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Journal articles on the topic 'Direct propane fuel cells'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 13 February 2022

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1

Khakdaman, Hamidreza, Yves Bourgault, and Marten Ternan. "A Mathematical Model of a Direct Propane Fuel Cell." Journal of Chemistry 2015 (2015): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/102313.

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A rigorous mathematical model for direct propane fuel cells (DPFCs) was developed. Compared to previous models, it provides better values for the current density and the propane concentration at the exit from the anode. This is the first DPFC model to correctly account for proton transport based on the combination of the chemical potential gradient and the electrical potential gradient. The force per unit charge from the chemical potential gradient (concentration gradient) that pushes protons from the anode to the cathode is greater than that from the electrical potential gradient that pushes them in the opposite direction. By including the chemical potential gradient, we learn that the proton concentration gradient is really much different than that predicted using the previous models that neglected the chemical potential gradient. Also inclusion of the chemical potential gradient made this model the first one having an overpotential gradient (calculated from the electrical potential gradient) with the correct slope. That is important because the overpotential is exponentially related to the reaction rate (current density). The model described here provides a relationship between the conditions inside the fuel cell (proton concentration, overpotential) and its performance as measured externally by current density and propane concentration.

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2

Zhang, Yapeng, Fangyong Yu, Xiaoqiang Wang, Qian Zhou, Jiang Liu, and Meilin Liu. "Direct operation of Ag-based anode solid oxide fuel cells on propane." Journal of Power Sources 366 (October 2017): 56–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.08.111.

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3

Vafaeyan, Shadi, Alain St-Amant, and Marten Ternan. "Nickel Alloy Catalysts for the Anode of a High Temperature PEM Direct Propane Fuel Cell." Journal of Chemistry 2014 (2014): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/151638.

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High temperature polymer electrode membrane fuel cells that use hydrocarbon as the fuel have many theoretical advantages over those that use hydrogen. For example, nonprecious metal catalysts can replace platinum. In this work, two of the four propane fuel cell reactions, propane dehydrogenation and water dissociation, were examined using nickel alloy catalysts. The adsorption energies of both propane and water decreased as the Fe content of Ni/Fe alloys increased. In contrast, they both increased as the Cu content of Ni/Cu alloys increased. The activation energy for the dehydrogenation of propane (a nonpolar molecule) changed very little, even though the adsorption energy changed substantially as a function of alloy composition. In contrast, the activation energy for dissociation of water (a molecule that can be polarized) decreased markedly as the energy of adsorption decreased. The different relationship between activation energy and adsorption energy for propane dehydrogenation and water dissociation alloys was attributed to propane being a nonpolar molecule and water being a molecule that can be polarized.

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4

Parackal, Bhavana, Hamidreza Khakdaman, Yves Bourgault, and Marten Ternan. "An Investigation of Direct Hydrocarbon (Propane) Fuel Cell Performance Using Mathematical Modeling." International Journal of Electrochemistry 2018 (December 2, 2018): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/5919874.

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An improved mathematical model was used to extend polarization curves for direct propane fuel cells (DPFCs) to larger current densities than could be obtained with any of the previous models. DPFC performance was then evaluated using eleven different variables. The variables related to transport phenomena had little effect on DPFC polarization curves. The variables that had the greatest influence on DPFC polarization curves were all related to reaction rate phenomena. Reaction rate phenomena were dominant over the entire DPFC polarization curve up to 100 mA/cm2, which is a value that approaches the limiting current densities of DPFCs. Previously it was known that DPFCs are much different than hydrogen proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). This is the first work to show the reason for that difference. Reaction rate phenomena are dominant in DPFCs up to the limiting current density. In contrast the dominant phenomenon in hydrogen PEMFCs changes from reaction rate phenomena to proton migration through the electrolyte and to gas diffusion at the cathode as the current density increases up to the limiting current density.

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5

Lo Faro, Massimiliano, Sabrina Campagna Zignani, and Antonino Salvatore Aricò. "Lanthanum Ferrites-Based Exsolved Perovskites as Fuel-Flexible Anode for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells." Materials 13, no. 14 (July 20, 2020): 3231. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13143231.

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Exsolved perovskites can be obtained from lanthanum ferrites, such as La0.6Sr0.4Fe0.8Co0.2O3, as result of Ni doping and thermal treatments. Ni can be simply added to the perovskite by an incipient wetness method. Thermal treatments that favor the exsolution process include calcination in air (e.g., 500 °C) and subsequent reduction in diluted H2 at 800 °C. These processes allow producing a two-phase material consisting of a Ruddlesden–Popper-type structure and a solid oxide solution e.g., α-Fe100-y-zCoyNizOx oxide. The formed electrocatalyst shows sufficient electronic conductivity under reducing environment at the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) anode. Outstanding catalytic properties are observed for the direct oxidation of dry fuels in SOFCs, including H2, methane, syngas, methanol, glycerol, and propane. This anode electrocatalyst can be combined with a full density electrolyte based on Gadolinia-doped ceria or with La0.8Sr0.2Ga0.8Mg0.2O3 (LSGM) or BaCe0.9Y0.1O3-δ (BYCO) to form a complete perovskite structure-based cell. Moreover, the exsolved perovskite can be used as a coating layer or catalytic pre-layer of a conventional Ni-YSZ anode. Beside the excellent catalytic activity, this material also shows proper durability and tolerance to sulfur poisoning. Research challenges and future directions are discussed. A new approach combining an exsolved perovskite and an NiCu alloy to further enhance the fuel flexibility of the composite catalyst is also considered. In this review, the preparation methods, physicochemical characteristics, and surface properties of exsoluted fine nanoparticles encapsulated on the metal-depleted perovskite, electrochemical properties for the direct oxidation of dry fuels, and related electrooxidation mechanisms are examined and discussed.

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6

Savadogo, Oumarou. "On the materials issues for pefc applications." Chemical Industry 58, no. 6 (2004): 286–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/hemind0406286s.

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Current limitations related to the development of effective, durable and reliable MEA components for PEFC applications are addressed. Advancements made in the development of materials (catalysts, high temperature membranes, bipolar plates, etc.) for PEFC are shown. The effect of the catalyst on PEFC performances based on cells fed by hydrogen, direct methanol, direct propane, or direct acetal fuels are presented. The progress in cell performance and cathode research are discussed. Perspectives related to CO tolerance anodes are indicated. The effect of the membranes on the cell performance are shown and parameters which may help the development of appropriate membranes depending on the fuel are suggested. Openings for the future in materials processing and development for PEFC mass production are discussed. The development of New Materials is the key factor to meet those requirements. The aim of this paper is to present challenges related to the development of new materials for PEFC applications and perspectives related to components cost issues are discussed.

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7

Abu-Saied, M. A., Emad Ali Soliman, Khamael M. Abualnaj, and Eman El Desouky. "Highly Conductive Polyelectrolyte Membranes Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl propane sulfonic acid) (PVA/PAMPS) for Fuel Cell Application." Polymers 13, no. 16 (August 8, 2021): 2638. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym13162638.

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In this study, chemically cross-linked PVA/PAMPS membranes have been prepared to be used in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). The structural properties of the resultant membrane were characterized by use FTIR and SEM. Additionally, their thermal stability was assessed using TGA. Moreover, the mechanical properties and methanol and water uptake of membrane was studied. The obtained FTIR of PVA/PAMPS membranes revealed a noticeable increase in the intensity of adsorption peaks appearing at 1062 and 1220 cm−1, which correspond to sulfonic groups with the increasing proportion of PAMPS. The thermograms of these polyelectrolyte membranes showed that their thermal stability was lower than that of PVA membrane, and total weight loss gradually decreased with increasing the PAMPS. Additionally, the functional properties and efficiency of these polyelectrolyte membranes were significantly improved with increasing PAMPS proportion in these blends. The IEC of polymer blend membrane prepared using PVA/PAMPS ratio of 1:1 was 2.64 meq/g. The same membrane recorded also a methanol permeability coefficient of 2.5 × 10−8 cm2/s and thus, its efficiency factor was 4 × 105 greater than that previously reported for the commercial polyelectrolyte membrane, Nafion® (2.6 × 105). No significant increase in this efficiency factor was observed with a further amount of PAMPS. These results proved that the PVA:PAMPS ratio of 1:1 represents the optimum mass ratio to develop the cost-effective and efficient PVA/PAMPS blend membranes for DMFCs applications.

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8

Potemkin, Dmitriy I., Vladimir N. Rogozhnikov, Sergey I. Uskov, Vladislav A. Shilov, Pavel V. Snytnikov, and Vladimir A. Sobyanin. "Coupling Pre-Reforming and Partial Oxidation for LPG Conversion to Syngas." Catalysts 10, no. 9 (September 21, 2020): 1095. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/catal10091095.

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Coupling of the pre-reforming and partial oxidation was considered for the conversion of liquefied petroleum gas to syngas for the feeding applications of solid oxide fuel cells. Compared with conventional two step steam reforming, it allows the amount of water required for the process, and therefore the energy needed for water evaporation, to be lowered; substitution of high-potential heat by lower ones; and substitution of expensive tubular steam reforming reactors by adiabatic ones. The supposed process is more productive due to the high reaction rate of partial oxidation. The obtained syngas contains only ca. 10 vol.% H2O and ca. 50 vol.% of H2 + CO, which is attractive for the feeding application of solid oxide fuel cells. Compared with direct partial oxidation of liquefied petroleum gas, the suggested scheme is more energy efficient and overcomes problems with coke formation and catalyst overheating. The proof-of-concept experiments were carried out. The granular Ni-Cr2O3-Al2O3 catalyst was shown to be effective for propane pre-reforming at 350–400 °C, H2O:C molar ratio of 1.0, and flow rate of 12,000 h−1. The composite Rh/Ce0.75Zr0.25O2-δ–ƞ-Al2O3/FeCrAl catalyst was shown to be active and stable under conditions of partial oxidation of methane-rich syngas after pre-reforming and provided a syngas (H2 + CO) productivity of 28 m3·Lcat−1·h−1 (standard temperature and pressure).

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9

Yang, Hye-Min, Won-Ki Nam, and Dong-Wha Park. "Production of Nanosized Carbon Black from Hydrocarbon by a Thermal Plasma." Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 7, no. 11 (November 1, 2007): 3744–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2007.003.

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Thermal plasma conditions (optimal heat and radical sources for the thermal decomposition) can be used to accelerate thermodynamically favorable chemical reactions or provide the energy required for endothermic reforming processes. Direct thermal decomposition of hydrocarbon (methane, acetylene, and propane) was carried out using a thermal plasma system which is an environmentally favorable process. In case of thermal decomposition, high purity of the hydrogen and solidified nano-sized carbon can be achieved without any contaminant. The main product carbon produced by thermal decomposition can be either sequestered or used as a raw material and it can be applied for the varieties of industry fields. The morphology of the carbon was characterized by SEM and the particle size was determined by a particle size analyzer. It was observed that the carbon black particles were sphere particles with mainly several tens of nano-sized diameters, those are about 10–80 nm. It can be expected to be used as a raw material of laser printer toner which requires small sized carbon black particles; An average primary particle size of PRINTEX® L (Degussa Fillers & Pigment) used in a part of printing inks is 23 nm. In case of the XRD pattern of the produced carbon black from acetylene is of higher crystalline than the commercialized carbon black used for fuel cells. Also carbon species produced were characterized by EA and TGA.

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10

Yang, Hye-Min, Won-Ki Nam, and Dong-Wha Park. "Production of Nanosized Carbon Black from Hydrocarbon by a Thermal Plasma." Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 7, no. 11 (November 1, 2007): 3744–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2007.18064.

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Thermal plasma conditions (optimal heat and radical sources for the thermal decomposition) can be used to accelerate thermodynamically favorable chemical reactions or provide the energy required for endothermic reforming processes. Direct thermal decomposition of hydrocarbon (methane, acetylene, and propane) was carried out using a thermal plasma system which is an environmentally favorable process. In case of thermal decomposition, high purity of the hydrogen and solidified nano-sized carbon can be achieved without any contaminant. The main product carbon produced by thermal decomposition can be either sequestered or used as a raw material and it can be applied for the varieties of industry fields. The morphology of the carbon was characterized by SEM and the particle size was determined by a particle size analyzer. It was observed that the carbon black particles were sphere particles with mainly several tens of nano-sized diameters, those are about 10–80 nm. It can be expected to be used as a raw material of laser printer toner which requires small sized carbon black particles; An average primary particle size of PRINTEX® L (Degussa Fillers & Pigment) used in a part of printing inks is 23 nm. In case of the XRD pattern of the produced carbon black from acetylene is of higher crystalline than the commercialized carbon black used for fuel cells. Also carbon species produced were characterized by EA and TGA.

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11

Zhan, Zhongliang. "Propane Fueled Solid Oxide Fuel Cells." ECS Proceedings Volumes 2003-07, no. 1 (January 2003): 1286–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/200307.1286pv.

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12

Khakdaman, H., Y. Bourgault, and M. Ternan. "Computational modeling of a direct propane fuel cell." Journal of Power Sources 196, no. 6 (March 2011): 3186–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.115.

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13

Huang, Ta-Jen, Chen-Yi Wu, and Chun-Hsiu Wang. "Fuel processing in direct propane solid oxide fuel cell and carbon dioxide reforming of propane over Ni–YSZ." Fuel Processing Technology 92, no. 8 (August 2011): 1611–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.04.007.

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14

Wang, Kang, Pingying Zeng, and Jeongmin Ahn. "High performance direct flame fuel cell using a propane flame." Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 33, no. 2 (January 2011): 3431–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2010.07.047.

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15

Psofogiannakis, G., Y. Bourgault, B. E. Conway, and M. Ternan. "Mathematical model for a direct propane phosphoric acid fuel cell." Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 36, no. 1 (October 22, 2005): 115–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10800-005-9044-4.

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16

de Leon, C. Ponce, F. C. Walsh, D. Pletcher, D. J. Browning, and J. B. Lakeman. "Direct borohydride fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 155, no. 2 (April 2006): 172–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.01.011.

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17

Waidhas, M., W. Drenckhahn, W. Preidel, and H. Landes. "Direct-fuelled fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 61, no. 1-2 (July 1996): 91–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7753(96)02343-9.

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18

Zakaria, Khalid, Matthew McKay, Ravikumar Thimmappa, Maksudul Hasan, Mohamed Mamlouk, and Keith Scott. "Direct Glycerol Fuel Cells: Comparison with Direct Methanol and Ethanol Fuel Cells." ChemElectroChem 6, no. 9 (May 2, 2019): 2578–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/celc.201900502.

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19

Vafaeyan, Shadi, Alain St-Amant, and Marten Ternan. "Propane Fuel Cells: Selectivity for Partial or Complete Reaction." Journal of Fuels 2014 (January 20, 2014): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/485045.

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The use of propane fuel in high temperature (120°C) polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells that do not require a platinum group metal catalyst is being investigated in our laboratory. Density functional theory (DFT) was used to determine propane adsorption energies, desorption energies, and transition state energies for both dehydrogenation and hydroxylation reactions on a Ni(100) anode catalyst surface. The Boltzmann factor for the hydroxylation of a propyl species to form propanol and its subsequent desorption was compared to that for the dehydrogenation of a propyl species. The large ratio of the respective Boltzmann factors indicated that the formation of a completely reacted product (carbon dioxide) is much more likely than the formation of partially reacted products (alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and carbon monoxide). That finding is evidence for the major proportion of the chemical energy of the propane fuel being converted to either electrical or thermal energy in the fuel cell rather than remaining unused when partially reacted species are formed.

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20

Cheng, Chin Kui, Jing Li Luo, Karl T. Chuang, and Alan R. Sanger. "Propane Fuel Cells Using Phosphoric-Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 109, no. 26 (July 2005): 13036–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp044107a.

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21

KAPUSTA, Łukasz. "Numerical simulations of dual fuel combustion in a heavy duty compression ignition engine." Combustion Engines 163, no. 4 (November 1, 2015): 47–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.19206/ce-116856.

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In this study dual fuel direct injection was studied in terms of utilizing in compression ignition engines gaseous fuels with high octane number which are stored in liquid form, specifically liquid propane. Due to the fact that propane is not as much knock-resistant as natural gas, instead of conventional dual fuel system a system based on simultaneous direct injection of two fuel was selected as the most promissing one. Dual fuel operation was compared with pure diesel operation. The performed simulations showed huge potential of dual fuel system for burning light hydrocarbons in heavy duty compression ignition engines. However, further secondary fuel injection system optimization is required in order to improve atomization and lower the emissions.

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22

Miley, George H., Nie Luo, Joseph Mather, Rodney Burton, Glenn Hawkins, Lifeng Gu, Ethan Byrd, et al. "Direct NaBH4/H2O2 fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 165, no. 2 (March 2007): 509–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.10.062.

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23

Antolini, E., and E. R. Gonzalez. "Alkaline direct alcohol fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 195, no. 11 (June 1, 2010): 3431–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.11.145.

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24

Rice, C., S. Ha, R. I. Masel, P. Waszczuk, A. Wieckowski, and Tom Barnard. "Direct formic acid fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 111, no. 1 (September 2002): 83–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7753(02)00271-9.

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25

Kamarudin, M. Z. F., S. K. Kamarudin, M. S. Masdar, and W. R. W. Daud. "Review: Direct ethanol fuel cells." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 38, no. 22 (July 2013): 9438–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.07.059.

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26

Senn, S. M., and D. Poulikakos. "Pyramidal direct methanol fuel cells." International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49, no. 7-8 (April 2006): 1516–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2005.08.034.

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27

Zhan, Zhongliang, Jiang Liu, and Scott A. Barnett. "Operation of anode-supported solid oxide fuel cells on propane–air fuel mixtures." Applied Catalysis A: General 262, no. 2 (May 2004): 255–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2003.11.033.

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28

Jeong, Kyoung-Jin, Craig M. Miesse, Jong-Ho Choi, Jaeyoung Lee, Jonghee Han, Sung Pil Yoon, Suk Woo Nam, Tae-Hoon Lim, and Tai Gyu Lee. "Fuel crossover in direct formic acid fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 168, no. 1 (May 2007): 119–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.02.062.

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29

Khakdaman, Hamidreza, Yves Bourgault, and Marten Ternan. "Direct Propane Fuel Cell Anode with Interdigitated Flow Fields: Two-Dimensional Model." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 49, no. 3 (February 3, 2010): 1079–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie900727p.

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30

Ihara, Manabu, and Shinichi Hasegawa. "Quickly Rechargeable Direct Carbon Solid Oxide Fuel Cell with Propane for Recharging." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 153, no. 8 (2006): A1544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2203948.

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31

McIntosh, Steven, and Raymond J. Gorte. "Direct Hydrocarbon Solid Oxide Fuel Cells." Chemical Reviews 104, no. 10 (October 2004): 4845–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr020725g.

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32

Antolini, Ermete. "Catalysts for direct ethanol fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 170, no. 1 (June 2007): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.04.009.

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33

An, L., and R. Chen. "Direct formate fuel cells: A review." Journal of Power Sources 320 (July 2016): 127–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.04.082.

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34

Hassan, M. A., S. K. Kamarudin, K. S. Loh, and W. R. W. Daud. "Sensors for direct methanol fuel cells." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 40 (December 2014): 1060–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.067.

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35

Neergat, M., D. Leveratto, and U. Stimming. "Catalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells." Fuel Cells 2, no. 2 (December 2002): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fuce.200290003.

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36

Neergat, M., D. Leveratto, and U. Stimming. "Catalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells." Fuel Cells 2, no. 1 (August 15, 2002): 25–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1615-6854(20020815)2:1<25::aid-fuce25>3.0.co;2-4.

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37

Qi, Zhigang, Mark Hollett, Chunzhi He, Alan Attia, and Arthur Kaufman. "Operation of Direct Methanol Fuel Cells." Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 6, no. 2 (2003): A27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.1531870.

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38

Cremers, C., T. Jurzinsky, A. Bach Delpeuch, C. Niether, F. Jung, K. Pinkwart, and J. Tubke. "Electrocatalyst for Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells." ECS Transactions 69, no. 17 (October 2, 2015): 795–807. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/06917.0795ecst.

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39

Zainoodin, A. M., S. K. Kamarudin, and W. R. W. Daud. "Electrode in direct methanol fuel cells." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 35, no. 10 (May 2010): 4606–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.02.036.

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40

Serov, Alexey, and Chan Kwak. "Direct hydrazine fuel cells: A review." Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 98, no. 1-2 (July 2010): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.05.005.

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41

Ong, B. C., S. K. Kamarudin, and S. Basri. "Direct liquid fuel cells: A review." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 42, no. 15 (April 2017): 10142–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.01.117.

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42

TSUTSUMI, Yasuyuki, Yasuhiro NAKANO, Shuichi KAJITANI, and Susumu YAMASITA. "Direct Type Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells using Methoxy Fuel." Electrochemistry 70, no. 12 (December 5, 2002): 984–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.70.984.

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43

Wee, Jung-Ho. "Which type of fuel cell is more competitive for portable application: Direct methanol fuel cells or direct borohydride fuel cells?" Journal of Power Sources 161, no. 1 (October 2006): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.07.032.

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44

Uhm, Sunghyun, Sung Taik Chung, and Jaeyoung Lee. "Characterization of direct formic acid fuel cells by Impedance Studies: In comparison of direct methanol fuel cells." Journal of Power Sources 178, no. 1 (March 2008): 34–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.12.016.

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45

LIN, Y., Z. ZHAN, J. LIU, and S. BARNETT. "Direct operation of solid oxide fuel cells with methane fuel." Solid State Ionics 176, no. 23-24 (July 2005): 1827–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssi.2005.05.008.

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46

Zhao, T. S., W. W. Yang, R. Chen, and Q. X. Wu. "Towards operating direct methanol fuel cells with highly concentrated fuel." Journal of Power Sources 195, no. 11 (June 1, 2010): 3451–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.11.140.

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47

Kamaruddin, M. Z. F., S. K. Kamarudin, W. R. W. Daud, and M. S. Masdar. "An overview of fuel management in direct methanol fuel cells." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 24 (August 2013): 557–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.013.

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48

Buie, C. R., D. Kim, S. Litster, and J. G. Santiago. "An Electro-osmotic Fuel Pump for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells." Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 10, no. 11 (2007): B196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2772083.

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49

Yan, X. H., P. Gao, G. Zhao, L. Shi, J. B. Xu, and T. S. Zhao. "Transport of highly concentrated fuel in direct methanol fuel cells." Applied Thermal Engineering 126 (November 2017): 290–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.07.186.

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Bartrom, A. M., G. Ognibene, J. Ta, J. Tran, and J. L. Haan. "Catalysts for Alkaline Direct Ethanol and Direct Formate Fuel Cells." ECS Transactions 50, no. 2 (March 15, 2013): 1913–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/05002.1913ecst.

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