Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Diplomatic privileges and immunities'

Diplomatic immunity is one of the oldest elements of foreign relations, dating back as far as Ancient Greece and Rome. Today, it is a principle that has been codified into the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations regulating past customs and practices. Consuls and international organizations, although their privileges and immunities are similar to diplomatic personnel, do differ and are regulated by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations and the United Nations International Immunities respectively. These Conventions have been influenced by past practices and by three theories during different era’s namely exterritoriality, personal representation and functional necessity. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations further provides certain immunities and privileges to different levels of diplomatic officials, their staff and families. Privileges and immunities will be considered under various main categories, namely the diplomatic mission, the diplomatic official, diplomatic staff, and families. Each category receives privileges and immunities, for example immunities enjoyed by the diplomatic mission include mission correspondence and bags. Diplomatic officials enjoy personal inviolability, immunity from jurisdiction and inviolability of diplomats’ residences and property. The staff and families of diplomatic officials too enjoy privileges and immunities. The problem of so many people receiving privileges and immunities is that there is a high likelihood of abuse. Abuses that arise are various crimes committed by diplomats, their staff and families. They are immune from local punishment and appear to be above the local law. Although the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations provides remedies against diplomats, staff and families who abuse their position, it gives the impression that it is not enough. Various Acts in the United Kingdom, United States and the Republic of South Africa will be analysed in order to ascertain what governments have done to try and curb diplomatic abuses. Each will be considered and found that although they have restricted immunity from previous practices it still places the diplomats’ needs above its own citizens. Thus several suggestions have been put forward and argued whether they are successful in restricting immunity comprehensively. Such suggestions are amending the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations; using the functional necessity theory to further limit immunity; forming bilateral treaties between States as a possible means to restrict or limit; and lastly establishing a Permanent International Diplomatic Criminal Court. The key question to be answered is whether diplomatic immunity is needed for the efficient functioning of foreign relations between States.

Rules of diplomatic immunity, which nowadays are enshrined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, play an important role in interstate diplomacy because they ensure the efficient performance of diplomatic functions. This thesis investigates a particular form of diplomatic immunity - diplomatic immunity ratione materiae. Unlike diplomatic immunity ratione personae, which pertains to the personal status of a diplomatic agent, diplomatic immunity ratione materiae depends in essence on the official nature of a particular act In practice, however, the determination of diplomatic immunity ratione materiae may meet with many conceptual and practical difficulties. For one, it is not always easy to distinguish the official acts of a diplomatic agent, who represents the sending State in the receiving State, from his or her private acts. In case of disagreement between the two States, questions may also arise as to who has the authority to make a final determination. The Vienna Convention does not offer much guidance on these issues; on the contrary, the Convention complicates them by employing, without adequate explanation, distinct formulas for different kinds of diplomatic immunity ratione materiae. This thesis examines these formulas in detail. On a general level, it is submitted that diplomatic immunity ratione materiae for certain types of activity constitutes not only a procedural bar to court proceedings but also a substantive exemption of individual responsibility. More specifically, it is argued that each formula must be understood in the light of the rationale behind immunity, the type of immunity concerned, and the specific functions or duties performed. In case of controversy, weight should be given to the opinion of the sending State, although the authority to make a decision lies ultimately with the court of the receiving State.

This thesis investigates three exemplars of uxorial substantive privileges in the criminal law: the marital coercion doctrine, the intraspousal conspiracy exemption, and the uxorial post-offence accessorial immunity. Their history, choreography and variations are comparatively investigated across the common law jurisdictions including the impact of statutory interventions. The principal argument is that the judicial and legislative treatment of these uxorial privileges has been inconsistent or erratic so that they are not the products of any systematic, modern development in the criminal law. This thesis proposes that there is no justification for their continued retention in common law legal systems. Archival, Parliamentary, and other sources have been used to identify the factors impinging upon the creation of specific statutory uxorial privileges. The diaspora of these laws throughout the other common law jurisdictions is investigated. The discussion is illustrated by examination of the particular issues raised by polygamy, customary law concubinage as well as by gender-reassignment. This thesis examines whether both gender-specific and marriage-specific criteria are valid constituents within the parameters of substantive criminal law. It traces the genesis of these special defences within the criminal law available exclusively to women, from the time of King Ine of the West Saxons c712, to examine the current status of such laws throughout common law jurisdictions. The investigation explores factors shaping the creation of a statutory defence of marital coercion by the British Parliament in 1925 and outlines the challenges generated by that law and its extraordinary resilience. This thesis demonstrates the failure of the criminal law to provide an overarching construct to implement emergent gender equality.

This thesis aims at description and analyses of the position of diplomatic immunities and human rights in international law, focusing on areas where these two sets of international rules clash. One objective of this work is an attempt to establish a hierarchy between norms granting diplomatic immunities and those protecting fundamental human rights, which could possibly resolve the collision. This solution, however, narrows down to one of most general principles of diplomatic relations, the principal of reciprocity. Mentioned are also some alternative approaches suggested for resolution of this conflict together with the obstacles, which prevent them from use. The thesis further looks at possible remedies against abuse of diplomatic immunity.

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One of the dimensions of the existing asymmetry in Brazilian federalism concerns the parliamentary material immunity embodied in the freedom to express opinions and criticisms in the exercise of the parliamentary function. In view of the peculiar stature of federated entity attributed to the municipalities in the Federal Constitution of 1988, it is questioned whether its parliamentarians should have identical or less guarantees in relation to those of the parliamentarians of other federated entities. In other words, despite the similar nature of the exercise of parliamentary activity, one wonders whether the asymmetry of structures, powers and functions of the federated entities would imply a difference of content in parliamentary material immunity. For this investigation it is essential to analyze the jurisprudence of the Federal Supreme Court of Brazil in view of the jurisprudential nature of the principle of symmetry, guiding the organization of state entities based on an interpretation of the applicability of the federal model to other federative entities. We will argue that the city councilor's material immunity is symmetrical in Brazilian federalism, even though the constitutional text apparently points to a differentiation, proposing at the end of the thesis a method to identify the parliamentary speech immunized
Uma das dimensões da assimetria existente no federalismo brasileiro diz respeito à imunidade material parlamentar consubstanciada na liberdade de expressar opiniões e críticas no exercício da função parlamentar. Diante da peculiar estatura de ente federado atribuída aos Municípios inovadoramente na Constituição Federal de 1988, questiona-se se os seus parlamentares devem ter garantias idênticas ou menos abrangentes em relação às dos parlamentares dos demais entes federados. Em outras palavras, apesar da natureza semelhante do exercício da atividade parlamentar, pergunta-se se a assimetria de estruturas, competências e funções dos entes federados implicaria em uma diferença de conteúdo na imunidade material parlamentar. Para esta investigação mostra-se essencial a análise da jurisprudência do Supremo Tribunal Federal tendo em vista a natureza jurisprudencial do princípio da simetria, norteador da organização dos entes estatais a partir de uma interpretação da aplicabilidade do modelo federal aos demais entes federativos. Sustentaremos que a imunidade material do vereador é simétrica no federalismo brasileiro, ainda que o texto constitucional aparentemente aponte uma diferenciação, propondo ao final um método de identificação do discurso parlamentar imune

A partir del estudio sistemático de la práctica de la ONU y de la normativa internacional pertinente se identifican y analizan las distintas categorías de personas comprendidas bajo la expresión "Expertos y personas que tienen relaciones oficiales" empleada por la Comisión de Derecho Internacional en el contexto de sus trabajos relativos a la codificación de la condición jurídica de las organizaciones internacionales. El estudio ha puesto de relieve las distinciones que cabe formular entre expertos en misión, personas que tienen relaciones oficiales a título particular y personas que tienen relaciones oficiales a título particular y personas que tienen relaciones oficiales en su condición de representantes de entidades no estatales. En todos los casos el fundamento jurídico puede reconducirse a los propósitos establecidos en el Art. 1 de la Carta de las Naciones Unidas. El contenido del estatuto juridíco se revela variado y precario por la distinta tipología y la carencia de disposiciones generales. Se discute también la conveniencia de abordar la codificación de esta materia ante las reticencias de los estados y la variedad de funciones y necesidades de las organizaciones internacionales.

Conçu dans la période postérieure aux guerres révolutionnaires européennes, renforcé à la veille des relations internationales contemporaines, le fonctionnaire international, plus qu’un concept, témoigne de la dynamique qui est née et qui caractérise les relations interétatiques. Mieux appréhendé par leurs interactions dans de multiples arènes (économie, consultations, études, diplomatie, politique, actions de terrains), les fonctionnaires internationaux sont définis par un nouveau type d’organisations par le biais desquelles ils incarnent et réalisent leurs buts. Ils caractérisent ainsi tant les agents des organisations internationales dites “traditionnelles” (Société des Nations, Organisation des Nations Unies, Organisation du Traité de l’Atlantique Nord, Union Africaine, Conseil de l’Europe) que celles “spécifiques” (Union Européenne, Communauté Economique des Etats d’Afrique de l’Ouest, La Communauté Andine des Nations, le Marché du Cône Sud). De cette situation, le concept unique de fonctionnaire international a évidemment émergé par la systématisation de plusieurs auteurs. Il ne pouvait en être autrement, ce par la convergence des statuts juridiques (en matière de règles relatives au recrutement, de privilèges et d’immunités fonctionnels, droits acquis) de ceux qu’on considère comme les piliers de l’organisation, notamment les agents de l’Union européenne et ceux de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Toutefois, malgré cette première évidence, il est certain, et l’analyse comparative à laquelle cette étude s’élit en fournit les clefs, que le concept de fonctionnaire international unique ne soit pas approprié pour les agents que nous considérons archétypes de deux types d’organisations mues par des finalités complémentaires certes mais divergentes à plus d’un titre. A ces fins, l’étude de l’insertion institutionnelle des fonctionnaires et la loyauté, somme toute, cardinale qui en découle définitivement écarte toute prétention d’unité des fonctionnaires par l’érection d’un fonctionnaire extraétatique qui serait ce concept unifiant ces agents des gouvernants spéciaux
Created after the european revolutionary wars and reinforced in the run up of the contemporary international relations, the international civil servant more than a concept, testifies of dynamics that generated and which characterizes interstates relations. International civil servants are defined through new types of organizations they embody and through which they achieve their purposes. The different arenas in which they interact (economics, consultancies, studies, diplomacy, politics, and field actions) underline their function. They therefore represent both the agents of international organizations known as "traditional" (League of Nations, United Nations Organization, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, African Union, Council of Europe) as well as those of the “specific" ones (European Union, Economic Community of West African States, Andean Community of Nations, Common Market of Southern Cone). From this situation a single concept for the international civil servant as emerged through the systemization of several authors. It could not be any other way, because of the similarities in the legal status (relating to recruitment rules, functional privileges and immunities, acquired rights) of those considered as the pillars of the organizations, in particular between the European Union and the United Nations Organization’s agents. However, despite this first conclusion, the present study obviously shows through a comparative analysis that a single (common) concept of the international civil servant is not appropriated for the agents we considere as archetypes of two types of organizations driven by purposes that are complementary but different for more than one reason. For those purposes, the study of the institutional insertion of the civil servants and the loyalty that derives from it definitely eliminates the theory of a single concept for civil servants through the institution of an extrastate civil servant, a concept meant to unify these special rulers’ agents

S’appuyant sur un corpus de textes que l’on qualifie normalement de « traités sur l’ambassadeur », cette thèse s’attache à reconstruire la naissance de la diplomatie moderne tout au long d’une période qui va du XIIIe au XVIIe siècle, en essayant d’analyser la manière dont la figure de l’ambassadeur à été élaborée à l’intérieur d’un champ de problématisation qui se caractérise par une imbrication réciproque du droit, de l’éthique et de la politique et va constituer une véritable expérience de la diplomatie.Ce travail s’articule en deux parties. Dans la première il s’agit de comprendre comment la figure de l’ambassadeur a été façonnée sous le profil de son statut juridique, à savoir comme une persona publica chargée d’un officium et devant représenter son mandant, avec les conséquences qui en découlent quant à l’établissement de son pouvoir de négociation, à la définition de ses immunités ainsi qu’à la détermination des honneurs qu’il a le droit de recevoir. L’analyse de ces questions permettra d’apprécier la contribution apportée par notre corpus non seulement à la définition du statut juridique de l’ambassadeur, mais aussi à la formation du nouveau droit des gens destiné à régir l’Europe moderne. La seconde partie s’attache à comprendre comment la figure de l’ambassadeur a été façonnée sous le profil de son statut professionnel : on s’interroge alors sur les fonctions qui lui sont attribuées, sur les moyens qui lui sont fournis et les conditions qui lui sont demandées pour s’en acquitter de la manière la plus efficace, ainsi que sur la problématisation éthique à laquelle son action est soumise. Tout en essayant de faire ressortir la spécificité de l’ambassadeur, cette partie se propose aussi de contribuer à l’étude de la professionnalisation du fonctionnaire public
Using a collection of texts commonly known as the “treatises on the ambassador”, this research examines the birth and the development of the experience of diplomacy from the 13th to the 17th Century. It aims, in particular, to explore the development of the figure of the ambassador within a field of problematization involving ethics, politics and law.After some methodological and historical remarks, the thesis deals with the development of the status of the ambassador from two perspectives, the legal and the professional. Regarding his legal status, the medieval legal conceptualisation of the role of the ambassador as a genuine public “office”, and that of the diplomatic function as “representation”, are examined. The way in which these conceptualisations help to define the negotiating powers conferred on the ambassador, his immunities and the honours to which he is entitled is then considered. This analysis allows for an investigation of the complex links between the exercise of diplomacy and claims to sovereignty during Europe’s transition from the Middle Ages to Modernity. Regarding his professional status, the thesis reconstructs the functions of the ambassador (particularly in relation to information gathering and negotiation), the means provided for the ambassador to undertake his functions (his salary and the assignment of an escort) and the objective, intellectual or moral qualities required of him. As well as illustrating the techniques which have been required for ambassadorial success since the 15th Century, this analysis offers some hints for studying the professionalization of public officials and the emergence of the modern criteria of political analysis

Diplomacy is an ancient concept known to man as far back as the ancient Greeks and Romans. Through the passing of time the concept of diplomacy has continuously been developed. The evolution of this concept has followed with the great civilisations of this world. Most notable are the advancements in Europe from the medieval era to the industrial revolution. Diplomacy was first codified in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna. The 1961 Vienna Convention currently regulates the immunities and privileges of the modern diplomat. The immunities range from official acts to the conducting of personal affairs. These immunities protect the diplomat from the foreign state. The extent of these immunities has led to a range of abusive behaviour resulting in controversy. This dissertation sets out a brief historic overview of diplomacy and theories dealing with the discourse of immunities in light of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961. A closer look is taken on the privileges and immunities a diplomat enjoys in his personal capacity, his property and his family. Furthermore the development of diplomacy in England and South Africa are discussed. Lastly the Vienna Convention sets out a number of remedies that are able to deter diplomatic agents from abusing their station. However, such remedies alone have proved to be inefficient without the immunities being limited in order to make diplomats accountable for their misconduct. In light of the severity of misconduct by diplomats, a suggestion has been offered for such privileges to be curtailed in order for diplomats to be held accountable for severe crimes committed. As it stands now, diplomats escape liability for heinous crimes such as rape, murder and human trafficking. It is submitted that a re-evaluation of the principles is required.
Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

The thesis describes privileges and immunities provided to offices of diplomatic missions in order to facilitate carrying out international relations. The key legal document regulating diplomatic privileges and immunities is the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which commemorated 50 years of its existence this year - since it was signed on 18 April 1961 after the Vienna Conference. The aim of the thesis is to describe the contents of the individual privileges and immunities and to consider to which extent the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations represents a suitable legal instrument even for the needs of the today's practice of diplomatic relations. First the thesis deals with general issues related to ensuring diplomatic privileges and immunities, theories which justify their necessity and selected provisions of the Vienna Convention. This is followed by an analysis of the individual privileges and immunities of a diplomatic mission - the right to display a flag, the inviolability of mission premises, the inviolability of mission archives and documents, tax privileges and the freedom of communication.

The thesis covers the privileges and immunities provided to diplomatic agents in order to facilitate the performance of their functions. The main source of law is the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which has been signed at the end of the Vienna Conference on 18th April 1961 and remained unchanged even after 50 years in force. It reflected the previous codification attempts as well as the existing practice of the contractual states and established rules that together with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations represent the basis in the field of diplomatic and consular law. The aim of the thesis is to describe particular privileges and immunities of the diplomatic agents, evaluate their applicability on the current diplomatic practice and consider whether the Vienna Convention represents a suitable regulation of the modern diplomatic relations. Examining both the practice of national courts and the International Court of Justice it is shown how the practice has changed over the past 50 years. The thesis covers the limits of such privileges and immunities, points out the possibilities of their abuse and presents examples of conflicts that arise in the current diplomatic practice. The thesis first deals with theoretical issues - it provides definitions of the diplomatic privileges and...

This thesis deals with the diplomatic and consular privileges and immunities - first theoretically and then with the application by the International Court of Justice in the "Case concerning diplomatic and consular stuff in Tehran." The thesis emphasises the importance of an observation of these privileges and immunities by the international community and its relevance within the public international law. The thesis is divided into the introduction, 5 main chapters and the conclusion. First chapter is focused on the diplomatic and consular privileges and immunities in general. It deals with basic concepts as well as with a list of diplomatic and consular privileges. The Part about immunities according to Vienna convention on Diplomatic and Consular relations is included here too. This chapter also focuses on obligations of the diplomatic and consular stuff in relation to the receiving state. Second chapter states obligations of the receiving state in relation to the diplomatic mission, consular post and their stuff and also certain rights that the receiving state is authorized to demand. Third chapter is divided into 2 main parts - a historical one, which describes modern history of Iran since the beginning of 20th century and focuses on the development of Iran - USA relations. Second part of the...

Diplomatic privileges and immunities of bodies and workers of the EU institutions Le sujet de ce travail est de présenter des privilèges et immunités concernant l'Union européenne en tant qu'organisation internationale, ses fonctionnaires, agents et autres personnes susceptibles d'agir dans son intérêt. À la différence des immunités des États, accordées à ces derniers au nom de leur égalité souveraine, les immunités des organisation internationales se justifient exclusivement par leur caractère fonctionnel. Elles visent en effet à assurer à l'organisation une certaine autonomie et une indépendance indispensables à l'efficacité de son action. L'Union alors jouit des privilèges et immunités nécessaires à l'accomplissement de sa mission. Le document servant de base juridique, dans lequel les privilèges et immunités de l'UE sont définie , est le Protocole du 8 avril 1965 sur les privilèges et immunités des Communautés européennes. Ce dernier a été révisé au 1er décembre 2009 par le traité de Lisbonne. L'UE remlace ainsi, par ce traité, la Communauté européenne, ainsi duquele Protocole sur les privilèges et immunités des Communautés européennes, qui devient le Protocole sur les privilèges et immunités de l'Union européenne. Ce Protocole concerne l'UE, ses organes, les représentants des États...

Stosunki dyplomatyczne państw przez wieki regulowane były przez normy prawa zwyczajowego. Jednakże wraz z intensyfikacją stosunków międzynarodowych pojawiło się dążenie do skodyfikowania norm prawnych obowiązujących pomiędzy państwami w umowie międzynarodowej. Zadanie to zrealizowała Komisja Prawa Międzynarodowego ONZ, opracowując w latach 1954–1958 projekt artykułów w zakresie prawa dyplomatycznego, przyjęty następnie przez państwa w postaci Konwencji wiedeńskiej o stosunkach dyplomatycznych z dnia 18 kwietnia 1961 r. W niniejszej rozprawie przeprowadzono analizę związków pomiędzy obowiązującymi, w ocenie Komisji Prawa Międzynarodowego, normami zwyczajowego prawa dyplomatycznego a normami umownymi wyrażonymi w Konwencji wiedeńskiej z 1961 r. Pierwszy rozdział stanowi wprowadzenie do analizowanej tematyki poprzez przedstawienie genezy kodyfikacji norm zwyczajowego prawa dyplomatycznego. Co więcej, znalazło się w nim wyjaśnienie podstawowych terminów stosowanych w dalszych częściach pracy. W rozdziale drugim zostały zaprezentowane kolejne etapy prac podejmowanych przez Komisję Prawa Międzynarodowego. Proces ten rozpoczął się od powołania specjalnego sprawozdawcy, który przygotował raport wraz z projektem artykułów. Były one następnie przedmiotem debaty podczas dwóch kolejnych sesji Komisji. W trakcie prac swoje uwagi zgłosiły również państwa, które w 1961 r. na konferencji kodyfikacyjnej w Wiedniu przyjęły obecnie obowiązującą treść Konwencji wiedeńskiej z 1961 r.W rozdziałach od trzeciego do szóstego przeanalizowano kolejne normy zwyczajowego prawa dyplomatycznego, których treść dyskutowana była na posiedzeniach Komisji Prawa Międzynarodowego w latach 1957–1958. Rozdział trzeci zawiera analizę norm prawa zwyczajowego w zakresie nawiązania stosunków dyplomatycznych przez państwa. Obejmuje ona działania zmierzające do utworzenia misji dyplomatycznej państwa wysyłającego, ustanowienia personelu misji dyplomatycznej, a w szczególności powołania szefa misji dyplomatycznej. W rozdziale czwartym analizie poddano funkcje dyplomatyczne, których katalog został wypracowany przez Komisję Prawa Międzynarodowego. Komisja uwzględniła także zgłoszone uwagi państw, w szczególności w zakresie pełnienia przez misję dyplomatyczną funkcji konsularnych. Rozdział piąty rozpoczyna się od wskazania teoretycznych podstaw przywilejów i immunitetów dyplomatycznych. Najważniejszą jest teoria funkcji, która uzasadnia przyznanie przywilejów i immunitetów, jako niezbędnych do wykonywania funkcji misji. W dalszej części rozdziału przeanalizowano przywileje i immunitety przyznawane misji dyplomatycznej. Z kolei w rozdziale szóstym została przeprowadzona analiza przywilejów i immunitetów przyznawanych członkom personelu misji. Istotna w tym zakresie jest analiza zarówno przywilejów i immunitetów przyznawanych personelowi misji dyplomatycznej, jak również ich obowiązków w stosunku do państwa przyjmującego. Rozdział siódmy stanowi uzupełnienie przeprowadzonej analizy, obejmując wyjaśnienie miejsca prawa zwyczajowego, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem prawa dyplomatycznego, w polskim porządku prawnym, w świetle obowiązujących źródeł prawa wewnętrznego, orzecznictwa sądów oraz poglądów doktryny.W wyniku badań przeprowadzonych w niniejszej rozprawie możliwe było wysunięcie wniosków, wyrażonych w stosunku do kolejnych postanowień Konwencji wiedeńskiej z 1961 r., określających, czy stanowią one kodyfikację zwyczajowego prawa dyplomatycznego, czy są wyrazem działania Komisji Prawa Międzynarodowego ONZ przyczyniającej się do stopniowego rozwoju prawa międzynarodowego. W zakończeniu niniejszej rozprawy przedstawiono natomiast wnioski ogólne wynikające z przeprowadzonej analizy.
Diplomatic relations of states has been always regulated by the norms of a customary law. However, along with the intensification of international relations arose the need to regulate legal rules binding states in the form of the international treaty. This task has been achieved by the International Law Commission (henceforward called ILC) which, between 1954–1958, has prepared a draft articles on diplomatic law which were accepted by states and concluded in the form of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 18 April 1961. The overriding goal of the present doctoral dissertation was to analyse the relations between binding, in the opinion of the International Law Commission, rules of customary diplomatic law and treaty rules arising from the Vienna Convention of 1961.The first chapter is an introduction to the analysed topic, in which the origin of the codification of customary diplomatic law has been described. In addition, the chapter provided the explanation of the basic terms used in the further parts of this work. In the second chapter, the progress of work of the International Law Commission has been presented. This process has begun with the appointment of the special rapporteur, who had prepared the special report with the draft articles. The draft was then the subject of debate during two consecutive sessions of the ILC, during which states also gave theirs comments. The proposed draft articles were agreed during the conference in Vienna in 1961 and concluded as Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.Chapters from three to six contain analysis of the norms of the customary diplomatic law, which were discussed during the plenary sessions of the International Law Commission in 1957 and 1958. Chapter three provided the analysis of customary law of in conection with establishing diplomatic relations between states. It consists of activities aiming at starting diplomatic mission, appointing the personnel of this mission, and in particular in appointing the head of the mission. In chapter four the diplomatic function, which catalogue was proposed by the International Law Commission, has been analysed. The ILC has taken into account the comments of states, especially by adding the possibility of performing consular function by the diplomatic mission. In chapter five the theoretical background of diplomatic privileges and immunities has been described. The most important is theory of functional necessity, which justifies privileges and immunities as being necessary to enable the mission to perform its functions. After that, the analysis of the privileges and immunities relating to the diplomatic mission was conducted. Chapters six provided the analysis of personal privileges and immunities. What is important, the subject of this chapter were both: the privileges and immunities of the personnel of the diplomatic missions, as well as as theirs obligations towards the receiving state. Finally, chapter seven consists of the explanation of the customary law, especially diplomatic law, in Polish legal order according to the inner sources of law, judicial decisions and doctrine.The results of analysis described in the present doctoral dissertation allows to draw conclusions concerning articles of the Vienna Convention of 1961, and identify whether they are the result of the codification of the customary diplomatic law, or the proposition of the International Law Commission influencing the progressive development of international law. At the end of the work, the general conclusions has been presented.

碩士
國立成功大學
法律學系
100
The motive of discussing the topic “diplomatic immunities” in this thesis is caused by the dispute about diplomatic immunities in Jacqueline Liu’s case where Liu, the Director General of the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Kansas City, was arrested by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for her violating a U.S. federal law in hiring a Filipino housekeeper. In this thesis, in the light of international law, we will try to discuss this issue whether Taiwan’s representatives are qualified to enjoy the immunity treatment as diplomats since Taiwan is regarded as a political entity that meets the requirements of a state but only lacks the recognition of the international society. We will study this issue from Taiwan Relations Act—a brand-new law field which is not an international law but seems to be an international law. In 1979, the United States government terminated its official relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) and enacted Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) in the form of domestic law, which treats Taiwan as a legal position of a foreign state and endows Taiwan with the immunity treatment that diplomats enjoy in international law (regulated in Sec. 10 (c) of TRA). The United States’ TRA mold can solve not only the problem of Taiwan’s international legal personality but also the problem of China’s interference. Facing the dilemma of diplomatic relations, Taiwan tries to establish flexible foreign relations with the countries who do not establish official relations with Taiwan according to TRA mold and to sign an immunity treatment agreement with them. However, most of the countries are merely willing to sign an immunity treatment agreement in the name of nongovernmental institute with Taiwan, instead of an international treaty, considering international relations. Such an immunity treatment agreement is located in the position of “ordinance” in Taiwan’s domestic law, which can’t change the regulations of “statute” or limit the people’s right to institute legal actions regulated in Article 16 of the Constitution because diplomatic immunities refer to the immunity of judicial jurisdiction. Therefore, this thesis will discuss the theories and evidence of international law for Taiwan’s diplomatic immunities, and the related problems about the diplomatic immunities applied in TRA. In addition, we will give some suggestions for our country to treat the immunity treatment agreements or other agreements signed by the countries who have no official relations with Taiwan as high as international treaties. If so, these agreements won’t be lowered as nongovernmental contracts to cause international disputes or fail to seek the administrative proceeding remedy from the court, and our courts can apply the regulations of these agreements without the problem of law conflict.

My dissertation examines racial power dynamics and whiteness in a previously all-white suburban school district that is now home to a very racially, ethnically, religiously, and linguistically diverse population. Specifically, I explore how white parents make sense of and respond to changing racial demographics in their community and the extent to which whites maintain privilege and power as they comprise a declining proportion of the community population overall. In light of the current political and social context in the U.S that has accompanied demographic change, there is a great need to critically examine the racial ideologies of whites as they relate ongoing structures of inequality, particularly in suburban areas that are previous centers of white isolation and modern epicenters of demographic change. Using a multi-modal case study methodology, I found that in this particular suburban context, where residents of color possessed similar or greater levels of income and education than white residents, and students of color performed at similar levels as white students in the public schools, dominant ideologies that associated whiteness with superiority and goodness persisted and led some white parents to flee the changing community and schools. Moreover, despite the increasingly small proportion of whites in the community and schools, white parents and residents were able to leverage their racial privilege and status in ways that reasserted and maintained unequal racial power relations in Parkwood through school district policies and practices. This research highlights the often invisible and under-examined ways in which white interests are continuously centered and served in ways that reproduce structures of racism in the “post-racial” era. Overall, the findings from this study contradict dominant colorblind narratives and point to the many ways in which whiteness operates, often in surreptitious ways, to maintain the racial status quo and exert social control over people of color even in contexts in which logic might imply that the power and privilege associated with whiteness would be threatened.

Peacekeeping sex, or sex between peacekeepers and local people, is a long-standing and serious issue, and its current regulation is fraught and unsatisfactory. The United Nations (UN) has shifted from an unofficial 'boys will be boys' approach in Cambodia in the early 1990s to the current 'zero tolerance' policy that prohibits sexual exploitation and abuse. Until recently, the peacekeeping literature largely ignored the issue of peacekeeping sex. The academic literature is split between supporting the zero tolerance approach and critiquing the policy's over-inclusiveness, problems with enforcement and unintended consequences. This thesis asks how peacekeeping sex can be better regulated and proposes a feminist regulatory framework that uses regulatory tools to make international law more responsive and effective in achieving feminist objectives. This thesis differs from other studies of peacekeeping sex by examining international law from a regulatory perspective. Responsive regulation sees law as one of a range of regulatory options and envisages a broader range of regulatory mechanisms and actors than a state-centric view of law. A regulatory perspective involves evaluating the capacity of international law for setting standards, monitoring compliance and enforcement through a discussion of jurisdiction, immunity and the responsibility of states and international organisations. The thesis assesses whether regulatory tools, such as the zero tolerance policy, advance feminist objectives by highlighting the extent to which local women are empowered or disenfranchised by particular regulatory regimes. Unlike other studies of peacekeeping sex, this thesis also considers sex between private military contractors and humanitarian non-government organisation (NGO) workers, who increasingly act as subcontractors and partners in UN peace operations. The discussion of legal and policy regulation is grounded in three case studies of how the regulation of peacekeeping sex operates in practice. The first case study considers private military contractors employed by the private military security company, DynCorp, who participated in and benefitted from the trafficking of women into the Bosnian sex industry in the late 1990s-early 2000s. The second case study looks at humanitarian NGO workers who exchanged aid for sex with teenage girls in refugee camps in West Africa in 2002. The third study, of UN peacekeepers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2004, highlights the unenforceability of the UN zero tolerance policy on sexual exploitation and abuse. All the case studies point to problems of irrelevance, incoherence and non-responsiveness in the current regulatory regime for peacekeeping sex. The thesis concludes by suggesting ways in which law can be made more effective and responsive to feminist concerns through coupling it with non-legal regulatory mechanisms. These include building on developments in regulating NGOs and private military security companies, such as peer review and reporting mechanisms, and more traditional means at international law, such as the development of new treaties and amendment of existing treaties. Peacekeeping sex highlights the need for new ways of including non-state actors in international law, as both the subjects and objects ofregulation. The thesis also indicates the potential for greater engagement between international law and regulatory theory, as well as between feminist theory and regulation.

Change is a significant feature of modern day living, and how individuals adapt to change is itself a legitimate field of research. Where, however, the ostensible change is dramatic, the personal and economic costs of the failure to adapt can be especially high. This study investigates the factors which may impede or facilitate the duration and intensity of the transition to civilian life, made by a large number of men (N=962) who, after serving a minimum of six years (mean = 19.7 years), left the Australian Defence Forces during the years 1981, 1982 and 1983. Five areas or aspects of change within this transition were identified. These were the securing of congenial employment; the sorting out of finances and obtaining suitable accommodation; the settling of the family and the self into the civilian environment. Blocks of variables (factors) which were considered to have an effect, for better or for worse, on the transition were regressed separately on variables concerned with the duration of the transition in each of the five areas of change above, on the perceived intensity of the transition process, and on the degree of felt comfort in present work and civilian roles. These factors included (1) prior socialisation and residual socialisation effects; (2) intentional changes made contiguously with the transition and the impact of life events on individuals during the transition; (3) the potential of social support in ameliorating the effects of the transition; (4) physical and psychological health; (5) personality factors, including coping mechanisms, self esteem, self image and locus of control; and (6) work related variables. There was support for the hypotheses that suggested that too much change, whether volitional or as a result of life events prolonged and intensified the transition and reduced the degree of comfort in civilian life. Social support, contrary to expectations, was associated with a longer time to complete transition tasks and with an intensification of the transition process. The suggestion that social support acts as a buffer against stress was not accepted. Physical health variables played little role in affecting the course or the outcomes of the transition. It was shown that transitions are stressful, and that poor self esteem and poor self image are associated with higher levels of stress, a more prolonged and intense transition and decreased comfort in civilian roles. There were a number of barriers identified in facilitating the entry into civilian work. Major findings concluded that those respondents who missed the life in the armed forces, who perceived that the shift into civilian life incurred tremendous losses took a great deal longer to complete the transition, experienced the transition more acutely and found it difficult to be comfortable in civilian roles. Those respondents who believed t.'1.at the transition was out of their control, who were unable or failed to accept the challenges and opportunities offered by their transition experienced considerable problems in making the transition. A mere general model of transition is sketched out. The implications of the model, the limitations of the research, issues and directions of future research conclude the final chapter.