimental archaeology replicas of 170,000-year-old digging sticks excavated in 2012 in the archaeological site of Poggetti Vecchi (Grosseto, Italy). One of the techniques used for documenting and studying the sticks was the reflectance transformation imaging (RTI) technique, which allows the creation of an interactive image by varying the angle of illumination. A reconstruction of the 3D profile of the surface was also made by applying the technique of photometric stereo imaging to the RTI images.

Oldowan lithic assemblages are often portrayed as a product of the need to obtain sharp flakes for cutting into animal carcases. However, ethnographic and experimental research indicates that the optimal way to produce flakes for such butchering purposes is via bipolar reduction of small cryptocrystalline pebbles rather than from larger crystalline cores resembling choppers. Ethnographic observations of stone tool-using hunter-gatherers in environments comparable with early hominins indicate that most stone tools (particularly chopper forms and flake tools) were used for making simple shaft tools including spears, digging sticks and throwing sticks. These tools bear strong resemblances to Oldowan stone tools. Bipolar reduction for butchering probably preceded chopper-like core reduction and provides a key link between primate nut-cracking technologies and the emergence of more sophisticated lithic technologies leading to the Oldowan.

Ants build complex nest structures by reacting to simple, local stimuli. While underground nests result from the space generated by digging, some leaf- and grass-cutting ants also construct conspicuous aboveground turrets around nest openings. We investigated whether the selection of specific building materials occurs during turret construction in Acromyrmex fracticornis grass-cutting ants, and asked whether single building decisions at the beginning can modify the final turret architecture. To quantify workers' material selection, the original nest turret was removed and a choice between two artificial building materials, thin and thick sticks, was offered for rebuilding. Workers preferred thick sticks at the very beginning of turret construction, showed varying preferences thereafter, and changed to prefer thin sticks for the upper, final part of the turret, indicating that they selected different building materials over time to create a stable structure. The impact of a single building choice on turret architecture was evaluated by placing artificial beams that divided a colony's nest entrance at the beginning of turret rebuilding. Splitting the nest entrance led to the self-organized construction of turrets with branched galleries ending in multiple openings, showing that the spatial location of a single building material can strongly influence turret morphology.

Excavations for the construction of thermal pools at Poggetti Vecchi (Grosseto, Tuscany, central Italy) exposed a series of wooden tools in an open-air stratified site referable to late Middle Pleistocene. The wooden artifacts were uncovered, together with stone tools and fossil bones, largely belonging to the straight-tusked elephant Paleoloxodon antiquus. The site is radiometrically dated to around 171,000 y B.P., and hence correlated with the early marine isotope stage 6 [Benvenuti M, et al. (2017) Quat Res 88:327–344]. The sticks, all fragmentary, are made from boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) and were over 1 m long, rounded at one end and pointed at the other. They have been partially charred, possibly to lessen the labor of scraping boxwood, using a technique so far not documented at the time. The wooden artifacts have the size and features of multipurpose tools known as “digging sticks,” which are quite commonly used by foragers. This discovery from Poggetti Vecchi provides evidence of the processing and use of wood by early Neanderthals, showing their ability to use fire in tool making from very tough wood.

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk: (1) mengkaji perbandingan struktur pembiayaan usahatani kedelai dengan sistem tanam sebar dan sistem tanam tugal. (2) mengkaji perbandingan produksi usahatani kedelai dengan sistem tanam sebar dan sistem tanam tugal, (3) mengkaji perbandingan pendapatan usahatani kedelai sistem tanam sebar dan sistem tanam tugal, (4) mengkaji kesempatan kerja yang tersedia pada usahatani kedelai dengan sistem tanam tanam sebar dan sistem tanam tugal. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif dengan tekhnik survei. Data yang diperoleh dianalisis menggunakan uji t data tidak berpasangan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) Biaya produksi pada usahatani kedelai sistem sebar lebih kecil dibandingkan usahatani kedelai sistem tugal dengan nilai masing-masing secara berurutan sebesar Rp 5.741.324/ha dan Rp 7.205.809/ ha, dengan persentase biaya variabel masing-masing sebesar 97,47% dan 97,68% dan sisanya 2,53% dan 2,32% pada biaya tetap. (2) Produksi pada usahatani kedelai sistem sebar lebih kecil dibandingkan usahatani kedelai sistem tugal setelah diuji dengan uji-t dengan taraf nyata 0,5 % dengan nilai masing-masing secara berurutan sebesar 1.301,42 kg/ha sebesar 1.787,04 kg/ha. (3) Pendapatan pada usahatani kedelai sistem sebar lebih kecil dibandingkan usahatani kedelai sistem tugal dengan nilai masing-masing secara berurutan sebesar Rp 1.806.935,65/ha; Rp 3.159.007,17/ha. (4) Kesempatan kerja pada usahatani kedelai sistem sebar dan sitem tugal sama dengan nilai masing-masing secara berurutan sebesar 53,47 HKO/ha dan 61,06 HKO/ha, dengan kesempatan kerja paling banyak berda pada jenis kegiatan penanaman dan pemanenan yang masing-masing sebesar 8,71 HKO/ha dan 12,82 HKO/ha pada sistem sebar sedangkan 12,59 HKO/ha dan 12,82 HKO/ha pada sistem tugal. (1) Disarankan kepada pemerintah untuk melakukan penyuluhan kepada petani untuk menggunakan sistem tanam tugal dalam usahatani kedelai. (2) Disarankan kepada petani untuk mengoptimalkan penggunaan input seperti pupuk sesuai dengan yang direkomendasikan. (3) Disarankan kepada petani untuk menggunakan teknologi pemupukan menggunakan sistem pembenaman di antara baris tanaman. ABSTRACT This study aims to: (1) To assess the comparison of the financing structure of soybean farming with spread cropping system and digging stick. (2) To examine the comparison of soybean farming production with spread cropping system and digging stick. (3) To examine the comparison of soybean farming income of spread cropping system and digging stick. (4) To assess available employment opportunities in soybean farming with spread cropping system and digging stick. This study uses descriptive methods with survey techniques. The data obtained were analyzed using unpaired data t test. The results showed that: (1) Production costs on soybean farming systems were smaller than those of digging stick soybean farming with their respective values of Rp 5,741,323.84/ha and Rp 7,205,808.64/ha, with a percentage variable costs were 97.47% and 97.68% and the remaining 2.53% and 2.32% at fixed costs. (2) Production on soybean farming system is smaller than tugal soybean farming after being tested by t-test with a real level of 0.5% with respective values of 1,301.42 kg/ha of 1,787.04 kg/ha. (3) Revenue on soybean farming system spreads smaller than digging stick system soybean farming with their respective values of Rp. 1,806,935.65/ha for Rp. 3,159,007.17/ha. (4) Job opportunities in the soybean farming system spread and digging stick system are equal to respectively value of 53.47 HKO/ha and 61.06 HKO/ha, with the most employment opportunities in each type of planting and harvesting activities -same at 8.71, HKO/ha and 12.82 HKO/ha on spread systems while 12.59 HKO/ha and 12.82 HKO/ha on digging stick systems. Suggestions that can be given (1) It is recommended to the government to conduct counseling to farmers to use digging stick planting systems in soybean farming. (2) It is recommended to farmers to optimize the use of inputs such as fertilizers as recommended. (3) It is recommended to farmers to use fertilization technology using a seeding system between rows of plants.

My intention with this paper is to try to understand the meaning of the double sex symbols which can be identified on a number of Neolithic so called battle axes from the region round the lake Mälaren in Sweden. My conclusions are drawn after having studied a number of archaeological thesises. I have realized that the society was egalitarian from what is said about the funeral habits since women and men were buried with the same care. Ceramics from the Skogsmossen site show a very long continuity over 15-20 generations. These facts indicate a peaceful society without traumatic breaks where knowledge would have been lost. The fingerprints produced on the ceramics are those of women, since they do not seem to fit with the hands of men. Women are by this fact persumed to be the producers of ceramics. In early and primitive farming digging sticks were used, often with a weight. My conclusion is that the boat axe can be a magic tool used on the digging sticks. We have to understand the boat axes as spiritual helpers to fruitful and fertile success.

Things used to be so simple. In the old days, a thousand generations ago or so, human technology wasn’t much more complicated than the twigs stripped of leaves that some chimpanzees use to fish in anthills. A large bone for a club, a pointed stick for digging, a sharp rock to scrape animal skins—such were mankind’s only tools for most of its history. Even after the appearance of more sophisticated, multipiece devices—the bow and arrow, the potter’s wheel, the ox-drawn cart—nothing was difficult to understand or decipher. The logic of a tool was clear upon inspection, or perhaps after a little experimentation. No longer. No single person can comprehend the entire workings of, say, a Boeing 747. Not its pilot, not its maintenance chief, not any of the thousands of engineers who worked upon its design. The aircraft contains six million individual parts assembled into hundreds of components and systems, each with a role to play in getting the 165-ton behemoth from Singapore to San Francisco or Sidney to Saskatoon. There are structural components such as the wings and the six sections that are joined together to form the fuselage. There are the four 21,000-horsepower Pratt & Whitney engines. The landing gear. The radar and navigation systems. The instrumentation and controls. The maintenance computers. The fire-fighting system. The emergency oxygen in case the cabin loses pressure. Understanding how and why just one subassembly works demands years of study, and even so, the comprehension never seems as palpable, as tangible, as real as the feel for flight one gets by building a few hundred paper airplanes and launching them across the schoolyard. Such complexity makes modern technology fundamentally different from anything that has gone before. Large, complex systems such as commercial airliners and nuclear power plants require large, complex organizations for their design, construction, and operation. This opens up the technology to a variety of social and organizational influences, such as the business factors described in chapter 3. More importantly, complex systems are not completely predictable.

Government regulations incentivize investigation of the potential for hybridization of non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). Many approaches to energy saving in hydraulic systems have been established. One of the methods first introduced in the aerospace industry is “decentralized” or “zonal” hydraulics. The decentralized system is realized with pump-controlled actuators, which are distributed throughout the system. In this research, decentralized hydraulics are realized with a direct-driven hydraulics (DDH) drive and implemented on a 1-ton class JCB micro excavator. The original valve-controlled system for boom, stick, and bucket is replaced with three DDH units. In a DDH unit, a double fixed displacement pump/motors with a speed-controlled electric servomotor directly controls the amount of hydraulic oil pumped into and out of the system. The hydraulic pump/motors create flows dependant on the rotating speed of the servomotor. A hydraulic accumulator is used as a conventional tank replacement. The aim of this paper is to investigate the efficiency improvement of the excavator with decentralized hydraulics compared to an electrified conventional load sensing system, from an energy consumption point of view under a typical digging cycle. In order to acquire the energy consumption distributions of the DDH and load sensing (LS) system, a model of the micro excavator which comprises mechanics, hydraulics, electronics, and control systems is developed in Matlab/Simulink. Simulation results demonstrate that the total efficiency of the excavator with LS control is 18.3%, and with DDH (decentralized hydraulics) is 71.3 % for a selected typical working cycle.