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Journal articles on the topic 'Diplomatic and consular service, Greek'
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1
Matiash, Iryna. "Activities of the Consulate of Greece in Kyiv and the Extraordinary Diplomatic Mission of the Ukrainian People's Republic in Greece in 1917-1920: a Role in the Establishment of Ukrainian-Greek Relations." Mìžnarodnì zv’âzki Ukraïni: naukovì pošuki ì znahìdki, no. 29 (November 10, 2020): 10–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/mzu2020.29.010.
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The purpose of the study is to clarify the main activities of the Greek Consulate in Kyiv in 1917 - 1918 and the UPR Extraordinary Diplomatic Mission in Greece in 1919 - 1920 through the prism of activity of Ukrainian and Greek diplomats (Pericles Hripari, Fedir Matushevskyi, Modest Levytskyi) and determining the peculiarities of the establishment of Ukrainian-Greek relations in 1917-1920. The research methodology is based on the principles of scientificity, historicism, and systematicity. General and special scientific methods are used, in particular archival heuristics, historiographical analysis, external and internal criticism of the sources. The scientific novelty of the results of the study is the reconstruction on the basis of the archival information, found by the author in published and unpublished sources, of activities of the Greek Consulate in Kyiv, the Ukrainian diplomatic mission in Athens and clarification of the participants in the Ukrainian-Greek relations in 1917 - 1920, functions and tasks of diplomatic and consular representatives. Conclusions. The mutual diplomatic and consular presence of Ukraine and Greece in 1917-1920 was due to different reasons. The Greek Consulate in Kyiv was established as a Greek consulate in the Russian Empire and continued to perform its functions primarily in the field of guardianship of Greek citizens after the proclamation of the Ukrainian People's Republic. Greek Consul Pericles Hripari acted as the doyen of the consular corps and managed to ensure active cooperation with the Ukrainian Foreign Ministry. At the time of the Central Council, it developed within the norms of international law. During the Hetmanate, at the insistence of the German administration, P. Hripari, as a representative and ally of Entente, was expelled from Kyiv. The Ukrainian diplomatic mission as an Extraordinary Diplomatic Mission was sent to Greece after the victory of the Directory and the restoration of the UPR in order to achieve recognition of its independence by as many states and spread information about the struggle of Ukrainians against the Bolsheviks for independent existence. The Mission was headed successively by F. Matushevskyi and M. Levytskyi. Greece's position on recognizing the independence of the UPR depended on the position of the Entente states. Despite the lack of official recognition of the mission, information about Ukraine, its people and its struggle for independence was communicated to Greek society and government agencies through a special memorandum, local newspapers and a thematic bulletin
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Domaniczky, Endre. "Possible Ways for Development of the Consular Service in the South Pacific." Acta Universitatis Sapientiae Legal Studies 9, no. 1 (December 2, 2020): 25–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.47745/ausleg.2020.9.1.02.
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The author presents the specifi c elements of diplomatic and consular work in the South Pacifi c region from the perspective of a career diplomat. He shows the main geographical and political characteristics of Australia which infl uence consular activity and also the characteristics of the benefi ciaries of consular services who need to be served by the consular infrastructure. The study presents several models for undertaking Hungarian consular work and for organizing the Hungarian consular network in Australia. The author also outlines current inconsistencies in the regulations applicable to consular activity in Australia under domestic, international, and Hungarian norms as well as functional issues and the possible ways to correct them. In his conclusions, the author formulates proposals for the redesign of consular organization in Australia.
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Klynina, Tetiana. "Rogers Act 1924: establishment of a professional USA Foreign Service." American History & Politics Scientific edition, no. 10 (2020): 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2521-1706.2020.10.3.
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The article is devoted to the analysis of the formation of the legal framework that made possible the existence and functioning of the US foreign service. The purpose of the article is to clarify the preface and the course of formation of the professional foreign service of the United States, which was reflected in the adoption of the Rogers Act. The methodological basis of the study. The study was based on the principle of historicism, which contributed to the consideration of the phenomenon under study in its development and made it possible to identify periods in the formation of a professional diplomatic service. The use of the problem-chronological method contributed to the preservation of the historical heredity and integrity of the picture; the application of the comparative method made it possible to identify significant changes that occurred after the adoption of Rogers’ Law, which was considered through the use of the method of analysis. A historiographical description of the main scientific works devoted to the research topic is given. Analyzed works A. Evans, T. Lay, I. Stewart etc., which became the basis for the study. The scientific novelty lies in the systematization of ideas about qualitative and quantitative changes in the diplomatic service after the adoption of the relevant law. The author concludes that before the adoption of the Rogers Act there was no control over the selection of diplomatic and consular staff and the negative consequences of such a decision were especially evident during the First World War. Therefore, the historical conditions in which America found itself at that time became a challenge for the continued existence of the consular and diplomatic services, and therefore the issue of restructuring and modernization of these services in the United States and its transfer to another, qualitatively new level. In general, the author emphasizes the change in the status of foreign service, which was introduced by relevant legislation, namely the Rogers Act, the need for which was caused by certain historical conditions of the American state and its place on the world stage. Prior to the enactment of the Diplomatic Service Act, there was virtually no control over the selection of diplomatic and consular personnel representing the United States on the world stage. After the First World War, it became clear that the diplomatic service needed to be restructured. That is why Rogers’ law was passed, which, in fact, was the first legislative attempt to resolve this issue.
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Collet, Steven. "Modernizing the Dutch Diplomatic Service: A Work in Progress." Hague Journal of Diplomacy 10, no. 4 (October 23, 2015): 440–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-12341324.
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A small country with a big international footprint, the Netherlands depends on the world around it for its future security, prosperity and well-being. Its wide diplomatic network is managed by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is responsible for policy in the areas of foreign relations and trade, European cooperation, development cooperation and consular services provided to Dutch nationals abroad. Responsibility for foreign trade was added to the ministry’s core tasks when the present Dutch government was formed in 2012. This article looks at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ major programme of reforms and spending cuts—‘Modernizing the Diplomatic Service’—which was started three years ago to ensure that the diplomatic service remains well placed to fulfil its roles. The article discusses the rationale behind the programme, the approach taken, and discusses the reforms that have been introduced and the lessons learned. Finally, the article considers elements for future reform.
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Csatlós, Erzsébet. "Consular cooperation in third states: Some aspects concerning europanisation of foreign service for EU citizens." Bratislava Law Review 1, no. 1 (October 1, 2017): 71–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.46282/blr.2017.1.1.57.
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The EU does not aim to harmonize the public administration of Member States, although, in recent years, there have been several examples which prove that EU legislation in whatever policy inevitably and unavoidably results in some standardization. In 2015 the EU replaced its former decision with a directive to enhance Member States to co-ordinate consular assistance in third States. Every EU citizen has the right to enjoy, in the territory of a third State in which the Member State of which they are nationals is not represented, the protection of the diplomatic and consular authorities of any Member State on the same conditions as the nationals of that State. This provision of Article 23 of TFEU not solely requires the cooperation of administrative authorities of foreign service but implicitly means a kind of harmonization of substantive law, leads to organizational changes and affects administrative procedural rules of Member States.
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Matiash, I. "Ukrainian diplomatic archive as a source for the research of a consular service history." Rukopisna ta knižkova spadŝina Ukraïni, no. 20 (November 30, 2016): 252–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/rksu.20.252.
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Boiechko, Vasyl. "From Scientific Work to Practical Diplomacy." Diplomatic Ukraine, no. XIX (2018): 169–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.37837/2707-7683-2018-8.
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Ukrainian-Romanian relations have in fact become the main subject of my professional life. I started as a historian during the Soviet Union times and later as a diplomat of Independent Ukraine from December of 1992. For almost 14 years out of 24 of my diplomatic service I worked first as political adviser at the Embassy of Ukraine in Romania (1994–1999), and then twice as Consul General of Ukraine in Romanian city of Suceava in 2001-2005 and in 2010–2014. I had the honour to open the Ukrainian consular office in Romania in 2001, which was unfortunately closed in 2014! It was a combination of pleasant moments with sad feelings. Due to a certain aggravation of relations between Ukraine and Romania in the middle of 1994, in particular the Transnistrian crisis, I was urgently appointed as a Counsellor at our Embassy in Bucharest. Thus, after a year and a half of joining the staff of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in July 1994 I left for a long-term diplomatic appointment to Romania. After the end of this assignment in November 1999, I was appointed as a deputy Head of the Secretariat of the new Minister for Foreign Affairs Borys I. Tarasiuk. In December 2001 I was appointed as the first Consul General of Ukraine in Suceava city. At that time, the Ukrainian-Romanian political relations were rather complicated. Occasionally, the Romanian side officially accused Ukraine of “non-fulfilment” of the basic bi-lateral political agreement, especially with regard to ensuring the cultural and educational rights of the Romanian minority in Ukraine, although the real situation was completely different. The first Consulate General of Ukraine in Romania which I had the honour to open, performed all the functions stipulated by our national Consular Statute. Our first concern was the provision of necessary support to citizens of Ukraine who visited Romania or lived in this country. My first Consular mission to Romania ended in 2005 and from September 2010 to November of 2014 I again represented Ukraine in Suceava. However, this time my working mood was not so uplifted. Then I remembered an advice of B. I. Tarasiuk, then already the deputy at our Verkhovna Rada, who said to me, “You have to serve Ukraine”. The distinctive thing about consular work is that its main aim is to protect the rights of Ukrainian citizens living or temporarily staying in the territory of a country of one’s appointment. Therefore, I paid special attention to this working direction. After returning from Romania, I worked for some time again as the Ambassador at large and reaching the retirement age in January 2016 I discontinued my diplomatic service by my own will, as I believed that young Ukrainian diplomats should have “space” for their career and professional growth. Keywords: Embassy of Ukraine in Romania, Consulate General of Ukraine in the Romanian city of Suceava, reminiscences, biography, diplomatic service of Ukraine.
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WRIGHT, O. J. "BRITISH REPRESENTATIVES AND THE SURVEILLANCE OF ITALIAN AFFAIRS, 1860–70*." Historical Journal 51, no. 3 (September 2008): 669–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x08006961.
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ABSTRACTDuring the nineteenth century the British consular service was often dismissed as an organization with purely commercial responsibilities. A succession of governments and diplomats insisted upon this notion, despite the fact that at certain times both relied very much on consular officials for information on foreign affairs. This dependence was especially evident in Italy during the decade after 1860, when British leaders had lent their moral and diplomatic support to the creation of the modern Italian state against considerable international opposition. During this period their desire not to see the achievement undone led them to maintain a close watch on Italian affairs. The contribution made in this area by the consular service, and the manner in which it was reorganized in response to Italian unification, show how such a role could take priority over its other functions. Although this state of affairs was no doubt exceptional on account of the remarkable level of British interest in the Unification of Italy, it nonetheless provides a clear demonstration of how the organization could be used under certain circumstances. The extent to which British consuls were used to monitor affairs in post-unification Italy also encourages reflection upon the widespread view that British foreign policy rejected interventionism in favour of isolation from European affairs during the 1860s.
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Matiash, Iryna. "German Consulate in Kyiv (1924–1938): Between Diplomacy and Politics." Diplomatic Ukraine, no. XXI (2020): 45–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.37837/2707-7683-2020-2.
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The article covers the activities of the German mission in Kyiv as a cultural, political, and administrative centre of the Ukrainian SSR in 1924–38 in the status of a consulate and consulate-general. The data about the following heads of the consular institution is provided: Siegfried Hey, Werner Stephanie, Rudolf Sommer, Andor Hencke, and Georg-Wilhelm Grosskopf. The legal basis for the establishment of consular relations between the Ukrainian SSR and Germany was the Treaty on Application of the Treaty of Rapallo signed on 16 April 1922 between the RSFSR and Germany to the Allied Republics of the RSFSR. The consular district of the first German mission covered Kyiv, Chernihiv, Podillia, and Volyn governorates. The mission of the consulate was to inform the government about the internal situation in the Ukrainian SSR, promote trade relations and cultural cooperation, and protect the interests of German citizens. The head of the consulate immediately came under close surveillance of the ODPU (United State Political Department) of the Ukrainian SSR on suspicion of conducting intelligence activities as well as collecting information about the economy, industry, and agriculture in the territory of his consular district. Subsequently, the ODPU increasingly introduced its own agents to the staff of foreign missions as service personnel, and NKVD agents in civilian clothing set up surveillance on the consulate’s premises. They accompanied the consul, the consulate staff, and even some visitors on their way out of the premises. Thus, the secret service collected compromising materials that gave grounds for accusing German diplomats of anti-Soviet activities and espionage. The consul’s correspondence was also under control. When A. Hitler came to power in Germany, the information confrontation between the USSR and the Third Reich began, but official diplomatic and consular relations continued. In his reports, the consul in Kyiv recorded the horrors of the Holodomor, the growing process of party ‘purges’, secret executions and suicides, coupled, from January 1937, with daily reprisals against intellectuals and workers in his consular district. The consulate-general in Kyiv ceased its operation in 1938, the official reason being the streamlining of the number of consular offices of the Third Reich and the USSR. Keywords: German Consulate, Werner Stephanie, Rudolph Sommer, Andor Hencke.
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De la Serna Ramos, María. "El uniforme diplomático español: origen y evolución | The Spanish diplomatic uniform: origin and evolution." REVISTA ESTUDIOS INSTITUCIONALES 5, no. 8 (July 26, 2018): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/eeii.vol.5.n.8.2018.21943.
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Los uniformes han servido siempre para distinguir grupos de profesionales. La carrera diplomática española es uno de esos grupos que tienen en esta tipo de prenda una de sus señas de identidad. Son ya muy pocos los servicios diplomáticos –los de ciertas monarquías- que todavía disponen de uniforme. Su uso casi siempre se ha limitado, también en el caso de esos otros países, a las ocasiones de gala. Apenas ha evolucionado desde sus orígenes en el siglo XIX. Además los de todos esos países son similares, con una casaca de paño azul marino, y unos bordados dorados. Desde que en 1928 se unificaron en España las carreras diplomática y consular, el uniforme es único para estos profesionales. Los símbolos que les identifican y la tradición establecida al respecto fueron recogidos en el Reglamento Orgánico de la Carrera Diplomática, de 15 de julio de 1955. Teniendo en cuenta los cambios ocurridos desde sus orígenes se presenta una breve historia del origen y evolución del uniforme hasta el modelo actual.________________________________Uniforms have always served to distinguish groups of professionals. The Spanish Diplomatic Service counts itself among those groups that have in this garment one of their distinguishing feature. It is one of the last Services, most of them belonging to European monarchies, to have a uniform. Its use has nearly always been restricted to gala occasions. The garment has scarcely changed since its origins in the nineteenth century. Since 1928, the year when the unification of the Spanish Diplomatic and Consular Services occurred, there is only one model of uniform. Its identification symbols and the tradition laid down in this matter, where included in the Organic Regulations of the Diplomatic Service, dated July 15, 1955. Taking into account the changes that have affected this garment since then, a brief history of the origin and evolution of the uniform up to the current model is presented.
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Fisher, John. "The Impact of Military Service on the British Foreign Office and Diplomatic and Consular Services, 1914–8." International History Review 34, no. 3 (September 2012): 431–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2012.675211.
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Matiash, Iryna. "FOUNDATION OF THE INSTITUTION OF HONORARY CONSULS IN UKRAINE, 1918-1923: LEGISLATIVE BASE AND KEY PERSONS." ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1, no. 127 (2016): 4–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/apmv.2016.127.1.4-13.
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The article deals with the content of the first draft regulations for the institution of honorary consuls in Ukraine in 1918-1923, and the circumstances of founding the first missions of honorary consuls. The research was conducted on the basis of archival information from the documents stored in the Central State Archives of Higher Futhorities and Government of Ukraine. The question of establishing the special positions of honorary consuls was raised during the compilation of the Ukrainian State Consular Statute. During the period of the Central Rada there were no concepts regards these positions in the draft regulations related to the establishment of consular service as a public institution. The actual steps to institute the posts of honorary consuls were done in the time of the Directory of the UNR. Firstly the question was put at a meeting of ambassadors and heads of diplomatic missions of UNR in Vienna, 18 – August 20, 1920. From January 1921, the Honorary consulates were established in Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark. Leaders of honorary consulates were searched among the local business elites. Information about candidate was carefully studied before taking a decision on the appointment. The first persons, appointed as a honorary consuls of Ukraine, were the foreigners Harold Simsonen, Simon Kuoni, Johann Hausschild, Wilhelm Christiansen and the Ukrainian Alex Bogolyubskii.
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Micic, Srdjan. "Yugoslav diplomats during the interwar period." Balcanica Posnaniensia Acta et studia 25 (February 15, 2019): 143–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/bp.2018.25.9.
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The article deals with influence of the Serbian elite in the scope of the Yugoslav Foreign Service during 1918–1939. The influence of the elite circles was particularly prominent in the Yugoslav Army and in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as was the case in Serbia until 1918. As non-institutional factors had great influence on the work of state institutions, the first aim of this paper is to examine the main aspect for selection, career development and obstacles in the life of Yugoslav Diplomats, derived from the power struggle among elite circles. The second aim is to compare Serbian and Yugoslav experiences in order to establish similarities and differences in the characteristics of the pre-War and Interwar Diplomatic-Consular personnel. The analysis is based on Yugoslav archival materials, as well as on foreign published documents, memorial literature and relevant Yugoslav/Serbian and foreign historiography.
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Talmon, Stefan. "The Legalizing and Legitimizing Function of UN General Assembly Resolutions." AJIL Unbound 108 (2014): 123–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2398772300002002.
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In his essay on the “Uniting for Peace” resolution, Larry Johnson suggests that the General Assembly can recommend non-use of force collective measures when the Security Council is blocked because of a permanent member casting a veto. He rightly points out that today there is no longer any need to use Uniting for Peace for such recommendations. The General Assembly can and has recommended so-called “voluntary sanctions” in cases where it found a threat to international peace and security to exist. For example, in resolution 2107 (XX) of December 21, 1965 concerning the Question of Territories under Portuguese Administration, the Assembly, making no reference to Uniting for Peace, urged “Member States to take the following measures, separately or collectively:(a)To break off diplomatic and consular relations with the Government of Portugal or refrain from establishing such relations;(b)To close their ports to all vessels flying the Portuguese flag or in the service of Portugal;(c)To prohibit their ships from entering any ports in Portugal and its colonial territories;(d)To refuse landing and transit facilities to all aircraft belonging to or in the service of the Government of Portugal and to companies registered under the laws of Portugal;(e)To boycott all trade with Portugal.”
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Fetisenko, Olga L. "“Heirs of Byzantium” in the assessment of friends and foes: Russian sovereignty as a cross-cutting theme of “oriental stories” by Konstantin Leontiev." Two centuries of the Russian classics 2, no. 4 (2020): 250–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.22455/2686-7494-2020-2-4-250-259.
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The article is devoted to the study of the geopolitical problems of the artistic works of Konstantin Leontiev, created during the years of consular service in the Greek and Bulgarian provinces of the Turkish Empire, as well as shortly after his retirement. Reviewing Konstantin Leontiev’s “oriental stories”, devoted mainly to the life of the Greeks, the author reveals the peculiarities of the poetics of the works of the cycle. The article proves that “oriental stories” go far beyond “ethnographism” or “ethnopsychologism”, giving the artist the opportunity to distinguish what is related to others, as well as to see Russia and Russians from the outside, to show its perception by the Greeks and the South Slavs. The “element of geopolitical analytics” is investigated as necessary in the artistic problems of the stories. Particular attention is paid to the consideration of the features of the perception of Russia by the older and younger generations of Greeks noted by Konstantin Leontiev. The author of the article states that the older generation unconditionally believed in Russia, considered the Russians to be the true heirs of Byzantium; while the young europeanised Greeks, for the most part, no longer looked at Russia or saw it as a hostile origin. This conflict of moods is viewed in the work as a kind of reflection of the spiritual processes taking place in the real, not idealised, Russian world. The author of the article states Leontiev’s hope for the high mission of the Russian Orthodox state, which reconciles various religious principles in itself and around itself.
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Garver, John W. "War and Peace in China: First Hand Experiences in the Foreign Services of the United States. By Marshall Green, John H. Holdridge and William N. Stokes. [Bethesda, MD: Diplomatic and Consular Officers, Retired (DACOR) Press, 1994. 211 pp.$15.00.]." China Quarterly 147 (September 1996): 971–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305741000051936.
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Grottanelli, Cristiano. "Fruitful Death: Mircea Eliade and Ernst Jünger on Human Sacrifice, 1937–1945." Numen 52, no. 1 (2005): 116–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568527053083449.
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AbstractMircea Eliade, the writer and historian of religions, and Ernst Jünger, the hero of the Great War, novelist, and essayist, met in the 1950s and co-edited twelve issues of the periodical Antaios. Before they met and cooperated, however, and while the German writer knew about Eliade from their common friend, Carl Schmitt, they both dealt with the subject of human sacrifice. Eliade began to do so in the thirties, and his interest in that theme was at least in part an aspect of his political activism on behalf of the Legion of the Archangel Michael, or the Iron Guard, the nationalistic and anti-Semitic movement lead by Corneliu Codreanu. Sacrificial ideology was a central aspect of the Legion's political theories, as well as of the practice of its members. After the Iron Guard was outlawed by its allies, and many of its members had been killed, and while the Romanian regime of Marshal Ion Antonescu was still fighting alongside the National Socialist regime in the Second World War, Eliade turned to other aspects of sacrificial ideology. In 1939 he wrote the play Iphigenia, celebrating Agamemnon's daughter as a willing victim whose death made the Greek conquest of Troy possible; and as a member of the regime's diplomatic service in Lisbon he published a book in Portuguese on Romanian virtues (1943), in which he presented what he called Two Myths of Romanian Spirituality, extolling his nation's readiness to die through the description of the sacrificial traditions of Master Manole and of the Ewe Lamb (Mioritza). Jünger's attitude to sacrifice ran along lines that were less traditional: possibly already while serving as a Wehrmacht officer, in his pamphlet Der Friede, the German writer attributed sacrificial status to all the victims of the Second World War, soldiers, workmen, and unknowing innocents, and saw their death as the ransom of a peace "without victory or defeat." In this article, the sacrificial ideologies of the two intellectuals are compared in order to reflect upon the complex interplay between traditional religious themes, more or less freely re-interpreted and transformed, political power, and violent conflict, in an age of warfare marked by fascisms and by the terrible massacre some refer to by the name of an ancient Greek sacrificial practice.
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"CONSULAR AND DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE FROM TRIPOLI." Camden Fifth Series 60 (November 6, 2020): 23–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960116320000184.
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For some weeks last past this Government has been alarmed by Reports of hostilities intended by the Algerines and Tunisines against this Place. These are supposed to be the consequence of the Indignation of the Grand Seignior at the Remissness of this Bashaw in affording assistance during the last war of the Porte against the Two Imperial Crowns. Tho’ there is great reason to doubt as yet the authenticity of the Report in question I think it my duty to acquaint you Sir with it, since here it has been thought serious enough to cause measures of defence being taken, and preparations made. The internal disturbances which continue, and the excessive dearness of Provisions contribute to distress us much and leave me no other satisfaction than that of being able to assure you Sir that His Majesty's Service, and the increase of the British Subjects do not suffer the least Detriment by these Calamities.
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"Genesis of consular institutions of european countries in Aincient and Middle Ages." Journal of Economics and International Relations, no. 7 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.26565/2310-9513-2018-7-02.
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The article finds out the peculiarities of the formation and development of consular institutions from the ancient times to the Middle Ages. The article deals with the specifics of the institutions that carried out the corresponding functions in the ancient Greek policies (including those located in the southern territories of modern Ukraine), ancient Rome, the leading states of medieval Europe. The foundations of the consular service in the Ancient Age were discovered at the Ancient Greek Institute of Proxenia, the Old Roman institutions, clientele (patronage) and praetorians (practors in the affairs of perigins). Subsequently, during the Middle Ages, on this basis a consultative institute emerged and began to act as representatives of the state in the trade and political sphere, first of all, by ensuring that the authorities of the country of residence adhere to the rules of local law and international customs against their fellow citizens, while protecting their personal and property rights and interests.