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Journal articles on the topic 'Diplomonaden'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 6 February 2022

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1

Kolisko, Martin, Ivan Cepicka, Vladimír Hampl, Jaroslav Kulda, and Jaroslav Flegr. "The phylogenetic position of enteromonads: a challenge for the present models of diplomonad evolution." International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 55, no. 4 (July 1, 2005): 1729–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.63542-0.

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Unikaryotic enteromonads and diplokaryotic diplomonads have been regarded as closely related protozoan groups. It has been proposed that diplomonads originated within enteromonads in a single event of karyomastigont duplication. This paper presents the first study to address these questions using molecular phylogenetics. The sequences of the small-subunit rRNA genes for three isolates of enteromonads were determined and a tree constructed with available diplomonad, retortamonad and Carpediemonas sequences. The diplomonad sequences formed two main groups, with the genus Giardia on one side and the genera Spironucleus, Hexamita and Trepomonas on the other. The three enteromonad sequences formed a clade robustly situated within the diplomonads, a position inconsistent with the original evolutionary proposal. The topology of the tree indicates either that the diplokaryotic cell of diplomonads arose several times independently, or that the monokaryotic cell of enteromonads originated by secondary reduction from the diplokaryotic state.

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2

Jiménez-González, Alejandro, and Jan O. Andersson. "Metabolic Reconstruction Elucidates the Lifestyle of the Last Diplomonadida Common Ancestor." mSystems 5, no. 6 (December 22, 2020): e00774-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/msystems.00774-20.

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ABSTRACTThe identification of ancestral traits is essential to understanding the evolution of any group. In the case of parasitic groups, this helps us understand the adaptation to this lifestyle and a particular host. Most diplomonads are parasites, but there are free-living members of the group nested among the host-associated diplomonads. Furthermore, most of the close relatives within Fornicata are free-living organisms. This leaves the lifestyle of the ancestor unclear. Here, we present metabolic maps of four different diplomonad species. We identified 853 metabolic reactions and 147 pathways present in at least one of the analyzed diplomonads. Our study suggests that diplomonads represent a metabolically diverse group in which differences correlate with different environments (e.g., the detoxification of arsenic). Using a parsimonious analysis, we also provide a description of the putative metabolism of the last Diplomonadida common ancestor. Our results show that the acquisition and loss of reactions have shaped metabolism since this common ancestor. There is a net loss of reaction in all branches leading to parasitic diplomonads, suggesting an ongoing reduction in the metabolic capacity. Important traits present in host-associated diplomonads (e.g., virulence factors and the synthesis of UDP-N-acetyl-d-galactosamine) are shared with free-living relatives. The last Diplomonadida common ancestor most likely already had acquired important enzymes for the salvage of nucleotides and had a reduced capacity to synthesize nucleotides, lipids, and amino acids de novo, suggesting that it was an obligate host-associated organism.IMPORTANCE Diplomonads are a group of microbial eukaryotes found in oxygen-poor environments. There are both parasitic (e.g., Giardia intestinalis) and free-living (e.g., Trepomonas) members in the group. Diplomonads are well known for their anaerobic metabolism, which has been studied for many years. Here, we reconstructed whole metabolic networks of four extant diplomonad species as well as their ancestors, using a bioinformatics approach. We show that the metabolism within the group is under constant change throughout evolutionary time, in response to the environments that the different lineages explore. Both gene losses and gains are responsible for the adaptation processes. Interestingly, it appears that the last Diplomonadida common ancestor had a metabolism that is more similar to extant parasitic than free-living diplomonads. This suggests that the host-associated lifestyle of parasitic diplomonads, such as the human parasite G. intestinalis, is an old evolutionary adaptation.

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3

William Roy, Scott. "Transcriptomic analysis of diplomonad parasites reveals a trans-spliced intron in a helicase gene in Giardia." PeerJ 5 (January 5, 2017): e2861. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2861.

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Background The mechanisms by which DNA sequences are expressed is the central preoccupation of molecular genetics. Recently, ourselves and others reported that in the diplomonad protist Giardia lamblia, the coding regions of several mRNAs are produced by ligation of independent RNA species expressed from distinct genomic loci. Such trans-splicing of introns was found to affect nearly as many genes in this organism as does classical cis-splicing of introns. These findings raised questions about the incidence of intron trans-splicing both across the G. lambliatranscriptome and across diplomonad diversity in general, however a dearth of transcriptomic data at the time prohibited systematic study of these questions. Methods I leverage newly available transcriptomic data from G. lamblia and the related diplomonad Spironucleus salmonicidato search for trans-spliced introns. My computational pipeline recovers all four previously reported trans-spliced introns in G. lamblia, suggesting good sensitivity. Results Scrutiny of thousands of potential cases revealed only a single additional trans-spliced intron in G. lamblia, in the p68 helicase gene, and no cases in S. salmonicida. The p68 intron differs from the previously reported trans-spliced introns in its high degree of streamlining: the core features of G. lamblia trans-spliced introns are closely packed together, revealing striking economy in the implementation of a seemingly inherently uneconomical molecular mechanism. Discussion These results serve to circumscribe the role of trans-splicing in diplomonads both in terms of the number of genes effected and taxonomically. Future work should focus on the molecular mechanisms, evolutionary origins and phenotypic implications of this intriguing phenomenon.

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4

Jiménez-González, Alejandro, Feifei Xu, and Jan O. Andersson. "Lateral Acquisitions Repeatedly Remodel the Oxygen Detoxification Pathway in Diplomonads and Relatives." Genome Biology and Evolution 11, no. 9 (September 1, 2019): 2542–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evz188.

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Abstract Oxygen and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important stress factors for cells because they can oxidize many large molecules. Fornicata, a group of flagellated protists that includes diplomonads, have anaerobic metabolism but are still able to tolerate fluctuating levels of oxygen. We identified 25 protein families putatively involved in detoxification of oxygen and ROS in this group using a bioinformatics approach and propose how these interact in an oxygen detoxification pathway. These protein families were divided into a central oxygen detoxification pathway and accessory pathways for the synthesis of nonprotein thiols. We then used a phylogenetic approach to investigate the evolutionary origin of the components of this putative pathway in Diplomonadida and other Fornicata species. Our analyses suggested that the diplomonad ancestor was adapted to low-oxygen levels, was able to reduce O2 to H2O in a manner similar to extant diplomonads, and was able to synthesize glutathione and l-cysteine. Several genes involved in the pathway have complex evolutionary histories and have apparently been repeatedly acquired through lateral gene transfer and subsequently lost. At least seven genes were acquired independently in different Fornicata lineages, leading to evolutionary convergences. It is likely that acquiring these oxygen detoxification proteins helped anaerobic organisms (like the parasitic Giardia intestinalis) adapt to low-oxygen environments (such as the digestive tract of aerobic hosts).

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5

Jerlström-Hultqvist, Jon, Elin Einarsson, and Staffan G. Svärd. "Stable Transfection of the Diplomonad Parasite Spironucleus salmonicida." Eukaryotic Cell 11, no. 11 (September 14, 2012): 1353–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00179-12.

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ABSTRACT Eukaryotic microbes are highly diverse, and many lineages remain poorly studied. One such lineage, the diplomonads, a group of binucleate heterotrophic flagellates, has been studied mainly due to the impact of Giardia intestinalis , an intestinal, diarrhea-causing parasite in humans and animals. Here we describe the development of a stable transfection system for use in Spironucleus salmonicida , a diplomonad that causes systemic spironucleosis in salmonid fish. We designed vectors in cassette format carrying epitope tags for localization (3×HA [where HA is hemagglutinin], 2× Escherichia coli OmpF linker and mouse langerin fusion sequence [2×OLLAS], 3×MYC) and purification of proteins (2× Strep-Tag II–FLAG tandem-affinity purification tag or streptavidin binding peptide–glutathione S -transferase [SBP-GST]) under the control of native or constitutive promoters. Three selectable gene markers, puromycin acetyltransferase ( pac ), blasticidin S -deaminase ( bsr ), and neomycin phosphotransferase ( nptII ), were successfully applied for the generation of stable transfectants. Site-specific integration on the S. salmonicida chromosome was shown to be possible using the bsr resistance gene. We epitope tagged six proteins and confirmed their expression by Western blotting. Next, we demonstrated the utility of these vectors by recording the subcellular localizations of the six proteins by laser scanning confocal microscopy. Finally, we described the creation of an S. salmonicida double transfectant suitable for colocalization studies. The transfection system described herein and the imminent completion of the S. salmonicida genome will make it possible to use comparative genomics as an investigative tool to explore specific, as well as general, diplomonad traits, benefiting research on both Giardia and Spironucleu s.

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6

Andersson, Jan O., and Andrew J. Roger. "Evolutionary Analyses of the Small Subunit of Glutamate Synthase: Gene Order Conservation, Gene Fusions, and Prokaryote-to- Eukaryote Lateral Gene Transfers." Eukaryotic Cell 1, no. 2 (April 2002): 304–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.1.2.304-310.2002.

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ABSTRACT Lateral gene transfer has been identified as an important mode of genome evolution within prokaryotes. Except for the special case of gene transfer from organelle genomes to the eukaryotic nucleus, only a few cases of lateral gene transfer involving eukaryotes have been described. Here we present phylogenetic and gene order analyses on the small subunit of glutamate synthase (encoded by gltD) and its homologues, including the large subunit of sulfide dehydrogenase (encoded by sudA). The scattered distribution of the sudA and sudB gene pair and the phylogenetic analysis strongly suggest that lateral gene transfer was involved in the propagation of the genes in the three domains of life. One of these transfers most likely occurred between a prokaryote and an ancestor of diplomonad protists. Furthermore, phylogenetic analyses indicate that the gene for the small subunit of glutamate synthase was transferred from a low-GC gram-positive bacterium to a common ancestor of animals, fungi, and plants. Interestingly, in both examples, the eukaryotes encode a single gene that corresponds to a conserved operon structure in prokaryotes. Our analyses, together with several recent publications, show that lateral gene transfers from prokaryotes to unicellular eukaryotes occur with appreciable frequency. In the case of the genes for sulfide dehydrogenase, the transfer affected only a limited group of eukaryotes—the diplomonads—while the transfer of the glutamate synthase gene probably happened earlier in evolution and affected a wider range of eukaryotes.

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7

Andersson, Jan O. "Double peaks reveal rare diplomonad sex." Trends in Parasitology 28, no. 2 (February 2012): 46–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2011.11.002.

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8

Markovic, Maja, Marina Radojicic, Nemanja Zdravkovic, Marko Lazic, and Ksenija Aksentijevic. "Diplomonad caused infection in aquarium fish in Serbia." Veterinarski glasnik 70, no. 3-4 (2016): 79–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/vetgl1604079m.

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Although commensals in digestive tract of a large number of fish species, diplomonads represent very significant opportunistic pathogens. For so far unknown reasons, they can proliferate uncontrollably and thus cause changes in the skin and internal organs in aquarium fish. The problem is confusion over nomenclature of the two most important genera: Spironucleus i Hexamita. Aquarium fish species in which there were diagnosed changes in the skin caused by diplomonads were: Microgeophagus ramirezi, Apistogramma cacatuoides, Apistogramma nijsseni, Symphysodon aequifasciatus, Pterophyllum altum, Archocentrus nigrofasciatus, Pelvicachromis pulcher i Labidochromis caruleus. The fish were treated with 250 mg tablets of metronizadole dissolved in water, or metronizadole in a concentration of 6.6 mg per liter of water. The treatment was successful in only 9 out of 45 treated fish. In the others the symptoms reappeared after certain time. It is necessary to determine the prevalence of the infection in aquarium fish in Serbia, and also examine the success of the treatment with metronizadole applied in food or even other possibilities of the treatment.

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9

MILLET, CORALIE O. M., JOANNE CABLE, and DAVID LLOYD. "The Diplomonad Fish Parasite Spironucleus vortens Produces Hydrogen." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 57, no. 5 (August 17, 2010): 400–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2010.00499.x.

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10

Lloyd, David, and Catrin F. Williams. "Comparative biochemistry of Giardia, Hexamita and Spironucleus: Enigmatic diplomonads." Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 197, no. 1-2 (October 2014): 43–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.10.002.

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11

Poynton, S. L., and E. Sterud. "Guidelines for species descriptions of diplomonad flagellates from fish." Journal of Fish Diseases 25, no. 1 (January 2002): 15–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2761.2002.00331.x.

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12

Nohýnková, Eva, Pavla Tůmová, and Jaroslav Kulda. "Cell Division of Giardia intestinalis: Flagellar Developmental Cycle Involves Transformation and Exchange of Flagella between Mastigonts of a Diplomonad Cell." Eukaryotic Cell 5, no. 4 (April 2006): 753–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.5.4.753-761.2006.

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ABSTRACT Giardia intestinalis is a binucleated diplomonad possessing four pairs of flagella of distinct location and function. Its pathogenic potential depends on the integrity of a complex microtubular cytoskeleton that undergoes a profound but poorly understood reorganization during cell division. We examined the cell division of G. intestinalis with the aid of light and electron microscopy and immunofluorescence methods and present here new observations on the reorganization of the flagellar apparatus in the dividing Giardia. Our results demonstrated the presence of a flagellar maturation process during which the flagella migrate, assume different position, and transform to different flagellar types in progeny until their maturation is completed. For each newly assembled flagellum it takes three cell cycles to become mature. The mature flagellum of Giardia is the caudal one that possesses a privileged basal body at which the microtubules of the adhesive disk nucleate. In contrast to generally accepted assumption that each of the two diplomonad mastigonts develops separately, we found that they are developmentally linked, exchanging their cytoskeletal components at the early phase of mitosis. The presence of the flagellar maturation process in a metamonad protist Giardia suggests that the basal body or centriole maturation is a universal phenomenon that may represent one of the core processes in a eukaryotic cell.

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13

Poynton, Sarah L., Lauren Ostrenga, and Kenneth W. Witwer. "Swarming and Aggregation in the Parasitic Diplomonad Flagellate Spironucleus vortens." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 66, no. 4 (November 23, 2018): 545–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jeu.12695.

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14

Millet, Coralie O. M., Catrin F. Williams, Anthony J. Hayes, Anthony C. Hann, Joanne Cable, and David Lloyd. "Mitochondria-derived organelles in the diplomonad fish parasite Spironucleus vortens." Experimental Parasitology 135, no. 2 (October 2013): 262–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2013.07.003.

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15

Keeling, P. J., and W. F. Doolittle. "Widespread and ancient distribution of a noncanonical genetic code in diplomonads." Molecular Biology and Evolution 14, no. 9 (September 1, 1997): 895–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025832.

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16

Andersson, J. O. "Gene Transfers from Nanoarchaeota to an Ancestor of Diplomonads and Parabasalids." Molecular Biology and Evolution 22, no. 1 (September 8, 2004): 85–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msh254.

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17

Kolisko, Martin, Ivan Cepicka, Vladimir Hampl, Jessica Leigh, Andrew J. Roger, Jaroslav Kulda, Alastair GB Simpson, and Jaroslav Flegr. "Molecular phylogeny of diplomonads and enteromonads based on SSU rRNA, alpha-tubulin and HSP90 genes: Implications for the evolutionary history of the double karyomastigont of diplomonads." BMC Evolutionary Biology 8, no. 1 (2008): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-8-205.

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18

BRINGAUD, F., C. EBIKEME, and M. BOSHART. "Acetate and succinate production in amoebae, helminths, diplomonads, trichomonads and trypanosomatids: common and diverse metabolic strategies used by parasitic lower eukaryotes." Parasitology 137, no. 9 (December 23, 2009): 1315–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182009991843.

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SUMMARYParasites that often grow anaerobically in their hosts have adopted a fermentative strategy relying on the production of partially oxidized end products, including lactate, glycerol, ethanol, succinate and acetate. This review focuses on recent progress in understanding acetate production in protist parasites, such as amoebae, diplomonads, trichomonads, trypanosomatids and in the metazoan parasites helminths, as well as the succinate production pathway(s) present in some of them. We also describe the unconventional organisation of the tricarboxylic acid cycle associated with the fermentative strategy adopted by the procyclic trypanosomes, which may resemble the probable structure of the primordial TCA cycle in prokaryotes.

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19

Williams, Catrin F., Coralie O. M. Millet, Anthony J. Hayes, Joanne Cable, and David Lloyd. "Diversity in mitochondrion-derived organelles of the parasitic diplomonads Spironucleus and Giardia." Trends in Parasitology 29, no. 7 (July 2013): 311–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2013.04.004.

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20

Emery-Corbin, Samantha J., Joshua J. Hamey, Brendan R. E. Ansell, Balu Balan, Swapnil Tichkule, Andreas J. Stroehlein, Crystal Cooper, et al. "Eukaryote-Conserved Methylarginine Is Absent in Diplomonads and Functionally Compensated in Giardia." Molecular Biology and Evolution 37, no. 12 (July 23, 2020): 3525–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa186.

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Abstract Methylation is a common posttranslational modification of arginine and lysine in eukaryotic proteins. Methylproteomes are best characterized for higher eukaryotes, where they are functionally expanded and evolved complex regulation. However, this is not the case for protist species evolved from the earliest eukaryotic lineages. Here, we integrated bioinformatic, proteomic, and drug-screening data sets to comprehensively explore the methylproteome of Giardia duodenalis—a deeply branching parasitic protist. We demonstrate that Giardia and related diplomonads lack arginine-methyltransferases and have remodeled conserved RGG/RG motifs targeted by these enzymes. We also provide experimental evidence for methylarginine absence in proteomes of Giardia but readily detect methyllysine. We bioinformatically infer 11 lysine-methyltransferases in Giardia, including highly diverged Su(var)3-9, Enhancer-of-zeste and Trithorax proteins with reduced domain architectures, and novel annotations demonstrating conserved methyllysine regulation of eukaryotic elongation factor 1 alpha. Using mass spectrometry, we identify more than 200 methyllysine sites in Giardia, including in species-specific gene families involved in cytoskeletal regulation, enriched in coiled-coil features. Finally, we use known methylation inhibitors to show that methylation plays key roles in replication and cyst formation in this parasite. This study highlights reduced methylation enzymes, sites, and functions early in eukaryote evolution, including absent methylarginine networks in the Diplomonadida. These results challenge the view that arginine methylation is eukaryote conserved and demonstrate that functional compensation of methylarginine was possible preceding expansion and diversification of these key networks in higher eukaryotes.

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21

Biagini, Giancarlo A., Andrew J. Rutter, Bland J. Finlay, and David Lloyd. "Lipids and lipid metabolism in the microaerobic free-living diplomonad Hexamita sp." European Journal of Protistology 34, no. 2 (June 1998): 148–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0932-4739(98)80025-4.

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22

Andersson, Jan O., Åsa M. Sjögren, Lesley A. M. Davis, T. Martin Embley, and Andrew J. Roger. "Phylogenetic Analyses of Diplomonad Genes Reveal Frequent Lateral Gene Transfers Affecting Eukaryotes." Current Biology 13, no. 2 (January 2003): 94–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0960-9822(03)00003-4.

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23

Lloyd, David, Iwan B. Lewis, Catrin F. Williams, Anthony J. Hayes, Hannah Symons, and Edward C. Hill. "Motility of the diplomonad fish parasite Spironucleus vortens through thixotropic solid media." Microbiology 161, no. 1 (January 1, 2015): 213–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.082529-0.

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24

BIAGINI, GIANCARLO A., MARC T. E. SULLER, BLAND J. FINLAY, and DAVID LLOYD. "Oxygen Uptake and Antioxidant Responses of the Free-Living Diplomonad Hexamita sp." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 44, no. 5 (September 1997): 447–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1997.tb05722.x.

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25

Roxström-Lindquist, Katarina, Jon Jerlström-Hultqvist, Anders Jørgensen, Karin Troell, Staffan G. Svärd, and Jan O. Andersson. "Large genomic differences between the morphologically indistinguishable diplomonads Spironucleus barkhanus and Spironucleus salmonicida." BMC Genomics 11, no. 1 (2010): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-11-258.

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26

Müller, Joachim, Manfred Heller, Anne-Christine Uldry, Sophie Braga, and Norbert Müller. "Nitroreductase Activites in Giardia lamblia: ORF 17150 Encodes a Quinone Reductase with Nitroreductase Activity." Pathogens 10, no. 2 (January 27, 2021): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020129.

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The intestinal diplomonadid Giardia lamblia is a causative agent of persistent diarrhea. Current treatments are based on nitro drugs, especially metronidazole. Nitro compounds are activated by reduction, yielding toxic intermediates. The enzymatic systems responsible for this activation are not completely understood. By fractionating cell free crude extracts by size exclusion chromatography followed by mass spectrometry, enzymes with nitroreductase (NR) activities are identified. The protein encoded by ORF 17150 found in two pools with NR activities is overexpressed and characterized. In pools of fractions with main NR activities, previously-known NRs are identified, as well as a previously uncharacterized protein encoded by ORF 17150. Recombinant protein 17150 is a flavoprotein with NADPH-dependent quinone reductase and NR activities. Besides a set of previously identified NRs, we have identified a novel enzyme with NR activity.

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27

Biagini, Giancarlo A., Jeong H. Park, Michael R. Edwards, and David Lloyd. "The antioxidant potential of pyruvate in the amitochondriate diplomonads Giardia intestinalis and Hexamita inflata." Microbiology 147, no. 12 (December 1, 2001): 3359–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/00221287-147-12-3359.

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Branke, Jürgen, Manfred Berchtold, Alfred Breunig, Helmut König, and Jörg Reimann. "16S-like rDNA sequence and phylogenetic position of the diplomonad Spironucleus muris (Lavier 1936)." European Journal of Protistology 32, no. 2 (May 1996): 227–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0932-4739(96)80022-8.

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DIMOPOULOS, MARY, ALDO S. BAGNARA, and MICHAEL R. EDWARDS. "Characterisation and Sequence Analysis of a Carbamate Kinase Gene from the Diplomonad Hexamita inflata1." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 47, no. 5 (September 2000): 499–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2000.tb00081.x.

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30

Boggild, A., C. Sundermann, and B. Estridge. "Post-translational glutamylation and tyrosination in tubulin of tritrichomonads and the diplomonad Giardia intestinalis." Parasitology Research 88, no. 1 (January 2002): 58–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004360100498.

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Tůmová, Pavla, Klára Hofštetrová, Eva Nohýnková, Ondřej Hovorka, and Jiří Král. "Cytogenetic evidence for diversity of two nuclei within a single diplomonad cell of Giardia." Chromosoma 116, no. 1 (November 4, 2006): 65–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00412-006-0082-4.

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32

Dawson, Scott C., Jonathan K. Pham, Susan A. House, Elizabeth E. Slawson, Daniela Cronembold, and W. Zacheus Cande. "Stable transformation of an episomal protein-tagging shuttle vector in the piscine diplomonad Spironucleus vortens." BMC Microbiology 8, no. 1 (2008): 71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-8-71.

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Jorgensen, Anders, Anders Alfjorden, Kristin Henriksen, and Erik Sterud. "Phylogenetic analysis of the SSU rRNA gene from the piscine diplomonad Spironucleus torosus (Diplomonadida: Hexamitinae)." Folia Parasitologica 54, no. 4 (December 1, 2007): 277–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.14411/fp.2007.036.

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34

Takishita, Kiyotaka, Martin Kolisko, Hiroshi Komatsuzaki, Akinori Yabuki, Yuji Inagaki, Ivan Cepicka, Pavla Smejkalová, et al. "Multigene Phylogenies of Diverse Carpediemonas-like Organisms Identify the Closest Relatives of ‘Amitochondriate’ Diplomonads and Retortamonads." Protist 163, no. 3 (May 2012): 344–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.protis.2011.12.007.

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Füssy, Zoltán, Martina Vinopalová, Sebastian Cristian Treitli, Tomáš Pánek, Pavla Smejkalová, Ivan Čepička, Pavel Doležal, and Vladimír Hampl. "Retortamonads from vertebrate hosts share features of anaerobic metabolism and pre-adaptations to parasitism with diplomonads." Parasitology International 82 (June 2021): 102308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2021.102308.

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36

BUCHMANN, KURT. "Impact and control of protozoan parasites in maricultured fishes." Parasitology 142, no. 1 (March 1, 2013): 168–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003118201300005x.

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SUMMARYAquaculture, including both freshwater and marine production, has on a world scale exhibited one of the highest growth rates within animal protein production during recent decades and is expected to expand further at the same rate within the next 10 years. Control of diseases is one of the most prominent challenges if this production goal is to be reached. Apart from viral, bacterial, fungal and metazoan infections it has been documented that protozoan parasites affect health and welfare and thereby production of fish in marine aquaculture. Representatives within the main protozoan groups such as amoebae, dinoflagellates, kinetoplastid flagellates, diplomonadid flagellates, apicomplexans, microsporidians and ciliates have been shown to cause severe morbidity and mortality among farmed fish. Well studied examples are Neoparamoeba perurans, Amyloodinium ocellatum, Spironucleus salmonicida, Ichthyobodo necator, Cryptobia salmositica, Loma salmonae, Cryptocaryon irritans, Miamiensis avidus and Trichodina jadranica. The present report provides details on the parasites’ biology and impact on productivity and evaluates tools for diagnosis, control and management. Special emphasis is placed on antiprotozoan immune responses in fish and a strategy for development of vaccines is presented.

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Han, Jian, and Lesley J. Collins. "Reconstruction of Sugar Metabolic Pathways of Giardia lamblia." International Journal of Proteomics 2012 (October 18, 2012): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/980829.

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Giardia lamblia is an “important” pathogen of humans, but as a diplomonad excavate it is evolutionarily distant from other eukaryotes and relatively little is known about its core metabolic pathways. KEGG, the widely referenced site for providing information of metabolism, does not yet include many enzymes from Giardia species. Here we identify Giardia’s core sugar metabolism using standard bioinformatic approaches. By comparing Giardia proteomes with known enzymes from other species, we have identified enzymes in the glycolysis pathway, as well as some enzymes involved in the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. However, the majority of enzymes from the latter two pathways were not identifiable, indicating the likely absence of these functionalities. We have also found enzymes from the Giardia glycolysis pathway that appear more similar to those from bacteria. Because these enzymes are different from those found in mammals, the host organisms for Giardia, we raise the possibility that these bacteria-like enzymes could be novel drug targets for treating Giardia infections.

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Wu-han, Xiao, and Li Lian-xiang. "A light and transmission electron microscopic study ofHexamite capsularis sp. nov. (Diplomonadina: Hexamitidae) in fish (Xenocypris dividi)." Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology 12, no. 3 (September 1994): 208–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02845165.

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Mondal, Pradip. "Therapeutic Effects of Metronidazole Benzoate in Combination With Melatonin in Diplomonad Parasite Infection on Anabas testudineus." Bioscience Biotechnology Research Communications 13, no. 4 (December 25, 2020): 1993–2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.21786/bbrc/13.4/54.

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Silberman, Jeffrey D., Alastair G. B. Simpson, Jaroslav Kulda, Ivan Cepicka, Vladimir Hampl, Patricia J. Johnson, and Andrew J. Roger. "Retortamonad Flagellates are Closely Related to Diplomonads—Implications for the History of Mitochondrial Function in Eukaryote Evolution." Molecular Biology and Evolution 19, no. 5 (May 1, 2002): 777–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004135.

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41

Biagini, Giancarlo A., Peter S. McIntyre, Bland J. Finlay, and David Lloyd. "Carbohydrate and Amino Acid Fermentation in the Free-Living Primitive Protozoon Hexamita sp." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64, no. 1 (January 1, 1998): 203–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.64.1.203-207.1998.

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ABSTRACT Hexamita sp. is an amitochondriate free-living diplomonad which inhabits O2-limited environments, such as the deep waters and sediments of lakes and marine basins.13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy reveals ethanol, lactate, acetate, and alanine as products of glucose fermentation under microaerobic conditions (23 to 34 μM O2). Propionic acid and butyric acid were also detected and are believed to be the result of fermentation of alternative substrates. Production of organic acids was greatest under microaerobic conditions (15 μM O2) and decreased under anaerobic (<0.25 μM O2) and aerobic (200 to 250 μM O2) conditions. Microaerobic incubation resulted in the production of high levels of oxidized end products (70% acetate) compared to that produced under anoxic conditions (20% acetate). In addition, data suggest that Hexamita cells contain the arginine dihydrolase pathway, generating energy from the catabolism of arginine to citrulline, ornithine, NH4 +, and CO2. The rate of arginine catabolism was higher under anoxic conditions than under microaerobic conditions.Hexamita cells were able to grow in the absence of a carbohydrate source, albeit with a lower growth rate and yield.

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PARK, JONG SOO, MARTIN KOLISKO, AARON A. HEISS, and ALASTAIR G. B. SIMPSON. "Light Microscopic Observations, Ultrastructure, and Molecular Phylogeny ofHicanonectes teleskoposn. g., n. sp., a Deep-Branching Relative of Diplomonads." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 56, no. 4 (July 2009): 373–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2009.00412.x.

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PARK, JONG SOO, MARTIN KOLISKO, and ALASTAIR G. B. SIMPSON. "Cell Morphology and Formal Description of Ergobibamus cyprinoides n. g., n. sp., Another Carpediemonas-Like Relative of Diplomonads." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 57, no. 6 (September 28, 2010): 520–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2010.00506.x.

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Williams, C. F., D. Lloyd, D. Kolarich, K. Alagesan, M. Duchêne, J. Cable, D. Williams, and D. Leitsch. "Disrupted intracellular redox balance of the diplomonad fish parasite Spironucleus vortens by 5-nitroimidazoles and garlic-derived compounds." Veterinary Parasitology 190, no. 1-2 (November 2012): 62–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.05.011.

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Levy, M. G., L. V. Powers, K. C. Gore, and H. S. Marr. "Spironucleus meleagridis, an enteric diplomonad protozoan of cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus): Preliminary molecular characterization and association with clinical disease." Veterinary Parasitology 208, no. 3-4 (March 2015): 169–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.12.028.

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ROZARIO, CATHERINE, LOÏC MORIN, ANDREW J. ROGER, MICHAEL W. SMITH, and MIKLÓS MÜLLER. "Primary Structure and Phylogenetic Relationships of Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Genes of Free-Living and Parasitic Diplomonad Flagellates." Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 43, no. 4 (July 1996): 330–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1996.tb03997.x.

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Martincová, Eva, Luboš Voleman, Jan Pyrih, Vojtěch Žárský, Pavlína Vondráčková, Martin Kolísko, Jan Tachezy, and Pavel Doležal. "Probing the Biology of Giardia intestinalis Mitosomes UsingIn VivoEnzymatic Tagging." Molecular and Cellular Biology 35, no. 16 (June 8, 2015): 2864–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.00448-15.

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Giardia intestinalisparasites contain mitosomes, one of the simplest mitochondrion-related organelles. Strategies to identify the functions of mitosomes have been limited mainly to homology detection, which is not suitable for identifying species-specific proteins and their functions. Anin vivoenzymatic tagging technique based on theEscherichia colibiotin ligase (BirA) has been introduced toG. intestinalis; this method allows for the compartment-specific biotinylation of a protein of interest. Known proteins involved in the mitosomal protein import werein vivotagged, cross-linked, and used to copurify complexes from the outer and inner mitosomal membranes in a single step. New proteins were then identified by mass spectrometry. This approach enabled the identification of highly diverged mitosomal Tim44 (GiTim44), the first known component of the mitosomal inner membrane translocase (TIM). In addition, our subsequent bioinformatics searches returned novel diverged Tim44 paralogs, which mediate the translation and mitosomal insertion of mitochondrially encoded proteins in other eukaryotes. However, most of the identified proteins are specific toG. intestinalisand even absent from the related diplomonad parasiteSpironucleus salmonicida, thus reflecting the unique character of the mitosomal metabolism. Thein vivoenzymatic tagging also showed that proteins enter the mitosome posttranslationally in an unfolded state and without vesicular transport.

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Yubuki, Naoji, Sam S. C. Huang, and Brian S. Leander. "Comparative Ultrastructure of Fornicate Excavates, Including a Novel Free-living Relative of Diplomonads: Aduncisulcus paluster gen. et sp. nov." Protist 167, no. 6 (December 2016): 584–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.protis.2016.10.001.

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Yu, Li Zhi, C. William Birky, and Rodney D. Adam. "The Two Nuclei of Giardia Each Have Complete Copies of the Genome and Are Partitioned Equationally at Cytokinesis." Eukaryotic Cell 1, no. 2 (April 2002): 191–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.1.2.191-199.2002.

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ABSTRACT Giardia lamblia is medically important as a cause of diarrhea and malabsorption throughout the world and is thought to be one of the earliest-branching eukaryotes on a phylogenetic tree. Nevertheless, the mechanisms of inheritance are largely unknown. The trophozoites of Giardia and other diplomonads are interesting in their possession of two nuclei that are identical or similar in several respects. They replicate at nearly the same time, have similar quantities of DNA, and are both transcriptionally active. We used fluorescence in situ hybridization to demonstrate that genes from each of the five chromosomes are found in both nuclei, confirming that each nucleus has at least one complete copy of the genome. This raises a second question. The alleles of a gene in different nuclei are expected to accumulate different mutations, but surprisingly, the degree of heterozygosity in a clone is very low. One possible mechanism for eliminating sequence differences between nuclei is that each daughter cell receives two copies of the same nucleus at cell division. We used trophozoites with a plasmid transfected into a single nucleus to demonstrate that the two nuclei are partitioned equationally at cytokinesis. The mechanism(s) by which homozygosity is maintained will require further investigation.

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Millet, C. O. M., D. Lloyd, C. Williams, and J. Cable. "In vitro culture of the diplomonad fish parasite Spironucleus vortens reveals unusually fast doubling time and atypical biphasic growth." Journal of Fish Diseases 34, no. 1 (December 1, 2010): 71–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2761.2010.01213.x.

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