Journal articles on the topic 'Direct and Oblique translation techniques and borrowing in translation'

Translation is recognized to be one of the most challenging subjects for learners in second language departments. Knowing that these difficulties can be either dependent to the individual or the translation training, this study presents reasons why a translation teacher should introduce learners to translation techniques for better skills. In this regard, the paper aims at proposing the most frequently used translation techniques to second language learners, more specifically, to French-speaking students in English departments. The research draws on findings present in the existing literature. The translation techniques or procedures collected from previous studies can be presented into two types: direct translation procedures (borrowing, calque and literal translation), and indirect or oblique translation procedures (transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation). Three other techniques (compensation, amplification and omission) are also added to these seven basic procedures. Since languages can have internal characteristics that distinguish one from another, the study ends up inviting learners to pay attention to some particular features that distinguish French and English while translating.

<em>&nbsp;This article is about learning lexic and semantic translation of scientific medical documents. The information in this article will be used for improving the knowledge in the medical science</em>

The objectives of this research are to find the types and the most dominant type of translation procedures of English into Indonesian Subtitle in “English Vinglish” Movie. This research is descriptive qualitative research. The data of this study are the words, clauses, and sentences in the subtitle movie both English and Indonesian. Data source is taken from “English Vinglish” Movie. The data collection procedure in this research is document analysis. From the result, it shows that the translation procedures used in subtitle English Vinglish movie consist of direct translation and oblique translation. In direct translation, it consists of literal translation as 148 data or 34.89%, borrowing as 82 data or 20.39 %, and calque as 0 data or 0 %. While, in oblique translation consist of transposition as 76 data or 18.67 %, equivalence as 62 data or 15.23 %, modulation as 32 data or 7.86 %, and adaptation as 6 data or 1.47 %. The most dominant type of translation procedures of English into Indonesian Subtitle in “English Vinglish” Movie is in direct translation, especially in literal translation.&#x0D; Keywords: Subtitle, Translation, Translation Procedure

Translation is a complex process that ensures cross-cultural communication in the realm of literature and literary writings, translation has been used to educate and inform readers about other cultures and traditions. The source and target language English and Urdu respectively vary a great deal from each other therefore; the underlying differences between these languages become apparent contributing towards inevitable shifts in translation. This research comparatively analyses Elif Shafak’s novel Honour and its translation in Urdu done by Huma Anwar titled Namoos looking at oblique translation techniques such as: equivalence, transposition, modulation, and adaptation. This research analyses the various examples where these translational shifts are apparent and studies how they have an overall impact on the target text. This research is grounded in the theoretical framework postulated by Vinay and Darbelnet in their seminal work Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A methodology for translation (1958). Wherein, two main categories of translations have been identified: direct translation and oblique translation further classified as, direct translation and oblique translation. The study finds that translational shifts and techniques have been utilised by the translator to convey the intended meaning and message to the target audiences with minimal loss of essence.&#x0D; Keywords: Equivalence, Transposition, Modulation, Adaptation, Honour.&#x0D;

This study aims to analyze the linguistic features of three translated versions of Surah Ad Duha with the help of Vinay and Darbelnet's translation theory.The analysis is based on the seven translation procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet, which include transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation, borrowing, literal translation, and oblique translation.The study examines the translators approach which reveals the original linguistic and cultural choices made by the translators to convey the intended message. The study provides tactics of understanding and translating religious texts keeping in consideration the differences in linguistic and cultural features, the use of rhetorical devices, sentence structures, and word choices, and how they contribute to the overall meaning and message of religious textsfor distinct audience. The findings of this research can be used to enhance the understanding of the linguistic and literary aspects of the Qur'an, as well as provide insights into the translation of religious texts. Keywords: Surah Ad Duhaa; VinayDarnelnet model; Direct and Oblique method

Translating economic texts is a challenge for translators because they have to understand global economic dynamics and specific terms that are frequently not understood. This study discusses the procedures applied to translate economic terms in an economic text describing Indonesian capital market. The analyzed data were English economic terms from the online media Bloomberg, "S&amp;P 500 Suffers Worst 'Fed Day' Since January 2021: Markets Wrap" as the source text (ST) and their Indonesian translation as the target text (TT). This study aims to describe the application of translation procedures used by the first researcher as a translator, so that the approach of analysis is an annotated translation. The translation results are described and analyzed by considering the application of translation procedures which consist of direct translation consisting of borrowing, calque and literal translation, and oblique translation namely modulation, transposition, equivalence and adaptation. The findings show that through annotated translation, it can be identified that the most predominantly-applied procedure to translate economic terms is calque, which indicates the orientation towards the source language.

This study aimed to analyze the procedures involved in translating English adverbials of manner into Indonesian. The data were taken from a bilingual biography entitled "Against All Odds." A qualitative methodology was employed in this study. Additionally, the data were analyzed using the translation procedure theory proposed by Vinay and Dalbernet in Venuti (2010). The results of the data analysis are presented using a narrative approach and descriptive sentences. According to the findings of this study’s analysis, the English adverbials of manner can be translated into Indonesian by applying two methods, namely direct and oblique. Direct methods can be divided into borrowing, calque, and literal procedures. Meanwhile, oblique methods consist of equivalence and transposition procedures.

Among the many concerns about poetry translation, untranslatability is the most critical one. Translators often face difficulties in offering an authentic translation in target language. It is, after all, the translator who may decide how to address this issue. One phenomenal Bengali poem entitled Bidrohi, written by the “rebel” poet Kazi Nazrul Islam can be regarded as a text that contains untranslatability issues to a large extent. It is to be noted that there are some translation-techniques - both for any type of source text and for poetry in particular –that are suggested by translation theorists like, for example, Vinay and Darbelnet, Andre Lefevere, and Peter Newmark. Whereas Vinay and Darbelnet categorized the general translation procedures into two methods (direct and oblique translation), Lefever suggested a catalogue of seven possible strategies for translating poetry. On the other hand, Newmark’s strategies include semantic and free translation. However, as the translator is the agent of authenticity and closeness in translation, s/he has a huge role to play in assessing, choosing, and combining the existing translation techniques according to the source text. This paper aims to explore the role of the translator and to figure out if there is a certain effective approach that can be made towards a poem that is difficult to translate. In order to achieve that ground, two translations of Bidrohi– one offered by Professor Kabir Chowdhury, and the other by Mohammad Nurul Huda have been analyzed. The findings of this research paper indicate that the two translations in major parts show two different combinations of translation strategies. This paper takes the terms “Direct” and “oblique” translation as coined by Vinay and Darbelnet to show that both the translations tend to switch between these two general translation approaches. In addition, both the translations highlight some poetry translation-techniques like Lefevere’s “phonemic translation” or Peter Newmark’s semantic translation, which too, serve the purpose of overcoming untranslatability. The findings also show that there is no single effective approach in overcoming untranslatability in poetry. Overall, it can be concluded that when a poem appears nearly-untranslatable, a balanced combination of “direct” and “oblique” translation as well as some selected poetry-translation strategies can be an effective standpoint. This paper does not claim to discuss untranslatability issues in any other genre but poetry.

Translation is process of transferring text from source language (SL) into target language (TL). The process can be challenging when there are no translation found on the TL as a result of different politics, economy, social, cultural, historical and religious backgrounds. A text containing folklore is one of the difficult texts to be translated as it contains legend, tradition, art or folktale. When untranslability happens, Venuti (2000: 427) suggests translator to use the original text by adding footnote or glossary. To avoid a shift in translation, Vinay and Dalbernet (1958) suggests two translation methods namely direct translation along with three translation techniques, these are Calque, and literal translation and oblique methods along with four translation techniques named transposition, modulation, equivalence or reformulation, and adaptation. This research applies those model, methods and techniques of translation along with folklore research method from Dundes (2007) to promote tourism at Pekalongan Regency area.

This resesarch aimed to analyze the translation techniques used in the translation of the movie The Little Mermaid (2023) from English to Indonesian by ChatGPT. The research applied a direct observation approach by collecting data from the Scraps From The Loft website, translating the text of the movie The Little Mermaid (2023) from English to Indonesian by using ChatGPT, and analyzing it through translation theory and thematic categories to see the accuracy and effectiveness of the translation. Data were collected from the movie dialog excerpts and their translations provided by ChatGPT. The analysis used seven translation techniques, which include borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. The findings show a diverse application of translation techniques, with the use of literal translation (48%), modulation (15%), and adaptation (15%). Literal translation is often used due to its simplicity and directnesws, while modulation is used to adapt the culture and linguistic nuances of Indonesian. Additionally, adaptation is also noted especially in translating cultural references and idiomatic expressions to maintain the original meaning and context. The research concludes that ChatGPT effectively utilizes various translation techniques to produce coherent and coherent translations.

Although the translation of Heinrich Heine’s literary works began almost a century ago and there is lack of serious analysis and evaluations of his translated works into Albanian, they have been welcomed warmly, accepted with curiosity and spread out spontaneously. Therefore, using comparative and analytical methods this paper attempts to address the existing gaps about Heine’s translated poems in Albanian by analysing three versions of translations into Albanian of 10 stanzas of Heinrich Heine’s masterpiece “Germany. A Winter Tale”, which best illustrate the similarities and differences between these three versions of translations and the quality of translations, done by three well-known Albanian literary translators: Lasgush Poradeci, Robert Shvarci and Ardian Klosi. The paper concludes that all the above-mentioned literary translators have used certain methods, ways and parameters to translate Heine’s poem “Germany. A Winter Tale” such as: oblique translation, direct translation, servitude, borrowing, claque, linear translation (or word for word translation), transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation. All three versions of translation were very well-received in Albanian literature and culture, however in the process of translation they have gained and lost and made mistakes, which range from grammatical, syntactic, semantic, stylistic, etc. Lasgush Poradeci’s translations proved to be the most comprehensible, fluent, poetic, and successful, most likely because he was an extremely experienced, talented, and distinguished poet himself.

This research explored the translation of the Urdu poem "Jawab-e-Shikwa" by Muhammad Iqbal into English, focusing on two versions by Altaf Hussain and Frances W. Pritchett. The study employed the Vinay and Darbelnet model to analyze translation strategies such as equivalence, modulation, and oblique translation. The analysis revealed differences in linguistic accuracy, cultural relevance, and literary style between the two translations. Through a qualitative and quantitative approach, the study aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of translation on the interpretation of "Jawab-e-Shikwa" in both Urdu and English-speaking contexts. From the Result of the analysis it was found that Hussain employed an oblique translation approach with techniques such as equivalence and modulation, capturing the essence of the original poem with a sense-for-sense translation. Pritchett, on the other hand, adopted a direct translation strategy, offering a word-for-word rendition that maintains clarity but may lack the nuanced impact of the Urdu original. Both translations effectively conveyed the overall meaning of the poem, Hussain's version demonstrated a greater adherence to the cultural and literary nuances of the original Urdu, providing a more intricate and contextually rich interpretation. Pritchett's literal approach, while clear and accurate, may compromise the poetic and cultural depth inherent in Iqbal's work. Keywords : Jawab e Shikwa; Vinay and Derbelnet model; Translation Technique

The article is focused on the analysis of structural-semantic features of buzzwords and relating to them problem of interlingual lacunarity in two kinds of professional discourse – business and political-legal discourse. Buzzwords are understood as a special category of lexical units which emerge die to the need of nominating new culture-specific elements, tendencies and trends, as well as attaching novelty to existing in the language phenomena. The study relevance is stipulated by the common understanding that buzzwords represent the newest layer of modern English vocabulary reflecting the most recent changes currently happening in the English language under the influence of modern socio-political processes. The authors draw attention to a close relation between buzzwords and interlingual lacunarity as buzzwords do not have laconic variants of translation, thus demanding the use of various techniques of direct translation such as borrowing, calque and literal translation. Special emphasis is put on some word formation models, according to which many buzzwords are formed. Such word formation methods include affixation, abbreviation, blending and metaphoric transfer. Having considered the results of the research, the authors come to conclusion that different word formation models prevail in different kinds of discourse, as well as different direct translation techniques can be applied to translate them from English into Russian. For political-legal discourse more widespread word formation models include affixation, abbreviation and metaphoric transfer, whereas in business discourse, alongside with abbreviation, blending is also widely used. The most common translation technique is literal translation, sometimes together with other methods. For instance, while translating buzzwords belonging to political-legal sphere, in particular, those formed by affixation using the suffix -ism and the prefix post-, it is possible to provide borrowing as the translation of the new word. Nevertheless, further such borrowed lexical unit will demand additional explanation which is usually represented by the literal translation of its definition. Lack of equivalents of buzzwords in lexicographic sources in Russian proves the fact that they belong to the category of interlingual lexical gaps.

Translating webtoon poses a challenge for the translator. However, many research focus on the application of comic translation instead of webtoon translation. Due to this, the research focused on finding out the translation technique used to translate the onomatopoeia in Lore Olympus from English to Indonesian. This case study was employed to analyze and interpret the translation techniques used, with case study to analyze the onomatopoeia. Content analysis and purposive sampling method was used to interpret the data between chapter 1 to chapter 50. The result of this study showed a total of 356 onomatopoeias in English and 355 in Indonesian; direct onomatopoeia was dominantly used, followed by exemplary onomatopoeia, and associative onomatopoeia as the least used. Out of seven translation technique, four was used: equivalence was used 69.5% times, borrowing was used 17.37% times, literal translation was used 11.8% times, and modulation was used 1.3% times. These translation techniques were applied to achieve meaning transfer and naturalness for the readers. However, some issues were found, for readers reading the translated webtoon, which might affect their reading experience negatively: typo, loss in artist’s intended phonetic meaning, improper expression of message, etc. The research proposed some recommendations for future researchers and translators.

&lt;p class="IsiAbstrakabstractcontent"&gt;The study aims to know translation technique and translation quality of refusal strategy in Beautiful Malice novel. It was descriptive qualitative method with embedded case study. The data were obtained through content analysis and focus group discussion. They were then analyzed into domain, taxonomy and componential analysis to formulate cultural theme. The result shows that writer uses indirect and direct refusal strategy in which indirect one is mostly used. Besides, translator transfers those refusal strategies by using established equivalence, modulation, explicitation, variation, implicitation, pure borrowing, reduction, addition, addaptation, and paraphrase in which established equivalent is most frequently used. With using those techniques, the study indicates that translation quality is very good. They are 2.8 of accuracy and 2.9 of acceptability and readablity. Imperfection of translation quality is affected from the use of reduction and addition in relation to accuracy and the use of deletion in relation to those aspects of translation quality. &lt;/p&gt;

Photography is a relatively young form of fine art. Although the history of photography is only about 200 years old, its techniques and technology are developing rapidly and depend directly on scientific progress. Photography finds its application in all social spheres becoming a global phenomenon. As a form of visual communication, it fulfils applied, artistic, social, and communicative functions. The language of image making includes structural and semantic variations of terminological units, which translation requires a careful scientific and linguistic analysis. The present article studies challenges in translation of various types of English photography terms into Romanian (metaphorical terms, terminological combinations, anglicisms). When translating photography terms the interaction of the term with the context is of great importance to select the proper translation procedure and to find the best equivalent. The translation of metaphorical photography terms formed based on shape and color semantic transference involves the use of a direct equivalent or one of the lexical variants of polysemantic nature. The results of the investigation showed the predominance of borrowing (for English loan terms and abbreviations) and syntactic transformation translation techniques (for terminological combinations).

The study aimed to analyze the translation technique used in women's anger speech acts in a television series entitled 13 Reasons Why Season 1. This study was a descriptive qualitative research and an embedded case study. Analysis document and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) were used to collect the data. The result shows the behaviour patterns of the translator using various translation techniques in all types of speech acts including direct verbal or cognitive sign, thinly veiled verbal sign, and indirect verbal sign. The most frequently used techniques in direct verbal or cognitive signs are establish equivalent and followed by variation and explicitation, while establish equivalent, variation, and pure borrowing are frequently used in thinly veiled verbal signs and indirect verbal signs. In addition, compensation technique is only used in direct verbal or cognitive signs and indirect verbal signs while paraphrase is used in translating anger speech acts in terms of direct verbal or cognitive signs and thinly veiled verbal signs. Meanwhile, other techniques such as generalization, linguistic amplification, linguistic compression, and adaptation are the least frequent techniques used in direct verbal or cognitive signs and thinly veiled verbal signs.

This final project is a study which analyzes translation techniques used in the translation of novel I am Number Four by Pittacus Lore. The translation techniques introduced by Molina and Albir (2002) is the theory I use in this study. The object of the study is to explain the techniques used by the translator in translating I am Number Four. This research is classified into descriptive research. It is the study in which I need to collect and analyze data to get conclusion. However, I also find out that it is essential to combine the qualitative approach with the quantitative one. The data are gained by reading novel, comparing the novel, identifying, classifying, counting, and conclusion. The result of the study shows that there are 12 techniques found in the data. They are, namely, adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, linguistic compression, literal, particularization, reduction, and transposition. The total data are 671 direct speeches of I am Number Four. The total techniques of the data found are 671. The percentage of each techniques are as follows: (1) borrowing occurs 132 times and represents 19.7%, (2) literal occurs 119 times and represents 17.73%, (3) generalization occurs 97 times and represents 14.46%, (4) established equivalent occurs 94 times and represents 14.01%, (5) amplification occurs 76 times and represents 11.3%, (6) particularization occurs 52 times and represents 7.75%, (7) linguistic compression occurs 43 times and represents 6.41%, (8) reduction occurs 35 times and represents 5.22%, (9) transposition occurs 12 times and represents 1.79%, (10) adaptation occurs 5 times and represents 0.74%, (11) calque occurs 3 data and represents 0.45%, (12) discursive creation occurs 3 times and represents 0.45%. Finally, the conclusions above lead me to provide the following suggestions. First, for translator: it is important to explore different translation techniques to make the translated text clear and try to give an explanation such as footnote in the novel in order to make the reader understand the text. Second, for further researcher: A further research can give knowledge that can be beneficial for the readers and can be the next related research to be reviewed. A further study is also needed to follow the development of the translation study.Keywords: translation technique, novel, I am Number Four, descriptive qualitative

&lt;p&gt;The aims of the study are to analyze the translations of compliment in &lt;em&gt;subtitle &lt;/em&gt;film &lt;em&gt;Twilight Series &lt;/em&gt; between source text (English) and target text (Indonesian). To identify classifications of compliment in source text and target text, to identify shifting type of compliment, to identify the translations techniques, and to describe translation quality result in target text &lt;em&gt;subtitle &lt;/em&gt;film &lt;em&gt;Twilight Series.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This study is a descriptive, qualitative research. Sources of the data are &lt;em&gt;subtitle &lt;/em&gt;film &lt;em&gt;Twilight Series &lt;/em&gt;in source text (English) and target text (Indonesian). The data are word, phrase, sentence, and clause forms which is contained compliment speech act discussed by informants to describe the translation quality. Techniques of collecting data are document analysis, and Forum Group discussion (FGD). Purposive sampling is applied in this research.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Findings of this research show the followings. Classification form (&lt;em&gt;reactive-unsolicited-direct-explicit&lt;/em&gt;) 1.5%, (&lt;em&gt;reactive-unsolicited-indirect-implicit-presupposed&lt;/em&gt;) 1.5 %, (&lt;em&gt;initiative-solicited-direct-explicit&lt;/em&gt;) 1.5 5%, (&lt;em&gt;initiative-unsolicited-direct-explicit&lt;/em&gt;) 32.8%, (&lt;em&gt;initiative-unsolicited-direct-implicit-presupposed&lt;/em&gt;) 12.5%, (&lt;em&gt;initiative-unsolicited-direct-implicit-implied&lt;/em&gt;) 1.5%, (&lt;em&gt;initiative-unsolicited-indirect-explicit&lt;/em&gt;) 1.5 %, (&lt;em&gt;initiative-unsolicited-indirect-implicit-presupposed&lt;/em&gt;) 46.8 %. the translations techniques consist of establish equivalent, variation, reduction, literal, pure borrowing, linguistic compression, modulation, and discursive creation. Pragmatic Shifting type are meaning and classification form.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The translation quality values score 2.75 for Accuracy, 2.94 for Acceptability, 3 point for Readability. The average value of translation quality of compliment speech act in &lt;em&gt;subtitle &lt;/em&gt;film &lt;em&gt;Twilight Series &lt;/em&gt;is 2.85, so it can be said that translation quality is good.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Keywords : &lt;/strong&gt;Translation, Compliment Speech Act, Classification Type, Translation Technique and Translation Quality.&lt;/p&gt;

Introduction: In the domain of literature and literary writings, where intricate processes facilitate cross-cultural communication, translation has been employed to enlighten and educate audiences regarding the customs and cultures of other groups. Significant differences exist between the source and target languages, English and Urdu, which consequently leads to the manifestation of the fundamental distinctions that inevitably influence translation shifts. Examining oblique translation strategies, including equivalence, transposition, modulation, and adaptation, this study conducts a comparative analysis of Elif Shafak's novel Honour and its Urdu translation by Huma Anwar, titled Namoos. Purpose of the Study: Based on Vinay and Darbelnet's (2000) model of translational shift, the purpose of this study is to examine the diverse translation strategies utilized by a translator when converting a source text (ST) to a target text (TT). The research objectives are further accomplished through the application of Vermeer's Skopos Theory of Translation. Methodology: A meticulous examination of the translation at the word, phrase, and sentence levels, in addition to a system of simple random sampling, followed by convenience sampling, comprised the data collection procedure. To ascertain the translator's application of translation techniques and evaluate their efficacy, the gathered data underwent qualitative analysis. This study investigates the general effects of the numerous instances in which these translational shifts are evident on the target text. The theoretical framework of Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for Translation (1958), which Vinay and Darbelnet established, provides the foundation for this investigation. Where oblique translation and direct translation have been identified as the two primary categories of translations and subsequently subdivided into their respective subcategories. Findings: As determined by the study, to accurately convey the intended meaning and message to the target audiences, the translator utilized several translational switchboard operations and techniques. By employing these strategies, the translator has not only preserved the fundamental nature of the source material but also guaranteed that the translated rendition is sensitive to the cultural sensibilities of the intended beneficiaries. Conclusion: The translator has succeeded in producing an accurate and impactful translation that conveys the intended message by utilizing these strategies to surmount the obstacles presented by linguistic, cultural, and contextual differences. Overall, the study determines that the translator ensured that the text remained accessible and meaningful to the intended audience while remaining faithful to the original. In doing so, the translator performed admirably.

This study examines lexical diversity and readability of bilingual information boards on the Commuter Line Tanah Abang-Rangkasbitung in Indonesia, with a focus on their impact on passenger safety. It is motivated by observed discrepancies in translations, which could compromise clarity and effectiveness of public signage. The primary objective is to analyze lexical diversity and assess the readability of these translations using theoretical frameworks from Nida and Taber (2003), Newmark (1988), and Venuti (2012). The study employs a qualitative descriptive research design with Spradley’s Ethnographical Approach, focusing on the Green Ring Route, which encompasses 19 CL stations. Data were collected through direct observation, photographic documentation, and field notes and analyzed using domain, taxonomy, componential, and cultural theme. The findings reveal significant variation in readability levels, influenced by the translation techniques used. High readability was found in translations employing Literal Translation and Established Equivalent techniques, while medium and low readability were associated with Borrowing, Modulation, and Amplification techniques. These findings underscore the need for consistent, culturally relevant translation practices to ensure effective communication and passenger safety. The study concludes by recommending regular usability testing, feedback integration, and use of technology to enhance the accessibility and effectiveness of bilingual signage in public transportation.

Though a great number of efforts has been made by translators in the rendering of the Bible from the original Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek texts into Eυe, a Kwa language of Togo, it has been realized that the occurrence of some temporospatial borrowings in the current Eυe Bible poses misunderstanding and misinterpretation problems to the Eυe native speakers. This article aims at revisiting the translation technique of these exotic concepts from the biblical language in order to suggest some workable solutions to these issues. It contributes to the semantic depiction of borrowings connected especially to time and space. On the basis of the qualitative research method principle, it accounts for or analyses and interprets the data collected from the current Eυe Bible from cognitive semantics perspective of Talmy (2000) and sociolinguistic theory of translation of Nida (1976). The results of this study have revealed that a deep understanding of the semantic motivation behind the use of each one of these loanwords provides some useful guides to the translators in the choice of adequate translation strategies in link with the cultural realities of the Eυe language. Therefore, this exploratory study has found out that translation techniques such as transliteration associated with footnotes, use of brackets, neologism, direct translation of the loanwords etc. can be resorted to in the management of borrowings for the improvement of the coming version of the Eυe Bible. Keywords: Borrowing, Translation Strategy, Eυe, Bible

Arthur Hailey’s novel “Airport” is the demonstration of a general tendency that emerged in the middle of the 20th century and significantly influenced the subsequent literary process the merging of high and mass genres and going beyond the strict framework of what – was considered worthy of the writer’s attention. It provides the insight into the inner world of a professional sphere being thus categorized as professional (occupational, workplace) novel. In order to reconstruct the workplace atmosphere, A. Hailey employs a variety of stylistic techniques with the abundant usage of professional vocabulary being the predominant one. Every profession has its own terminology which enables its members to interact effectively and express themselves. The core of communication in the professional aviation environment is aviation English, which reflects in its contents the results of scientific and professional knowledge. It is the system of terms which objectively includes not only basic aviation concepts but also general scientific notions and semi-technical vocabulary. Our research has concentrated on the investigation of the means of translation of professional vocabulary observed in A. Hailey’s “Airport”. The lexical items used by cabin crew members in the professional and private settings, which are further classified into realia, terms, professionalisms, jargonisms and slang, have come into the focus of our attention. The translations of the novel into German conducted by Wilm W. Elwenspoke in 1968 and published by the publishing house “Ulstein” has served as the material for the investigation. The following techniques were resorted to: literal translation, borrowing, transposition, calque, compression, generalization, adaptation, expansion, omission, reduction. The translation appears to be direct and equivalent, consequently, closer to the ST and few transformations have been applied. Nevertheless, it occasionally results in certain loss in translation.

The study examined term development approach, and term formation methods of Primary Education Amharic Terminologies. It has been conducted using descriptive design of Descretive research. Qualitative data were collected through a questionnaire from textbook writers of grade five and six Civics and Ethical Education, Integrated Science, Mathematics, and Social Studies subjects. Interview data were gathered from curriculum and concerned government institutions experts of Amhara region and federal government. Besides, textbooks of the aforementioned subjects were reviewed to excerpt terms. Then, the qualitative data were analyzed using thematic techniques, and term formation methods; whereas the quantified qualitative data were computed using percentile. The study revealed that textbook writers and curriculum experts were traditionally tend to use primarily puristic approach in order to coin transparent terms. In relation to the efforts made to develop Amharic terms the study indicated that different term formation methods such as derivation, compounding, and blending, abbreviating, terminologization, semantic transfer within a special language, trans-disciplinary borrowing, direct loan, and loan translation can be used in developing Amharic terms. Among these term formation methods the dominant ones is loan translation. Finally, the study suggested that policy based terminology development and cooperation of stakeholder namely linguists, curriculum experts, textbook writers and subject teachers’ inorder to have sustainable term cultivation endeavours as well as quality terms.

Penelitian ini mengenai teknik penerjemahan dalam sebuah novel The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe. Novel ini memiliki dua versi bahasa, yaitu bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia. Ada beberapa teknik penerjemahan yang digunakan agar pembaca bisa memahami secara lebih baik. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui teknik penerjemahan yang digunakan dalam novel The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe sebagai teks asli berbahasa Inggris dan diterjemahkan oleh Donna Widjajanto ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Penelitian ini menggunakan desain penelitian kualitatif dan kuantitatif dengan metode deskriptif dalam menyajikan data. Data diperoleh dari ucapan-ucapan langsung dari novel The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe (versi asli bahasa Inggris) dan The Chronicles of Narnia: Sang Sing, Penyihir, dan Lemari (versi terjemahan bahasa Indonesia) melalui analisis dokumen. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat 14 teknik penerjemahan yang digunakan dalam 1386 ucapan-ucapan langsung. Jumlah persentase setiap teknik yaitu sebagai berikut: (1) adaptasi terjadi sebanyak 147 kali atau mewakili 10,6% data, (2) peminjaman terjadi sebanyak 38 kali atau mewakili 2,74% data, (3) kalke terjadi sebanyak 20 kali atau mewakili 1,44% data, (4) kompensasi terjadi sebanyak 4 kali atau mewakili 0,3% data, (5) kreasi diskursif terjadi sebanyak 1 kali atau mewakili 0,1% data, (6) padanan lazim terjadi sebanyak 9 kali atau mewakili 0,65% data, (7) generalisasi terjadi sebanyak 345 kali atau mewakili 24,9% data, (8) penerjemahan harfi ah terjadi sebanyak 572 kali atau mewakili 41,27% data, (9) modulasi terjadi sebanyak 4 kali atau mewakili 0,3% data, (10) partikularisasi terjadi sebanyak 7 kali atau mewakili 0,5% data, (11) reduksi terjadi sebanyak 96 kali atau mewakili 7% data, (12) transposisi terjadi sebanyak 11 kali atau mewakili 0,8% data, (13) amplifi kasi linguistik terjadi sebanyak 118 kali atau mewakili 8,5% data, dan (14) kompresi linguistik terjadi sebanyak 14 kali atau mewakili 1,01% data.This study is about the translation techniques in a novel The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe. It has two versions of language, English and Bahasa Indonesia. There are some translation techniques used in order to get meaningful translation. A translator will choose an appropriate technique to every sentence. Hence, the readers can understand better by reading the n in translated text. This study is aimed to fi nd out the translation techniques used in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe as the original English after being translated by Donna Widjajanto into Indonesian version of the novel. This study uses qualitative and quantitative research designs with a method of description in presenting the data. The data are collected from the direct speeches of The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe (original English version) and The Chronicles of Narnia: Sang Singa, Penyihir, dan Lemari (Indonesian translation version) through document analysis. The result of this study shows that there are 14 translation techniques found in the data of 1386 direct speeches. The percentage of each technique is as the followings: (1) adaptation occurs 147 times and represents 10.6%, (2) borrowing occurs 38 times and represents 2.74%, (3) calque occurs 20 times and represents 1.44%, (4) compensation occurs 4 times and represents 0.3%, (5) discursive creation occurs once and represents 0.1%, (6) established equivalent occurs 9 times and represents 0.65%, (7) generalization occurs 345 times and represents 24.9%, (8) literal translation occurs 572 times and represents 41.27%, (9) modulation occurs 4 times and represents 0.3%, (10) particularization occurs 7 times and represents 0.5%, (11) reduction occurs 96 times and represents 7%, (12) transposition occurs 11 times and represents 0.8%, (13) linguistic amplifi cation occurs 118 times and represents 8.5%, and (14) linguistic compression occurs 14 times and represents 1.01%.

Abstract This study aims to explore and investigate translation procedures and how linguistic and cultural adaptation affects communication and marketing outcomes on consumer attitudes and behaviors in Zimbabwe. To answer pertinent questions, the study adopted a mixed-method research design, combining qualitative corpus analysis and quantitative data from questionnaires. Two different questionnaires were administered to different groups, and English-to-Shona translated adverts were collected. The study made use of participant observation and responses from both company representatives and consumers were analyzed. The study is grounded in the Skopos, communicative, and appropriateness theories to understand the interplay between translation strategies and marketing goals. Results of the study revealed that Shona translations frequently employ techniques such as cultural adaptation, modulation, and reformulation to achieve linguistic and cultural equivalence. However, the impact on consumer engagement varies, with 80% of surveyed consumers occasionally influenced by Shona advertisements. <strong><em>Keywords:</em></strong> advertising, consumers, English, marketing, Shona, translation.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <em><strong>How to cite</strong></em><strong>: </strong>Phiri, R., Nge, D., &amp; Ayonghe, L. (2024). The impact of English-Shona translation of adverts on consumer attitudes in Zimbabwe. <em>GPH-International Journal of Educational Research</em>, 7(12), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14566512 <strong>1. Introduction</strong> According to Munday (2002), translating advertisements are ways through which companies gain insight into other countries or cultures. The clamor for the presence of local languages in Africa has led to the vulgarization of adverts in various domains such as social media, audio-visual media and many more, hence the rise of translation of adverts from English to Shona languages in Zimbabwe considering culture and context to effectively communicate. Cook (2001), considers advertising to be simply, everywhere;&nbsp; we cannot walk down the street, shop, watch television, go through the mail, log on to the Internet, read a newspaper or board a train without encountering advertising. Zimbabwe&rsquo;s constitution recognizes 16 official languages, with English as the official medium, alongside Shona and Ndebele which are the predominant indigenous languages in their respective geographic spheres, namely Mashonaland in the east and Matebeleland in the west of Zimbabwe. Advertising is omnipresent, and its effectiveness depends heavily on cultural resonance and contextual appropriateness. Translating advertisements involves more than linguistic transfer, it requires transcreation and cultural adaptation to maintain the original message&rsquo;s impact. Industry theorists like Wu (2018) emphasize that advertising translation must evoke the same emotional responses as the source material. Advertising texts does not only include words, but also cultural concepts, ideas and visuals. De Mooij (2004:179) defines translating advertising copy as &lsquo;painting the tip of an iceberg and hoping the whole thing will turn red&rsquo;. To him advertising lies on the cultural notion, as advertising is not made of words only, but made of culture. Translating advertising goes beyond translating a regular written text as it includes cultural elements such as shared beliefs, attitudes, norms, roles, and values. Hence, Reboul (1978) suggests that to transfer an advertisement from one language and culture to another, it is worth considering translating, adapting, and creating. Advertising texts are rich in cultural and social elements, whether they are translatable or not is still being questioned hence attention has to be paid to cultural and textual nuances.Basem (2006) says when translating, two languages and two cultures are involved. Simply speaking translated advertisements have an attractive power to manipulate consumers as they advocate, encourage, ask questions, announcing about products or services invoking their cultures that are deeply embedded into their minds. A closer reading of these authors as well as others has led to the quest to study how advertisements are translated in Zimbabwe where there is multiculturalism thereby addressing the issue of techniques and strategies that are implied in the translation of adverts from English to Shona in Zimbabwe marketing terminology in terms of translation strategies. The purpose of this research is therefore to investigate the techniques, strategies, and impact of such translated advertisements. <strong>1.1 Problem statement</strong> It has been observed that translated advertisements from English to Shona fail to give the intended effect on the target consumers as those of the original advertisements. This study, therefore seeks to assess the translated advertisements on consumer attitudes and the procedures used in their translation. &nbsp; <strong>1.2 Research Questions</strong> 1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; What is the impact of translating English language advertisements into Shona by companies on customers in Zimbabwe? 2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; What are the various translation techniques used in these English adverts to Shona translated adverts? <strong>1.3 Objectives</strong> 1. Identify, analyze, describe and assess the effectiveness of the translation of advertisements in Zimbabwe on consumer attitudes and behaviors. 2. Identify, analyze and describe the techniques involved in the translation of&nbsp;&nbsp; advertisements from English to Shona. <strong>2. Review of related literature</strong> <strong>2.1 Conceptual Review</strong> In this part key concepts related to the study will be defined. <strong>2.1.1 Translation</strong> Bell (1991:20) highlights that the phenomenon of translation is, &lsquo;a replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language&rsquo;. Bell (1991) refers to an important notion in translation theory, namely equivalence, whereby the translator renders the message to the targeted audience in the closest possible equivalence that will be well understood by the target audience. In line with this study, Bell&rsquo;s definition simply means giving an appropriate translation equivalence from source text to target text. <strong>2.1.2 Advertising</strong> Bovee and Arens (1986:5) views advertising as non-personal communication of information that is usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the diverse media. Bovee and Arens (1986) view advertising as persuasive in nature according to messages being conveyed on various media to catch the eye of anyone who could be a possible client; for example, on social media, television, billboards, and radios whereby marketers have to pay to convey a message about their goods or services, hence the words they use in this case should be catchy to quickly attract the target audience.&nbsp; <strong>2.1.3 Advertising translation</strong> According to Sharabi (2023), advertising translation covers the conversion of marketing content to effectively reach a full-target (full-fledged) market or audience through translation, transcreation, and localization. In this way advertisements will not only be linguistically accurate but also will resonate to the essence of culture. De Mooij (2004), considers translating adverts like painting the tip of an iceberg, what you see are the words, but there is a lot behind the words that must be understood to transfer advertising from one culture to another. <strong>2.1.4 Advertising slogans</strong> Brierley (2002) says advertising slogans are short, memorable phrases used in advertising campaigns. Their purpose is to emphasize a phrase that the company wishes to be remembered by, particularly for marketing a specific corporate image or connection to a product or consumer base. Slogans speak volumes about a product, service or even the company itself to the customer&rsquo;s attention. <strong>2.1.5 Consumer behaviour </strong> According to De Mooij, (2004: 181) the correlation between consumer behavior and cultural values show that a culturally appropriate advertising style is the key to successful advertising. Consumers are products of their own culture and language therefore one has to consider certain pre-established notions of each culture before advertising. <strong>2.1.6 Translation strategies </strong> Ngoran (2017:36) describes &lsquo;domestication and foreignization&rsquo; as the two main strategies in translation. He says &lsquo;foreignization&rsquo; is source-text oriented, word for word, structure for structure and literal while &lsquo;domestication&rsquo; is target text-oriented, free, natural,and transparent and message for message. <strong>2.1.7 Translation techniques </strong> Ngoran (2017:38), considers a translation technique as an operational mechanism put in place by the translator in the course of actual translation. Translation techniques are micro strategies which narrow down the strategies that the translator uses in their translation, while techniques usually concentrate on segments of the text. They fall under strategies and they are the decision made by the translator in translating segments. Examples of translation techniques include; borrowing, calque, literal translation, reformulation, explicitation, transposition, modulation, cultural, formal and dynamic equivalence, local and global adaptation. <strong>2.2 Theoretical review </strong> The Skopos, communicative and the theory of appropriateness were used. <strong>2.2.1 The Communicative theory</strong> According to, Ngoran (2017), the communication theory of translation is a theory that aims at communicative translation, which attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original language.Communication is the ultimate goal of language instruction to enable learners to communicate effectively with others in real-life situations.The communicative theory is applied to this study as translation of advertisements, requires not only the linguistic aspects but also the communicative aspect making sure that the meaning of the message has been transmitted and in its originality. <strong>2.2.2 The Skopos theory</strong> Skopos theory is a translation theory proposed in the 1970s by the German Hans J. Vermeer.Skopos as a technical term referring to the purpose of a translation and of the action of translation. Skopos is a Greek term which means &lsquo;aim&rsquo;, &lsquo;goal&rsquo; or &lsquo;purpose&rsquo;. Vermeer freed translation research from the constraints of the original text centered theory, believing that translation must follow the principles of purpose, coherence, and fidelity. Theprinciple of purpose is the primary principle as any translation behavior is determined by the purpose of translation, which determines the means of translation as stated by Munday,(2012). <strong>2.2.3 The appropriateness theory</strong> The appropriateness theory, proposed by Paul Grice in the 1970s, is a conversational implicature theory that focuses on the cooperative nature of human communication. According to this theory, speakers are expected to make their contributions appropriate to the context of the conversation. This includes observing maxims such as truthfulness, clarity, relevance, and manner (Grice, 1975), this is what is needed in the translation of adverts to make them comprehensible as the original text. <strong>2.3 Empirical review</strong> This section reviews other studies relevant to the present studies which were carried out by other scholars in different contexts To begin with, Sichkar et al (2023), on the investigation of the techniques used to translate advertising texts in English and Ukrainian languages, found that translated slogans are target-oriented and address groups of people with definite values and demands. The results of the study indicate that the translation of English advertising slogans is oriented towards preserving their pragmatic effect and function in the target culture. The results prove that lexico-semantic, grammatical, and stylistic transformations are used in rendering advertising slogans into Ukrainian. The present study relates with, Sichkar et al. (2023),however, the present study goes further to analyze the translation techniques used in the translation of advertisements and seeks to understand the impact of these translations on consumer behavior. Syahputra et al. (2022), aims to describe a unique phenomenon in a translated advertisement. The study analyses translated advertisements and their relation to translation techniques. The study focused on how the language that contains the culture of a country can be presented to other countries by one advertisement product. It is a challenge for producers to promote their products, and the translator takes over the role as a communication bridge between producers and target consumers. Results showed that translated advertisement tends to keep its original text to preserve its meaning, the sound and image of the video also influences the translated version. Kappe (2012)&rsquo; s study on the translation of advertisements seeks to assess the use of semiotics, symbolism, and techniques used by advertisers and translators in persuading customers and to know whether translators of advertisements use the same techniques in the target language as used in the original text. The study focuses on the comparative analysis of 30 English Coca-Cola advertisements and their French translations from 1905 to 2011. Analysis was done based on the relevance theory, equivalence theory, and Skopos theory within the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) which examines and analyzes the way existing translations are carried out on advertisements. De Mooij, (2004:179), asserts that &lsquo;translating an advertising copy is like painting the tip of an iceberg&rsquo;. The study focuses on the complex interplay between language, culture, and marketing strategies. His work emphasizes that effective advertisement translation goes beyond mere linguistic conversion; it requires a deep understanding of cultural nuances and consumer behavior. De Moiji employs comparative analysis by analyzing pairs of source and target language advertisements, focusing on linguistic choices, cultural references, and marketing strategies, to identify successful translation practices and common pitfalls, offering insights into effective cross-cultural advertising.The work equally examines how language functions within specific advertising contexts considering factors such as tone, style, and persuasive techniques. These works highlight the importance of translation of advertisements in preserving culture which is the main aspect in a human what will lure the consumer to have the will power to purchase a good or a service, which is what the current study seeks to investigate in Zimbabwe and the procedures used in the translations. <strong>3. Methodology</strong> <strong>3.1 Sample population</strong> The target population for this study is divided into two categories, the first category are the companies (Bakers Inn Zimbabwe, Saraquel Ltd, Coverlink holdings, NetOne Zimbabwe, and Nash Paints Zimbabwe) and the second category is a randomly selected public, who are the possible clients and consumers of the goods and services provided by these companies. Both groups, companies and the public, responded to online questionnaires that were designed with different questions to meet the expectations from each group making this study a success. <strong>3.2 Sampling </strong> For this study, purposive sampling was used to select companies that provided data for the studyand random sampling was used for the selection of participants to answer the questionnaire for the potential clients. Purposive sampling is the intentional selection or identification of individuals or groups of individuals based on their characteristics, knowledgeof and experience with a phenomenon of interest, Cresswell and Clark (2011). Random sampling refers to a randomly selected subset of the population; every individual has an equal chance of being selected. It is the method of selecting a sample of n units out of N units by drawing units one by one with or without replacement whereby, every unit has an equal probability of selection. It is applied to allow every individual to have an opportunity to be selected. <strong>3.3 Data collection instruments</strong> To carry out this study, questionnaires, participant observation and corpus analysis were used. Questionnaires were administered online to the proposed customers (public) and the advertising companies respectively together with online observations. The study makes use of corpus analysis to investigate and analyze the techniques used to translate the advertisements. The extracts of adverts were collected from websites and from the companies&rsquo; data. Twenty (20) excerpts were collected and analysed using the Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) model. <strong>3.4 Participant observation</strong> Participant observation was based on the advertisements on posters, flyers and social media posts, to examine carefully, check and see how the adverts are translated and the frequency of the translations. We immersed ourselves in the Zimbabwean society to observe and participate on social media sites and websites ensuring the translation of advertisements, identifying the procedures used in the translation of these advertisements, in order to fully convince customers. The goal was to gain a deep understanding of the culture, beliefs and practices from an insider&rsquo;s perspective. We even went on to consult company representatives through WhatsApp forum so that they verify if they translate their adverts from English to Shona. <strong>3.5 Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)</strong> DTS model that involves comparative analysis of English and Shona texts, revealing cultural adaptations and shifts in meaning due to translation techniques used will be used as a guide in describing and analyzing the basic features of English and Shona corpus analysis. <strong>4. DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS</strong> Data collected through questionnaires and observations will be presented, analyzed and interpreted in this section. &nbsp; <strong>4.1 Respondent&rsquo; profile</strong> The measured demographic variables of sex, age, and level of education of the randomly chosen clients/public in Zimbabwe will be presented.&nbsp; <strong>a) Gender </strong> Results show that the majority of the respondents were female with 21 (52.5%), while the minority is male with a percentage of 19 (47.5%). <strong>b) </strong><strong>Age</strong> Twenty nine out of 40 respondents that is 72.5% of the population were 20-35 years old, then 6 (15%) were 36-55 years old, 4 (10%) were above 55 years old and 1 (2.5%) was below 20 years old.&nbsp; <strong>c) Level of English proficiency</strong> Concerning the level of English proficiency of the respondents, 32(80%) of the respondents have an advanced English proficiency, while 8 (20%) are on the immediate level in English language and no one is a beginner. The fact that most of respondents fluently speak and understand English contributed to the study as they comprehended the questions on the administered questionnaire. The level of literacy is also a contribution to the Zimbabwean marketing society as customers can understand English language. <strong>d) Languages spoken at home.</strong> Regarding the languages spoken at home 75% of the target audience speaks Shona in their homes, followed by 10% who speak English and Shona, 10% who speak Ndebele, and 5% who speak English. The majority of the respondents speak Shona, adding to the study on how Shona adverts can influence their purchasing decisions. This highlights the importance of the language in daily interactions. <strong>4.1.2 Attitude of respondents towards translation of adverts</strong> <strong>a) Purchase of product or service as a result of Shona advertisements.</strong> The study aimed to determine if Shona advertisements have influenced purchasing power. Results showed that 65% of respondents are sometimes convinced to buy goods, while 32.5% have never bought. The remaining 2.5% are neither convinced nor pushed to buy. The results suggest that Shona advertisements have not fully convinced customers to purchase or not. <strong>b) Preference of English words or translated Shona words on advertisement</strong> The majority of the population (72.5%) prefers English words over Shona translated words in advertisements, while 20% prefer their mother language for a sense of belonging and connection to their culture. The remaining 7.5% are indifferent, allowing the message to be passed regardless of the language used. This preference may be influenced by their English literacy, as the majority of the population speaks Shona at home. <strong>c) Conviction to buy goods or services as a result of either translated Shona words or English ones</strong> This question aimed to determine if consumers feel more convinced and connected with marketers when goods are advertised in their native language. Results showed that 65% of respondents found Shona advertisements more convincing than English ones, indicating patriotism or love for their language. However, 15% of respondents felt not compelled to buy goods or services by Shona advertisements. <strong>d) Motives behind the decision to purchase goods and services that are promoted in Shona: </strong> The decision to purchase goods and services advertised in Shona is influenced by the emotional and cultural resonance these advertisements evoke. Shona commercials, with their local rhythm and simple vocabulary, are rated higher by audiences compared to English ones, making them more relatable and engaging. These advertisements acknowledge the diverse consumer base, particularly by appealing to the Zimbabwean identity. When the message is relevant and the marketing strategy is tailored to the target demographic, Shona adverts inspire interest and enhance the likelihood of purchase. Skilled organizations often craft these advertisements with expertise and cultural insight. However, there are criticisms. Some respondents find Shona adverts unconvincing due to their lack of creativity, substance, and clarity, resulting in ambiguous or unrealistic messages. To enhance appeal, advertising in Shona should emphasize product attributes while avoiding jargon or overly technical language, ensuring clarity and relatability for potential customers. <strong>e) Improvements to be made to Shona adverts.</strong> Enhancing Shona advertisements requires a focus on clarity, engagement, and cultural authenticity. Advertisers should use simple, precise language and concise messaging to maintain viewer interest. Incorporating regional proverbs, idioms, and slang makes the content relatable and genuine. Adverts should consider Shona&rsquo;s diverse dialects and regional variations, using vibrant visuals such as traditional attire, local landscapes, and culturally significant symbols to resonate with audiences. Additionally, clear translation into Shona can extend the reach of the advertisements. Marketers should avoid complex sentences, excessive jargon, and overly scripted performances, instead fostering natural communication styles. Handouts with clear explanations and visual aids can cater to audiences with varying literacy levels. Regular production of high-quality advertisements, focused on authenticity and professionalism, is also essential. <strong>f) Opinions on the purpose of Shona adverts.</strong> The primary purpose of Shona advertisements is to promote product awareness, educate consumers, and encourage purchase while fostering a cultural connection. These adverts effectively communicate brand messages to diverse age groups, ensuring inclusivity across the Zimbabwean population. By leveraging the native language, advertisers create an accessible medium that helps bridge cultural gaps and expands product reach. Moreover, Shona advertisements celebrate and preserve African cultural diversity and heritage. They respect local languages while promoting open communication, ensuring that people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds understand the brand&rsquo;s message. This approach strengthens cultural identity while achieving marketing goals. &nbsp; <strong>4.2 Companies</strong> The companies that participated to this study were NashPaints, Coverlink Holdings, Dairibord Zimbabwe, Saraquel ltd, Netone Zimbabwe and Baker's inn Zimbabwe. The professional positions of the people in the companies are as follows; marketing manager, customer service representative, human resource worker, marketer, marketing assistant and professional marketer, these helped ensure that the results are more accurate and aligned to the companies. &nbsp; <strong>a)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </strong><strong>Gender</strong> Six company representatives responded to the questionnaire, 4 are female, representing 66.67% of the total sample. On the other hand, 2(33.33%), are male. <strong>b)&nbsp; Goods and services offered</strong> The products and services provided by the different companies, are paint; insurance on cash plans, medical health, funeral insurance, legal insurance, special savings, home and auto insurance; dairy products; borehole drilling and installation; network service provider; and bread and confectionery items. The aim was to gather their opinions on translated advertisements, as these products cater to a larger market. <strong>d) Target audience</strong> The target audience for NetOne Zimbabwe and Coverlink Holdings includes all age groups, including infants, teens, adults, and professionals. Nash Paints targets adults investing in building, Saraquel Ltd targets adults, workers, and professionals for borehole drilling and installation, and Bakers&rsquo; Inn targets teens, adults, workers, and professionals for their bread and confectionery products. <strong>e) Market range</strong> This study reveals that 3 out of 6 companies target large scale markets, while others target small, medium, and all ranges.&nbsp; <strong>f) Person or department responsible for the Translations</strong> The results reveal that Zimbabwe&rsquo;s translation departments are predominantly bilinguals and agencies, with three companies relying on bilinguals and three relying on agencies. However, no professional translators are employed, highlighting the underrepresentation of qualified translators and the low status of translation as a profession in Zimbabwe, necessitating action from translator associations in the country. &nbsp; <strong>4.2.1 Opinions and attitudes towards the translation of advertisements by companies</strong> This portion of the questionnaire seeks to discuss the attitudes and opinions of respondents towards the translation of adverts. <strong>a) Advertising languages</strong> According to the results English and Shona are the primary languages used for advertising goods and services, with Ndebele being a secondary option. English is used by 100% of respondents, while Shona is also used all the companies. Ndebele is used by approximately 50% of companies. The frequency analysis shows that English and Shona are universally used, with Ndebele having a significant presence but not dominating the overall language use. <strong>b) Does translating advertisements increase sales and profits in the company?</strong> <strong>R1.</strong> It has not been measured yet but the assumption is that the message was related to more people than an English advert locally. <strong>R2</strong>.The Company hasn&rsquo;t had a direct record on profits and sales, but assumes that some of the customers who consult it would have understood the posts in the local language. So overall sales are increasing due to translating advertisements <strong>R3</strong>. Translation of promotional materials enhances communication with potential clients by bridging language barriers. Languages like Shona or Ndebele help understand product advantages and fulfill demands, increasing market reach, cultural relevance, trust, conversion rates, client loyalty, and sales. <strong>R4</strong>. In 2022, sales increased by 12%. This was the result of the introduction of Shona posts in a specific rural area of Zimbabwe, where people could read the flyers and understand without needing an explanation. Since the message containing the services was clearly stated, a lot of customers were invited. <strong>R5</strong>. There is no actual report or proof of it improving sales. Translations are valued for their potential to improve sales by reaching a broader audience, both English-speaking and non-English-speaking, thus increasing customer engagement. <strong>R6</strong>. Yes. Because the market range is wide, we understand that there is a type of consumers who prefer to engage in their native languages.&nbsp; That&rsquo;s why we use Shona and Ndebele also.&nbsp; We consider the translation of advertising materials to be a strategic move and it contributes to increased sales and expands reach.&nbsp; <strong>c) Why did you decide to translate advertising materials?</strong> <strong>R1</strong>. To make customers the center of attention. It&rsquo;s tempting to use your original tongue because you can even use popular lingo like &lsquo;Ma1, Chiremerera, ndayura, tinoramba, tichipisa, etc&rsquo;. <strong>R2</strong>. Translating promotional materials helps overcome language barriers and strengthens client connections. By speaking in Shona, we gain trust and credibility with Zimbabweans, making us their first choice for insurance services, despite not being fluent in English. <strong>R3</strong>. Translations of advertising materials are done to reach a wider audience, including those who would like information to be expressed in their language or who may not speak English well. Adverts are also translated for competitive edge because people are more likely to purchase a product when they comprehend the message than when they do not. <strong>R4</strong>. The translation of materials acknowledges, empowers, and promotes our mother tongue while reaching out to nearly all possible customers without leaving out any group. Companies translate promotional content to establish credibility and persuade customers that they are dependable and trustworthy. <strong>R5</strong>. It boosts the possibility of expanding clientele. Resonating with the cultural and language inclinations of the target customers. It shows a dedication to diversity and improves brand image. <strong>R6</strong>. Translating advertisements enhances local search engine optimization, increases visibility and traffic for Shona-based users, and makes content more accessible. Localizing content boosts sales, customer engagement, brand awareness, and helps businesses introduce new products to clients who may not speak English well. &nbsp; <strong>d) How important do you think translation of adverts is, in the promotion of African languages and preserving culture and meeting the company&rsquo;s objectives? </strong> <strong>R1</strong>. It is crucial because the message is more relatable. It also aligns with our goals, since we want the brand to represent the middle class, upper class, and the ghetto. Since our brand is universal, our advertising makes it more relatable. <strong>R2</strong>. Translating adverts enables us to become more relevant in the market by helping us localize and blend in with our business. It enables us to adapt to the specific preferences and market dynamics of the area. Additionally, it helps customers to perceive and believe that we recognize and value their particular requirements on a regional market. <strong>R3</strong>. Translations of advertisements enhance customer and company communication, conserving culture through content adaptation to cultural context and audience preferences. This ensures content is appropriate for the target audience, relevant to their culture, and has its own colloquial expressions. Translating advertising materials reduces misunderstandings and misinterpretations due to linguistic barriers, ensuring accurate communication and desired impact. <strong>R4.</strong>Translating advertising materials helps ensure accurate communication and impact, reducing misunderstandings and misinterpretations. This is crucial for entering new markets or increasing market share. Locally relevant adverts establish brand relevance and accessibility, increasing the likelihood of expanding into the target market, attracting new clients, and earning market share. <strong>R5.</strong>The company aims to be a network provider, increasing commercial activity, and supporting the Shona language. Some translations preserve indigenous Shona culture to make consumers feel valued. <strong>R6</strong>. Translating commercials into Shona and Ndebele ensures cultural alignment with target market conventions, values, and preferences. This ensures better understanding and comprehension for clients, maintains original tone and style, and evokes desired emotions and responses from the target market, thereby preserving the intended meaning. <strong>4.3 Discussions</strong> The study reveals that translating advertisements from English to Shona is crucial for upholding African culture, reducing language barriers, and promoting marketing strategies. The majority of respondents support this translation, as it gives them a sense of belonging and importance. However, they prefer English-language advertisements, despite speaking Shona in their homes. This may be due to diglossia where English is considered high and Shona is considered low. Shona advertisements provide cultural relevance and help preserve culture.The study also highlights the need for professional translators in Zimbabwe to ensure good translations.Using professional translators could help avoid errors of inappropriate jargon. The translation of advertisements from English to Shona has a positive impact on companies, as it increases client loyalty, engagement, brand awareness, sales, and profitability. This broadens the market range and allows companies to effectively communicate with people from diverse backgrounds and demographic age groups, earning brand recognition in a competitive world. &nbsp; <strong>4.4. Analytical analysis of the corpus</strong> Excerpts extracted from adverts of different companies that were collected from websites and from the companies are analyzed in this section of analysis. <strong>ST: Special savings plan</strong> <strong>TT: </strong><em>Plan yekuchengetedza mari yakanaka</em> The excerpt from an insurance companyuses borrowing technique and domestication strategy to translate the word <strong><em>plan</em></strong> as the translator did not find a word that is equivalent in the target text. The word <strong><em>special</em></strong> was also not rendered with the emphasis that it should have given in the original text, the weight of the meaning was rather reduced. The word that was rather better to use for special was <strong><em>yakakosha</em></strong>, the translation would have been, <strong><em>hurongwa hwekuchengetedza mari hwakakosha. </em></strong>The skopos theory applied, the purpose and aim of the message was conveyed to the target audience that they can trust the insurance company, one would also justify the use of the word <strong><em>plan</em></strong> as it is a word that is widely used in the society. <strong>ST: Crystal Clear Water from the original source</strong> <strong>TT: </strong><em>Mvura yakachena inoyevedza, Yabva pasi pemvura</em> This is an advert from a borehole drilling company on the cleanliness of the water that the boreholes provide, the translator used the domestication strategy and the explicitation technique as they had to explain what the original text ought to say. There is also a mistranslation on the words <strong><em>yabva pasi pemvura</em></strong> which are the elements of interestas the words <strong><em>original source</em></strong> refers to where the water is coming from that is the <strong><em>bedrock</em></strong> and in most times these could be springs and in Shona the original source that brings clean and healthy water that does not need further purification is called <strong><em>chitubu</em></strong> therefore there was a repetition of water coming from under water rather than saying the water is coming from the original source in Shona. The suggested translation is, <strong><em>Mvura yakachena inoyevedza, inobva muchitubu</em></strong>. The first part of the advert is well translated but the second rather has errors, the possible constraints here could have been finding the equivalent words for the target language. The skopos theory applies as the purpose of the source text was rather achieved. <strong>ST: Get spotted with the Baker&rsquo;s Inn loaf and win USD10</strong> <strong>TT:</strong><em> Batika paMap nechingwa che Baker&rsquo;s Inn upihwe USD10</em> The excerpt is from a bread company advertisement featuring a man holding money, offering promotions for buying bread. The advertisement aims to lure customers to buy more bread to receive vouchers and increase their chances of winning. The translation strategy is foreignization, with borrowing techniques such as map, Baker's Inn, and USD10 from English to maintain the original writer&rsquo;s spirit and relevance. Words such as <strong><em>map, Baker&rsquo;s Inn</em></strong> and <strong><em>USD10</em></strong> are borrowed from English to keep the readers in the spirit of the original writer and to maintain the sense. The word <strong><em>map</em></strong> came in to stand in for spotted so the translator just used common slang used in the country referring to being available, they say <strong><em>batika paMap</em></strong> therefore this was relatable to the reader. The word win was translated to <strong><em>upihwe</em></strong> which does not really bring the sense yet the word <strong><em>win</em></strong> in Shona is <strong><em>kubudirira/ hwinha/ kukunda</em></strong> which was rather going to emphasis on the competitive part of the promotion. The theory of appropriateness applies as the translator used the appropriate words to give the message relevance and communicate the sense and meaning. <strong>ST: Welcome home</strong> <strong>TT:</strong><em> Dzoka uyamwe</em> This is an advert from a telecommunication company, the slogan <strong><em>Welcome home</em></strong> was translated to <strong><em>dzoka uyamwe</em></strong>. The direct translation will be <strong><em>tinokutambirai kumba </em></strong>which in the case of a telecommunication company wouldn&rsquo;t render the expected impact that the source text is giving. The translation <strong><em>dzoka uyamwe</em></strong> which basically means something else different that is come back and drink was found to be more appropriate in the sense that the company is a network company that helps people connect on the internet so it is encouraging the clients to come back and take from them to get connectivity from them as it is homely. The strategy that was used is domestication and the strategy is modulation. The theory of appropriateness is applicable as the translator used words that would be appropriate to the context of the target culture. <strong>4.4.1 Discussions</strong> This study analyzed 20 excerpts of advertisements translated from English into Shona, focusing on marketing terms to persuade clients to trust the services and goods offered by companies. Translation techniques like literal translation, calque, transposition, modulation, adaptation, transposition, and explicitation were used. The study identified theories like skopos, appropriateness, and communicative, but possible constraints include translators&rsquo; influence by the source text and inaccurate renderings. The results suggest the need for more professional translators to ensure translations are conveyed in their natural state in the target culture. <strong>5. CONCLUSION</strong> The study analyzed 20 advertisements and their Shona translations using both qualitative and quantitative methods. It used Newmark&rsquo;s communicative theory, Vermeer&rsquo;s Skopos theory, and Grice&rsquo;s appropriateness theory to understand the impact of translation procedures on consumer behavior and attitudes towards companies. Data was collected through questionnaires, corpus analysis, and participant observations. Results showed that translation techniques like explicitation, transposition, borrowing, direct translation, and cultural adaptation are often used to align advertisements with Shona-speaking audiences. Public responses indicated mixed outcomes, with some consumers finding Shona translations relatable but others feeling they lacked the persuasive impact of original English adverts. The study suggests improvements in translation in Zimbabwe to meet cultural norms and values.The study indicates a need for improvement in Zimbabwe&rsquo;s advertisement translation to align with the language&rsquo;s cultural norms and values. The process requires linguistic precision, cultural sensitivity, and marketing acumen. Despite challenges, these efforts promote linguistic diversity and inclusivity in Zimbabwe&rsquo;s advertising landscape. Further studies on other indigenous languages would be necessary to assess their role in shaping consumer perceptions and equally consulting the translators in the marketing field. <strong>REFERENCES</strong> Basem, A (2006).The translation of fast-food advertising texts from English to Arabic.University of South Africa Bell, A. (1991). Translation and the translatability of advertising. In L. Venuti (Ed.), <em>the translation studies reader</em> (pp. 77-92). Routledge. Bovee, C. L., &amp; Arens, W. F. (1986). <em>Contemporary Advertising</em> (p. 5). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. Brierley, S. (2002). The importance of cultural context in advertising translation. <em>Journal of Advertising Research</em>, <em>42</em>(2), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-42-2-31-40 Cook, G. 2001. The discourse of advertising, 2nd Edition, London: Routledge. Creswell, J. W., &amp; Clark, V. L. P. (2011). <em>Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research</em> (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. De Mooij, M. (2004). Translating advertising copy: Painting the tip of an iceberg and hoping the whole thing will turn red. In <em>The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication</em> (Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 179&ndash;198). St. Jerome Publishing. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole &amp; J. L. Morgan (Eds.), <em>Syntax and Semantics: Vol. 3. Speech Acts</em> (pp. 41&ndash;58). New York: Academic Press. Kappe.F.(2012).<em>The&nbsp;translation&nbsp;of&nbsp;advertisements:&nbsp;issues&nbsp;of&nbsp;semiotics,&nbsp;symbolism&nbsp; and&nbsp;persuasion</em>. University&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Witwatersrand. Munday, J. (2002). <em>Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications</em>. London: Routledge. Ngoran, C.T. (2017). <em>Mastering translation in four stages.</em> ISBN: 978 9956-765-4-4 Reboul, O. (1978). <em>The Rhetoric of Advertising</em>. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Sharabi, C. (2023). <em>Marketing and Advertising Translation Techniques for International Companies.</em>Press.https://www.getblend.com/blog/marketing-and-advertising-translation-techniques-for-international-companies/ Sichkar, S., Kaminska, M., Bryk, M., Melko, K., Zhurkova, O., Kharkevych, H. (2023). Training of future translators through advertising slogans translation. Revista Rom&acirc;nească pentru Educaţie Multidimensională, 15(2), 418-439. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/15.2/742 Syahputra, , Suryadi, S., &amp; Azhar, R. (2022). <em>Cross-Cultural Translation in Advertising</em>. Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia Press. Syahputra F.P, Nasution E.H&amp;Widiantho. Y. (2022) <em>Translation Techniques in Translated Commercial Break Advertisement.</em>Proceedings of English Linguistics and Literature, Vol.3 (2022) Wu, J. (2018). Evoking Emotions in Advertising Translation: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. <em>Journal of Translation Studies</em>, <em>25</em>(3), 45&ndash;62. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. &nbsp; <strong>IMAGES</strong> &nbsp; Image 1: English advert with Shona translation from NetOne Image 2: English and Shona translated advert for Baker&rsquo;s Inn Image 3: English and Shona translated advert for Saraquel ltd

The research aims to analyze the techniques used in translating international literature to Filipino literature. The method of this study is descriptive- qualitative that focuses on translation product analysis. The collecting of data comes from international literature particularly short story such as The Necklace (Ang Kuwintas), The Pig (Ang Alaga), and The Gift of Magi (Ang Aginaldo ng mga Mago) that was translated from English into Filipino and has been used in the 10th-grade level of Department of Education in the Philippines. The findings revealed five translation procedures identified in this study. Those procedures are as follows: Borrowing, Modulation, Transposition, Equivalence, and Adaptation. The first technique (borrowing) is oriented to the source text while the rest (explicating, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation) are oriented to the target text. Procedures that are oriented to source text are referred to as direct translation, while those to target text are referred to as oblique translation. The findings reveal that translators did not use dialectal and word formations to compensate for certain technical and cultural words but instead translated them into a statement or phrase where the word in the English version is reciprocated in a way that is interpreted. This means that instead of borrowing a word, the translator sometimes interprets the word. keywords: translation, procedure, direct, oblique

This study is about translation strategies for translating English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The strategies applied refer to Vinay and Dalbenet Theory, which consists of Direct (Borrowing, Calque, Literal, and Transposition) and Oblique methods (Modulation, Equivalent, and Adaptation). This study aims to determine the strategies students apply when translating ESP texts and how the students' educational backgrounds impact this process. Descriptive qualitative was applied as the methodology using tests and interviews to collect the data. The result showed that 6 of 7 translation strategies are implemented by translators. To implement direct translation, it has applied all strategies: borrowing, calque, literal translation, and transposition strategies. Thus, oblique strategies are used in equivalent and adaptation strategies, but modulation strategies did not exist from the target language. The next issue is that the background significantly influences the accuracy of word choice in the target language. Some translators acknowledge needing help translating vocabulary that seems more common than some terminology they frequently encounter when taking the classes.

When translating texts into a language that lacks relevant terminology, translation equivalence is difficult to achieve, and the accuracy, accessibility and effectiveness of communication of the translated texts may be compromised. This article investigated various approaches to the translation of terminology when no direct translation equivalents were available in the target languages. The researchers performed a comparative analysis of strategies applied in the translation of the South African Constitution from English into Xitsonga, Siswati and isiNdebele. Firstly, Voyant tools were used to identify terms in the English version. Secondly, a multilingual concordancer (ParaConc) was employed to extract translation equivalence. ParaConc allows for contrastive studies on aligned corpora. The strategies that were found were borrowing, paraphrasing, derivation and compounding. Paraphrasing, derivation and compounding are productive strategies, because equivalents are formed using the already existing words in the languages which native speakers clearly understand. The use of borrowing revealed a critical need for terminology development work in these languages to avoid transliterating terms from foreign languages in which the meaning is not directly clear to the native speakers. This article also demonstrated the usefulness of computational approaches in identifying terminology and translation techniques in the context of South Africa’s official languages.Contribution: The article demonstrates word-formation strategies that were used in the translated South African constitution from English into Xitsonga, Siswati and isiNdebele when no translation equivalents of terminology are available in these target languages.

Riko The Series is an Educational animated children's series and presents scientific content related to the Qur’an (Quranic Sciences) in each episode. The purposes of this study are to translate the transcript of an animated short film entitled “My Father Is My Heroand Special Gift”, to explain the translation process, techniques, obstacles, and solutions. The method used in translating Animated Short Film Riko the Series is literature study and direct practice. The translation of this short film “Riko the Series” consists of several steps, they were analyzing the short film Riko the Series, transferring the message from the source language to the target language, restructuring the message contained in the source language, and evaluating the results of the translation. The translation techniques used in this study were amplification, variation, transposition, borrowing, and literal translation.During the direct practice, the obstacles faced were the lack of vocabulary, the difficulty in finding the right diction, and the difficulty in equating the accuracy of subtitles with the timeliness of film dialogue. To overcome the obstacles the solutions were looking for terms in the target language from words that are not understood with the help of a dictionary, and learning the features contained in the Aegisub application.

This study aims to identify procedures and methods of translation. This study also explains the translation ideology that is applied to the transfer of English emotive words into Indonesian found in the Kṛṣṇa text. The last analysis is emotive words mapping in the Target Language. Observation methods are applied in collecting data through carefully reading the studied text and looking at sentences containing the emotive words. Data collection in this study uses qualitative techniques. The results of the analysis have been identified. There are three translation procedures applied in this study. The direct translation applied is borrowing; indirect translation applied includes transposition and modulation. The translation method applied has a tendency to choose communicative method. The communicative method is more oriented to the target language culture by applying domestication ideology. This research proves that translation and semantics are very related and mutually supportive in analyzing emotional words, especially the MSA analysis that is able to describe significant contributions about understanding in the lexicon studied. Therefore, in this case, it is not just to look for equivalence, but also how to convey the cognition scenario and its effects in the translation results; and all that can be done with MSA theory.

Abstract This article provides a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the translation of English drama film titles into Peninsular Spanish, drawing on cognitive modelling and following preliminary findings in Peña-Cervel (2016). Our study is consistent with the epistemological and ontological grounding of Cognitive Linguistics (Samaniego-Fernández 2007) and contributes to satisfying one of the major challenges Rojo-López and Ibarretxe-Antuñano (2013a, 10) identify for present-day Translation Studies: To reveal the conceptual substratum that guides the translation process. Our approach does not rely on an exhaustive classification of clear-cut and well-defined translation techniques, but rather on a broad distinction between direct and oblique strategies. We demonstrate how the notion of cognitive operation, as proposed by Ruiz de Mendoza-Ibáñez and Galera-Masegosa (2014), can help elucidate the sometimes seemingly arbitrary relationship between original English titles and their counterparts in Spanish, especially in cases of traditionally so-called free translations. Stands-for relations, such as expansion and reduction, are shown to play a fundamental role in the translation process and the fruitful combination of cognitive operations into conceptual complexes is explored. Our study attempts to go beyond descriptive adequacy in order to achieve explanatory adequacy.

The study deals with the representation of culture-specific items in Jojo Moyes’ novels ‘Me Before You’, and ‘After You’ and their rendering in Ukrainian translations. The article specifies the role of culture-specific vocabulary as a means that adds necessary socio-cultural details to the setting making the above mentioned novels facts of the English-language (mainly British and American) culture. The research proves that numerous in number are the following groups of culture-specific items: toponyms; types of food, drinks and places to eat; anthroponyms naming famous people, film and fairy tale characters; companies, brands and organisations; mass media. Low in number are items designating education phenomena, persons’ titles and nominations, measurement, dwelling, sports, events, toys, and currency. The research also employs the notions of translation strategy and distinguishes between domesticating and foreignising ones used in order to render culture-specific lexis in a literary translation. Translation techniques of transference (direct borrowing, transcoding, transcoded substitution) and calque are viewed as components of foreignising strategies, whereas generalisation, descriptive periphrasis, cultural equivalent alone or accompanied by a footnote are viewed as implementation of domesticating ones. The study demonstrates that translation techniques representing domesticating and foreignising strategies can be combined in order to preserve their balance in the target text.

The treatise on directions is among the most difficult material in this collection of Kepler’s astrological writings, in terms of both translation and comprehension. Aside from discovering what Kepler is doing astrologically, many sentences in the treatise have to be read carefully to be fully understood. This is not astrology writing (or reading!) for the faint-hearted. We need to keep in mind that this treatise was never formally published; it exists only in this manuscript form. When Kepler uses the term ‘directions’ in this treatise, he does not always mean primary directions, as in the style of Ptolemy. Although he is comparing primary, or diurnal, motion to secondary, or zodiacal motion, Kepler’s system in general is more or less what modern astrologers would call secondary progressions, using a day for a year symbolism. But in his worked examples (in ‘On Directions’ these include his own chart and those of his children Heinrich and Susanna; and elsewhere the chart of Rudolf II1 ), he appears to be using, at different times, a variation on quotidian progressions, secondary progressions using solar arc in right ascension, and solar arc directions. He uses (mostly) right ascension for the Midheaven, oblique ascension for the Ascendant, and solar arc for both the Sun and the Moon. He does not direct any other planets. Greater detail of the way Kepler analysed directions can be found in his interpretation of Rudolf II’s chart. Kepler seems to take some standard techniques and improvise on them. He is not really ‘making things up’ but rather pushing against the boundary of standard techniques, just as he did in his work with aspects. It appears that Kepler’s techniques were 1) modifications of Ptolemaic ones, 2) modifications of Regiomontanus and 3) modifications of his mentor Tycho’s system, which appears to be similar to the modern idea of secondary progressions, though they are called directions. We can see this from the table at the end of Kepler’s interpretations of Rudolf II’s chart (see Part I.2.1, p. 100 in this volume). If we are to take anything away from this treatise, it is that Kepler privileges the motion of the Sun in developing a system for directions. But neither does he neglect the importance of the Moon, the Ascendant and the Midheaven. It is also striking how much emphasis he places on the relationship between the day, the month and the year, and how the present and the past intertwine. As Kepler eloquently puts it, ‘life is a multiplication of the first breath’. For the notes to this section, I am indebted to the astrological expertise of Joseph Crane, Nadine Harris, Bernadette Brady and Geoffrey Cornelius, who helped me immensely. For translation and palaeographic assistance, I am also indebted to Charles Burnett.