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Heselhaus, Sebastian. "Registration Requirements for Monomer Substances Integrated in Polymers under the REACH-Regulation." European Journal of Risk Regulation 1, no. 2 (2010): 189–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1867299x00000349.
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1. The concept of ‘monomer substances’ in Article 6 (3) of Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No. 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC, relates only to reacted monomers which are integrated in polymers (official headnote).2. Article 6 (3) of Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 infringes neither the principle of proportionality nor the principle of equal treatment (author's headnote).
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Bruder, Florian. "Burden of Proof and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Directive." European Review of Private Law 15, Issue 2 (2007): 205–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2007011.
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Abstract:In this article, the author examines how the concept of burden of proof applies to substantive issues governed by EC directives. Two decisions of the European Court of Justice give rise to the question of how national substantive and procedural law must accommodate EC policy and principle. Drawing on a general understanding of the concept of burden of proof, and a specific understanding with respect to the Directive in English and German law, the author puts forward how the burden of proof should be seen as regards to issues arising from Directive 93/13, in particular on the test of unfairness. In English law the concept of burden of proof follows a different approach and applies to a wider range of issues than a proper understanding of Directive 93/13 and other EC directives concerning contract law requires. The author proposes that Directive 93/13 demands a restrictive application of national concepts of burden of proof, so that burden of proof applies only to the existence of facts but not to their legal characterization. This proposed autonomous interpretation of burden of proof is then used to guide the English existing approach so as to conform to community law’s more interventionist role for the court. Résumé:La présente contribution tend à déterminer dans quelle mesure les règles sur la charge de la preuve sont applicables au droit matériel transposant les directives de l’UE. Deux décisions de la CJCE soulèvent la question de savoir comment le droit national, tant matériel que formel, doit être harmonisé avec le droit et les principes européens. En se basant les règles de droit anglais et de droit allemand en la matière, l’auteur examine de quelle manière la charge de la preuve doit s’appliquer dans le cadre de la Directive 93/13, en particulier lors de l’examen du caractère abusif des clauses contractuelles. Le droit anglais de la procédure conçoit la charge de la preuve différemment que le droit allemand. Il en résulte que cette notion a une portée plus large que celle qu’exigent la Directive 93/13 et d’autres directives de droit européen des contrats. C’est pourquoi, l’auteur soutient que la Directive 93/13 impose une application restrictive des règles anglaises sur la charge de la preuve, de façon à ce que celles-ci ne concernent que l’existence des faits, et non la portée légale de ces derniers. Cette interprétation autonome de la charge de la preuve est ensuite comparée à la conception actuelle du droit anglais sur le sujet pour démontrer comment celle-ci peut être harmonisée avec les exigences du droit européen, en particulier celle du rôle actif du tribunal. Zusammenfassung:Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht, inwieweit Regeln der Beweislast auf von EG-Richtlinien beeinflusstes materielles Recht anwendbar sind. Zwei Entscheidungen des EuGH geben Anlass zu der Frage, auf welche Weise nationales materielles und prozessuales Recht mit EG-Recht und EG-Prinzipien in Einklang gebracht werden müssen. Auf Grundlage des jeweiligen Verständnisses der Beweislast im englischen und deutschen Recht erarbeitet der Autor, wie die Regeln der Beweislast auf einzelne im Rahmen von Richtlinie 93/13 auftauchende Fragen, insbesondere auf die Prüfung der Missbräuchlichkeit von Vertragsbedingungen, anzuwenden sind. Vor dem Hintergrund des englischen Zivilverfahrens liegt der Beweislast im englischen Recht ein gegenüber dem deutschen Recht abweichender Ansatz zu Grunde. Bei diesem Ansatz ist der Anwendungsbereich der Beweislast weiter&com
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Schillig, Michael. "DIRECTIVE 93/13 AND THE ‘PRICE TERM EXEMPTION’: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS IN THE LIGHT OF THE ‘MARKET FOR LEMONS’ RATIONALE." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 60, no. 4 (2011): 933–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589311000443.
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AbstractIn the light of the Supreme Court decision in OFT v Abbey National on unarranged overdraft fees in current account contracts, this article analyses the price term exemption at the heart of Directive 93/13 in its European context, and on a comparative basis. It argues for an interpretation in line with the ‘market for lemons’ rationale, which best fits the regulatory outline of Directive 93/13, and the European Court of Justice's case law. Under this approach, only those contract terms that are subject to the correcting forces of markets and competition are part of the ‘main subject matter of the contract’ and should be exempt from assessment of fairness under Directive 93/13.
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Saintier, Séverine. "France, Germany and the United Kingdoms Divergent Interpretations of Directives 86/653 and 93/13s Exclusionary Provisions: An Overlooked Threat to Coherence?" European Review of Private Law 19, Issue 5 (2011): 519–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2011041.
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Abstract: Following its 2010 Green paper on policy options for progress towards a European Contract Law for Consumers and Businesses and the more recent feasibility study for a future instrument in European Contract Law, the European Commission's commitment to a European contract law is unwavering. Although it is not as yet clear what form this instrument will take, the move to a European contract law is welcome. Yet, by concentrating on the negative impact of divergent interpretations of key terms within Directives on cross-border trade, the debate for a closer harmonization of private law appears to have overlooked another concern; that of divergent interpretations of exclusionary provisions, which, by undermining the effectiveness of Directives as protective measures threaten coherence. This threat exists in the United Kingdom with respect to two Directives affecting consumers as well as businesses: Directive 86/653 on self-employed commercial agents and Directive 93/13 on unfair terms. The aim of this article is to determine the extent of the problem and consider what solutions, if any, are available. Résumé: À la suite de la publication en juillet 2010 du livre vert de la Commission Européenne ainsi que la plus récente publication du rapport de la commission d'experts pour un instrument futur de droit européen des contrats, l'engagement de la Commission Européenne en faveur d'un droit européen des contrats demeure fort. Bien que ni la forme ni le contenu d'un tel instrument n'aient été précisés, un tel engagement de la Commission Européenne est néanmoins positif. Cependant, en se concentrant sur l'impact négatif causé par les différentes interprétations nationales de certains mots clés des Directives, le mouvement en faveur d'une harmonisation plus avancée du droit privé initié par la Commission Européenne semble avoir oublié un autre problème: celui des interprétations divergentes des exceptions d'application de certaines directives. De telles divergences nuisent à l'efficacité de ces directives en tant que mesures protectrices et menacent leur cohérence. Un tel problème se voit particulièrement au Royaume Uni par rapport à deux directives; la Directive 86/653 relative aux agents commerciaux indépendants et la directive 93/13 relative aux clauses abusives. Le but de cet article est d'étudier l'étendue de ce problème puis de considérer quelles solutions, s'il y en a, peuvent être proposées.
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Zaczyk, Marcin. "Legal and Normative Requirements Related to Medical Devices for Individual Supply in Clinical Practice." Ortopedia Traumatologia Rehabilitacja 23, no. 5 (2021): 381–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0015.4360.
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This article has the form of a communication presenting recent legal changes in relation to medical devices. Until 26 May 2021, three medical directives were in force, namely Directive 98/79 / EC, Council Directive 93/42/ EEC and Council Directive 90/385 / EEC. They have been replaced by two regulations: Regulation (EU) 2017/745 on medical devices and Regulation (EU) 2017/746 on in vitro diagnostic medical devices. The article presents the reasons for introducing the changes and the new obligations that these changes bring for manufacturers of medical devices, in particular, products manufactured individually on a special order as necessary for the implementation of personalized therapies in clinical practice. There are also forecasts for the industry and end users of medical devices manufactured to order and used individually at medical centers.
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Elvinger, Marc. "La Directive 93/13/CEE du 5 avril 1993 et le droit luxembourgeois." European Review of Private Law 5, Issue 2 (1997): 185–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/160159.
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Ferge, Zsigmond. "Debate of the legal interpretation of definitions of medical devices and medicinal products for human use." Orvosi Hetilap 155, no. 11 (2014): 429–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/oh.2014.29803.
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On 3 October 2013 the European Court of Justice made a decision regarding the interpretation of definitions of medical devices (Directive 93/42/EC) and medicinal product for human use (Directive 2001/83/EC), based on the Article 267 TFEU preliminary ruling. Orv. Hetil., 2014, 155(11), 429–433.
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Giliker, Paula. "The Consumer Rights Act 2015 – a bastion of European consumer rights?" Legal Studies 37, no. 1 (2017): 78–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lest.12139.
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The Consumer Rights Act 2015 seeks to consolidate in one place key consumer rights covering contracts for goods, services and digital content, and the law relating to unfair terms in consumer contracts. These are areas where there has been considerable activity at both a national and an EU level. In particular, the Consumer Sales Directive 99/44/EC, the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Directive 93/13/EEC and the Consumer Rights Directive 2011/83/EU have all made significant changes to Member State law, promoting the idea of the ‘informed consumer’, able to assert his or her rights in entering consumer contracts. This paper will examine the extent to which the Act promotes the objectives of these Directives and the implications of the result of the June 2016 referendum that the UK should leave the EU. Does the Consumer Rights Act 2015 represent a valuable consolidation of EU and UK consumer policy, or are EU rights being absorbed into a distinctive national framework of consumer rights?
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Tarantola, M., M. Matton, C. Bellino, G. Barbero, E. Castell, and D. Dutto. "Does the application of directive 2001/93/EC improve pigs welfare and productive performances?" Italian Journal of Animal Science 6, sup1 (2007): 722. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2007.1s.722.
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VON PRONDZYNSKI, FERDINAND. "Council Directive 93/104/EC Concerning Certain Aspects of the Organization of Working Time." Industrial Law Journal 23, no. 1 (1994): 92–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ilj/23.1.92.
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Aguilar Olivares, Yolanda. "Recientes modificaciones en el derecho español sobre la tutela del consumidor tras la Ley 3/2014, de 27 de marzo, por la que se modifica el TRLCU : especial referencia al derecho de desistimiento." Revista de Derecho de la UNED (RDUNED), no. 14 (January 1, 2014): 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/rduned.14.2014.13311.
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La reciente publicación de la Ley 3/2014, de 27 de marzo, por la que se modifica el texto refundido de la Ley General para la Defensa de los Consumidores y Usuarios y otras leyes complementarias, aprobado por el Real Decreto Legislativo 1/2007, de 16 de noviembre ha supuesto la trasposición a nuestro derecho interno de la Directiva 2011/83/UE. La Directiva 2011/83/UE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, de 25 de octubre de 2011, sobre los derechos de los consumidores, por la que se modifican la Directiva 93/13/CEE del Consejo y la Directiva 1999/44/CE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo y por la que se derogan la Directiva 85/577/CEE del Consejo y la Directiva 97/7/CE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo ha supuesto el impulso a la protección de los consumidores y usuarios europeos y a la consolidación del mercado interior dotando tanto a los consumidores como a los empresarios de una mayor seguridad jurídica. Pretende caminar hacia la armonización plena de los ordenamientos jurídicos internos de los Estados, y para ello ha introducido modificaciones sustanciales en materia de contratos con los consumidores y usuarios, ha derogado la normativa relativa a los contratos celebrados a distancia y los contratos celebrados fuera de los establecimientos mercantiles y determinados aspectos de la venta y las garantías de los bienes de consumo, con una regulación más amplia del derecho de desistimiento.The recent publication of Law 3/2014, of 27 of March, by which the recast of the General Law for the Defense of the Consumers and Users is modified and other complementary laws, approved by Real Legislative Decree 1/2007, of 16 of November has meant the transposition to our national right. The Directive 2011/83/UE of the European Parliament and the Council, of 25 of October of 2011, on the rights of consumer, by which the Directive 93/13/CEE of the Council and the Directive 1999/44/CE of the European Parliament and the Council and the Directive 85/577/CEE of the Council and the Directive 97/7/CE of the European Parliament and the Council are been modified, has supposed an impulse to the protection of the European consumers and users and to the consolidation of the domestic market providing both the consumers and the entrepreneur with a greater legal security. It pretends to walk towards the complete harmonization of the domestic legal system of the States and for this reason it has introduced substantial modifications in the matter of contracts with the consumer and users, it has abolished the norm relative to celebrated contracts at a distance contracts and off –premises contracts and certain aspects of the sale and the guarantees of the consumer goods, with a broader regulation of the right of withdrawal.
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Powell, Mark. "Amended proposal for a Council Directive on the legal protection of Databases (93/C 308/01) COM (93) 464 final - SYN 393." Computer Law & Security Review 10 (January 1994): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0267-3649(94)90133-3.
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Grima, Simon, Inna Romanova, Frank Bezzina, and Frank. "Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive and its Impact on Malta’s Financial Service Industry." International Journal of Economics and Business Administration IV, Issue 1 (2016): 70–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.35808/ijeba/93.
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Ferge, Zsigmond. "Comments to the interpretation of the term “medical devices”." Orvosi Hetilap 154, no. 10 (2013): 391–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/oh.2013.29559.
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The Court of Justice of the European Union made a decision on medical devices as non-medicinal products for intended use in interpreting the concept of free movement of goods, such as operating principles concerning the subject matter of the interpretation of Directive 93/42/ EEC – in preliminary ruling according to article 267 of TFEU – on 22 November 2012. With its decision, given assigned explained the concept of the scope of medical devices. The decision of the Court is binding not only for the national court initiating a request for the preliminary ruling, but also for all courts of the Member States. Official reference: Dated judgement 22 November 2012 of the Court of Justice of the European Union to C-219/ Case no. 11 – in preliminary ruling according to article 267 of TFEU. Interpreted provisions: Directive 2007/47/EC of The Europen Parliament and of the Council of 5 September 2007 as amended by the Council Directive 93/42/EEC of 14 June 1993 concerning medical devices 1st (2) a) first, second and third indent. Orv. Hetil., 2013, 154, 391–393.
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Sieradzka, Małgorzata. "Unfair Terms in Loan Agreements Connected with Foreign Currency. Comment to the Judgement in Case C-186/16 Ruxandra Paula Andriciuc e.a. contre Banca Românească SA." Polish Review of International and European Law 9, no. 2 (2020): 201–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/priel.2020.9.2.08.
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In the judgment under appeal, the referring court asked the Court in the context of proceedings between a banking institution and several individual borrowers, the interpretation to be given to Article 3(1) and Article 4(2) of Directive 93/13/EEC Council Directive of 5.4.1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts (OJ L 95, 21.4.1993, p. 29–34). The Court indicated that a term such as that at issue in the main proceedings, incorporated into a loan agreement concluded in a foreign currency between a seller or supplier and a consumer without being individually negotiated, on terms by which the loan must be repaid in the same currency, is covered by the notion of ‘main subject matter of the contract’ within the meaning of Article 4(2) of Directive 93/13. Furthermore, it is for the national court, upon considering all the circumstances surrounding the conclusion of the contract, to ascertain whether, in the case concerned, all the information likely to have a bearing on the extent of this commitment had been communicated to the consumer, enabling him/her to estimate in particular the total cost of his/her loan. The Court accepted in a judgment that Article 3(1) of Directive 93/13 must be interpreted as meaning that the assessment of the unfairness of a contractual term must be made by reference to the time of conclusion of the contract at issue, taking account all of the circumstances which could have been known to the seller or supplier at that time, and which were such as to affect the future performance of that contract.
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Davo, Hélène. "Clauses abusives: loi du février 1995 transposant la directive 93/13/CEE en droit français." European Review of Private Law 5, Issue 2 (1997): 157–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/160155.
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Reich, Norbert. "The implementation of Directive 93/13/EEC on unfair terms in consumer contracts in Germany." European Review of Private Law 5, Issue 2 (1997): 165–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/160156.
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Colbert, Colleen Y., Curtis Mirkes, Paul E. Ogden, et al. "Enhancing Competency in Professionalism: Targeting Resident Advance Directive Education." Journal of Graduate Medical Education 2, no. 2 (2010): 278–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4300/jgme-d-10-00003.1.
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Abstract Background Education about advance directives typically is incorporated into medical school curricula and is not commonly offered in residency. Residents' experiences with advance directives are generally random, nonstandardized, and difficult to assess. In 2008, an advance directive curriculum was developed by the Scott & White/Texas A&M University System Health Science Center College of Medicine (S&W/Texas A&M) internal medicine residency program and the hospital's legal department. A pilot study examining residents' attitudes and experiences regarding advance directives was carried out at 2 medical schools. Methods In 2009, 59 internal medicine and family medicine residents (postgraduate year 2–3 [PGY-2, 3]) completed questionnaires at S&W/Texas A&M (n = 32) and The University of Texas Medical School at Houston (n = 27) during a validation study of knowledge about advance directives. The questionnaire contained Likert-response items assessing attitudes and practices surrounding advance directives. Our analysis included descriptive statistics and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare responses across categories. Results While 53% of residents agreed/strongly agreed they had “sufficient knowledge of advance directives, given my years of training,” 47% disagreed/strongly disagreed with that statement. Most (93%) agreed/strongly agreed that “didactic sessions on advance directives should be offered by my hospital, residency program, or medical school.” A test of responses across residency years with ANOVA showed a significant difference between ratings by PGY-2 and PGY-3 residents on 3 items: “Advance directives should only be discussed with patients over 60,” “I have sufficient knowledge of advance directives, given my years of training,” and “I believe my experience with advance directives is adequate for the situations I routinely encounter.” Conclusion Our study highlighted the continuing need for advance directive resident curricula. Medical school curricula alone do not appear to be sufficient for residents' needs in this area.
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Gather, Jakov, and Jochen Vollmann. "How to Decide?" GeroPsych 28, no. 1 (2015): 17–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/1662-9647/a000118.
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Based on a clinical case report of a 93-year-old person with dementia, who refuses to eat and drink after successful treatment of pneumonia with a subsequent delirium, we discuss different aspects of the evaluation of the patient’s will from an ethical point of view. We describe the problems of applying an advance directive to the present situation and draw ethical conclusions for handling advance directives in psychiatric practice. Furthermore, we discuss how the diverging expressions of someone’s will should be taken into account in order to respect the patient’s autonomy at the best.
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Hodierne, Tracy, and David Botterill. "The EC travel directive— for better or worse?" Tourism Management 14, no. 5 (1993): 331–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(93)90001-2.
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Mazur, Robert. "The Difficult Path of the Implementation of Directive 93/13/EEC in Poland, as Illustrated by the Example of the Consumer Dispute with the Banking Sector Concerning Housing Loans Indexed to the Swiss Franc in 2013–2019." osteuropa recht 66, no. 1 (2020): 182–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/0030-6444-2020-1-182.
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This article outlines the long and difficult path of implementing Directive 93/13/EEC in Poland in the context of Swiss franc housing loan disputes. It elaborates on the initial problem of mass inclusion of abusive provisions in loan contracts, the essence of such disputes as well as the main issues raised by borrowers against banks, and continues with a discussion of grounds for abusiveness of indexation clauses in the decisions of Polish courts, the consequences of finding indexation clauses abusive (according to court decisions), and the question of invalidity of the contract. In summary, the article concludes that the 20s of the 21st century should be a time of realistic and practical implementation of the provisions of Directive 93/13 in Poland - i.e., a century that conforms to the ‘spirit’ of European law.
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Calero Olmos, Juan Bautista. "La protección europea contra las cláusulas abusivas. Directiva 93/13/CEE y su integración en el marco regulatorio español | European protection against unfair clauses. Directive 93/13/EEC and its integration into the spanish legislation." REVISTA ESTUDIOS INSTITUCIONALES 7, no. 12 (2020): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/eeii.vol.7.n.12.2020.27334.
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El desarrollo económico global de los años sesenta del siglo pasado, junto con la implantación del mercado común europeo, trajo consigo el incremento de transacciones comerciales entre grandes corporaciones empresariales y los ciudadanos residentes en la Unión europea provocadas por la distribución de bienes y servicios necesarios. Las formas contractuales cambian, y se imponen los contratos de adhesión como la mejor manera de concretar estas nuevas transacciones. La posición predominante del empresario ante el consumidor necesitado de estos bienes y servicios provocó situaciones de abuso que fueron trasladadas a las cláusulas contractuales mermando los derechos básicos de los perceptores de bienes y servicios, esto es, de los ciudadanos europeos. La reacción de las instituciones de gobierno de la Unión Europea no se hizo esperar con la promulgación de resoluciones legales a favor de recomponer el desequilibrio contractual, entre otras, la Directiva 93/13/CEE de obligada incorporación inmediata en los países miembros. En España, esta trasposición de la Directiva se realizó con una doble regulación a través de la Ley de Condiciones Generales de la Contratación que modificó, a su vez la Ley General de defensa de los consumidores. En ambas, se contemplaron instrumentos de defensa procesal a través tanto de acciones individuales como colectivas._______________________The overall economic development of the sixties of the last century, together with the implementation of the European common market, led to the increase in commercial transactions between large business corporations and citizens residing in the European Union caused by the distribution of necessary goods and services. Contractual forms change, and accession contracts are imposed as the best way to implement these new transactions. The predominant position of the employer to the consumer in need of these goods and services caused situations of abuse that were transferred to the contractual clauses, under reducing the basic rights of the recipients of goods and services, that is, of European citizens. The reaction of the governing institutions of the European Union was not expected with the enactment of legal rulings in favour of recomposing the contractual imbalance, inter alia, Directive 93/13/EEC which must be immediately incorporated into the Member States. In Spain, this transposition of the Directive was carried out with a double regulation through the Law on General Conditions of Contract that, in turn, amended the General Law on the Defense of Consumers. Both instruments of procedural defence were envisaged through both individual and collective actions.
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Klein, Albrecht W., J. Goedicke, Werner Klein, M. Herrchen, and W. Kördel. "Environmental assessment of pesticides under Directive 91/414/EEC." Chemosphere 26, no. 5 (1993): 979–1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(93)90372-c.
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Earll, Bob. "EC habitats directive: Marine protected areas in the UK." Marine Pollution Bulletin 26, no. 12 (1993): 661–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0025-326x(93)90540-z.
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Hannouch, N., M. Fauvzi, D. Boyer, and G. Farges. "Le projet d'amendement de la directive 93/42/CEE et son impact sur le marquage CE." ITBM-RBM News 27, no. 3 (2006): 10–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1297-9570(06)80048-8.
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Ginter, Carri, Albert Linntam, and Kadri Härginen. "Passengers Are Not Automatically Responsible for Fines Imposed on Airlines Estonian Court Declares a Lufthansa Standard Term Unfair." European Review of Private Law 27, Issue 5 (2019): 985–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2019054.
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The standard terms of airlines foresee the semi-automatic reimbursement by passengers of fines imposed by national authorities on the airlines. In certain circumstances, this mechanism is contrary to Directive 93/13/EEC on unfair contract terms. Greater protection of consumer rights by national courts is needed
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Reich, Norbert, and Hans-W. Micklitz. "The Court and Sleeping Beauty: The revival of the Unfair Contract Terms Directive (UCTD)." Common Market Law Review 51, Issue 3 (2014): 771–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/cola2014061.
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The paper gives an overview of the increased litigation leading to innovative case law of the ECJ concerning the scope and effects of the Unfair Contract Terms Directive (Directive 93/13/EEC) on consumer contracts, in particular financial services and services in the general economic interest. The originally limited impact of the Directive on Member State contract law and procedure has been substantially extended - as a metaphor, one may even say that a "Sleeping Beauty has been kissed awake" by the Court! The authors follow the recent case law both in its legal and economic consequences on consumer protection in the EU internal market. The paper ends with an outlook on the state of "Social Contract Law in the EU" - hoping to provoke a broader discussion on the concept and limits of a "Europeanization" of contract law already under way.
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Chovancová, Katarína. "Consumer Arbitration and Subtle Variances in its Effectiveness in Selected EU Member States (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Germany)." Review of Central and East European Law 43, no. 2 (2018): 197–231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15730352-04302004.
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Thorough legal regulation of arbitration involving consumers is significant for their protection, which is provided in the EU by the restrictive model, embedded in Council Directive 93/13/EEC on Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts. It is submitted that EU Member States’ legislative reaction to achieve compatibility of their national laws with Directive 93/13 EEC was not identical and led to a debate on the effectiveness of consumer arbitration in the EU. The following article is an attempt to inform this debate. It provides a compact analysis of consumer arbitration agreements and discusses relevant arbitration law and practice in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria and Germany – four EU Member States and also neighbors with intertwined mutual relationships. The thesis of this article is that even the most consumer-friendly legislation does not secure the success of consumer arbitration in all arbitrated cases. Equally, strongly pro-consumer legislation does not always mean arbitration-friendly legislation when legislative assimilation of litigation with arbitration is not avoided – indeed, quite the opposite.
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Jannott, H. K. "Accounting of insurance enterprises, considerations on the EC Insurance Accounting Directive." Insurance: Mathematics and Economics 12, no. 1 (1993): 87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-6687(93)91079-a.
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Wang, Kaipeng, Bei Wu, Fei Sun, Dexia Kong, and Yanqin Liu. "Determinants of Advance Directive Completion Among Older Chinese Americans." Innovation in Aging 4, Supplement_1 (2020): 471–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa057.1526.
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Abstract Advance Directive (AD) allows older adults to communicate preferred care at the end of life. Numerous studies reported that ethnic minorities were less likely to complete AD then non-Hispanic Whites. However, determinants of AD completion among older Chinese Americans remain unknown. The present study aims to address this knowledge gap. Data came from a survey of 439 Chinese Americans aged from 51 to 103 living in two metropolitan areas in 2018. Participants’ average year was 75 (SD=9.37). About 63% were women and 93% were born outside the US. Approximately 14% of participants completed an AD. Guided by the Andersen’s Service Use Model, we used logistic regression to examine determinants of AD completion. Results show that older age (OR = 1.06, p < 0.01), being employed (OR = 2.63, p < 0.05), acculturation (OR = 2.09, p < 0.001), having US citizenship (OR = 3.57, p < 0.01), and expectation of intergenerational support (OR = 1.84, p < 0.05), were positively associated with AD completion. Physical and mental health needs were not significantly associated with AD completion. This is among the first studies focusing on AD completion among Chinese Americans, one of the fastest growing older minority populations in the US. Findings highlight the influence of socioeconomic and cultural factors on AD completion and illustrates the importance of developing culturally sensitive interventions to promote end-of-life care decision-making among older Chinese Americans.
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Tatang, Tatang, and Syihabuddin Syihabuddin. "ANALISIS TUTURAN DIREKTIF DAN NILAI BUDAYA PADA BUKU AL’ARABIYAH BAYNA YADAYKA." El-HARAKAH (TERAKREDITASI) 16, no. 1 (2014): 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.18860/el.v16i1.2772.
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This article examines the types of directive speech act in the book Al’arabiyah Bayna Yadayka, and its values of Arabic culture. This study was motivated by the lack of students’ understanding of Arabic culture, whereas they are prospecting to be Arabic teachers. To examine this issue we used a descriptive method with critical discourse analysis, comparative analysis, and pragmatic analysis which is based on Grice’s and Leech’s theories. The data analysis found that in the Al’Arabiyyah Yadayka Baina there are 93 types of questions using directive speech, 8 of solicitation, 9 of petition, 9 of offers, 2 of rejection, and 1 of prohibition. The directive speech contains the traditions and values of Arab and Islamic cultures, i.e the Arabic speech system which is directive, assertive, and straightforward, the use of insya Allah phrase, the holiday traditions, the worships, the tradition of similar speech opponents, the factual topics, and the topics in the Islamic laws. This tradition constitutes the principle of cooperation and politeness. This Arabic communication and the Islamic values must be taught to the Arabic students to improve their multicultural competence and the Islamic values.
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Busch, Danny. "The Future of the Special Duty of Care in the Financial Sector – Perspectives from the Netherlands." European Business Law Review 32, Issue 3 (2021): 473–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eulr2021017.
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A clear trend is evolving as more and more banks and other financial institutions are being successfully sued before the civil courts of the Netherlands for breaches of their special duty of care (‘bijzondere zorgplicht’). Whereas it was initially mainly banks that had reason to worry about claims for damages based on a breach of the special duty of care, other financial institutions too are now having to take the possibility of such claims very seriously. Another factor is that the special duty of care owed by financial institutions now seems to apply not only in their dealings with retail clients but also in relation to non-retail clients that need protection. The author discusses the main developments relating to the special duty of care, leading to a consideration of how things may evolve in the future. Banks, financial institutions, MiFID (Directive 2004/39/EC), MiFID II (Directive 2014/65/EU), conduct-of-business rules, duty of care, product governance, product intervention, mistake, error, contract law, tort law, Dutch Civil Code, Unfair Contract Terms Directive (Directive 93/13/EEC), nudging, FinTech, sustainable finance, mass damage
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Muijen, Matthijs. "Training psychiatrists in Europe: fit for purpose?" Psychiatrist 34, no. 10 (2010): 450–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/pb.bp.110.030189.
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SummaryPsychiatric training in all European Union (EU) Member States complies with the relevant Council Directive 93/16, permitting free movement of specialists within EU borders. This assumes that the training offers similar experiences, and produces specialists fit for purpose in all EU countries. Surveys demonstrate that, although all countries adhere to the conditions of the Directive, the diversity of training is striking on all but the most fundamental aspects. An added complication is that psychiatric practice has become increasingly diversified, even between neighbouring countries, and psychiatric training will have evolved to meet national service requirements. Questions about how to safeguard competence of psychiatric specialists to practice across the EU are therefore pertinent, and introducing systems to regulate quality control of training should be considered.
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Ferrante, Vincenzo. "Between health and salary: The incomplete regulation of working time in European law." European Labour Law Journal 10, no. 4 (2019): 370–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2031952519886144.
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The European Union competences on health and safety of workplace constituted the legal basis for the 93/104 Directive to be adopted (and for the consolidated text of 2003/88 Directive). The Court of Justice has firmly maintained this approach refusing to take into account the history of international regulation on working time, which links together work and salary in perspective to give the workers the right to fair and equal treatment as regards their working conditions (as has been recently proclaimed also by the European Pillar of Social Rights). Building on these general premises, this article analyses the more recent European pieces of legislation and cases related to on-call time and proposes a new model for the definition of working time in the light of CJEU case law.
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Hudson, Eric B., and Barry J. Hill. "EC Directive 91/67/EEC and its relevance to disease in wild salmonids." Fisheries Research 17, no. 1-2 (1993): 229–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-7836(93)90022-y.
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Schmalz, Gottfried. "Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices: A Review of EU Regulations, with Emphasis on In Vitro Screening for Biocompatibility." Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 23, no. 4 (1995): 469–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026119299502300408.
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— The quality of medical devices (including their biocompatibility) is regulated throughout the European Economic Area by Directive 93/42/EEC, which came into effect on 1 January 1995. The CE (conformity assessment) mark placed on the device shows conformity with the essential requirements, which guarantee the desired level of quality. Standards can be used to prove this conformity with the essential requirements. Scientific input is needed to produce and update relevant standards.
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Charalambous, Katerina, Adriana Bruggeman, Elias Giannakis, and Christos Zoumides. "Improving Public Participation Processes for the Floods Directive and Flood Awareness: Evidence from Cyprus." Water 10, no. 7 (2018): 958. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10070958.
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Public participation is integrated in the European Floods Directive to ensure engagement of societal actors in selecting and accepting measures. This study assesses the Directive’s public participation process and provides recommendations for its improvement by using Cyprus as a case study. Interviews with the organizers and attendees of the public consultations were carried out to evaluate the process while a citizen survey examined people’s flood awareness and opinions of three household-level flood protection measures (permeable pavements, rainwater harvesting systems, and green roofs). Public consultation organizers were generally satisfied with the process while participants suggested better structured information and a more participatory approach. The majority (77%) of the survey respondents did not know if they lived in a designated flood risk area while 93% were unaware of the public consultations carried out for the Floods Directive. Their perception about the effectiveness of the three flood protection measures was positively associated with their willingness to implement them. The results indicated the need for more participatory methods in the public participation process and better strategies to increase awareness and the engagement of people in flood management. Establishing procedures for evaluating the effectiveness of public participation could contribute to the recognition and improvement of the process.
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Karasek-Wojciechowicz, Iwona. "Die Sanktionierung missbräuchlicher Vertragsklauseln sowie die Vertragsrückabwicklung am Beispiel Polens." osteuropa recht 66, no. 1 (2020): 129–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/0030-6444-2020-1-129.
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In recent years, the European Court of Justice has often dealt with disputes revolving around the interpretation of Council Directive 93/13/EEC of 5 April 1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts. This article focuses on controversial questions in the domains of legal doctrine and jurisdiction, in particular in the context of disputes over foreign-currency denominated or foreign-currency indexed loans. It discusses questions revolving around legal bases for reverse transactions following the invalidity of a contract, the lack of legal bases for performing a contract, jurisdiction on the invalidity of a contract in the case of unfair terms, without which the contract cannot be concluded, the extent of reverse transactions, ECJ jurisdiction, the Council Directive’s deterrent effect, the admissibility of substitute types of fulfilling the contract, and consumer claims against financial institutions.
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O'Keeffe, Jacqui. "Transfrontier Shipments of Waste: A Bureaucrat's Dream?" European Energy and Environmental Law Review 9, Issue 1 (2000): 10–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/262040.
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In the April 1999 edition of European Environmental Law Review, AME Veldkamp analysed the implementation of Regulation (EEC) No 259/93 on the Supervision and Control of Shipments of Waste within, into and out of the European Community (the "European Shipments Regulation") and the difficulties faced by Member States in seeking to develop "transnational enforcement cooperation". Anyone involved with the movement of waste within, through, into or from Western Europe and in particular the European Community ("EC"), is faced with a myriad of legislation at international, European (and in some cases regional) and national levels. Not only is the volume of legislation daunting, but there appears to be no one coherent system of regulation. Recent attempts to simplify the procedure have, at least in the short term, only succeeded in making matters more complex. The new Annex V to the European Shipments Regulation, introduced by Regulation 2408/98, governs the ban on exports of waste to non-OECD countries, and uses three systems for classifying waste: the Basel Convention, the OECD Control System and the hazardous waste list under the Hazardous Waste Directive (Council Directive 91/689/EEC). Annex V exposes the weaknesses in a system riddled with cross reference and contradiction. "Waste" for the purposes of Annex V, will be banned if "it displays any of the properties listed in Annex III to Directive 91/689/EEC taking into account as regards H3 to H8 of the said Annex, the limit values laid down in Decision 94/904/EC as provided for in Article 1(4) second indent of Directive 91/689/EEC and in the header of Annex II to Regulation (EEC) No 259/93". Although the Basel ban has been implemented by European legislation it has not yet been brought into force at an international level. A controversial proposal for developing countries and exporters from the OECD, the ban exposes the weaknesses of the waste shipment system, and the lack of redress for a party aggrieved by a decision based on diverse definitions of "waste", "hazardous waste", "recovery" or "disposal", or on the absence of a definition. In this article, the evolution of the European and international systems for shipments of waste are discussed, uncovering a legislative maze.
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Fennema, Peter, and Hassan Achakri. "Getting your devices ready for MDR compliance – a clinical approach and orthopaedic device manufacturers’ perspective." AboutOpen 6, no. 1 (2019): 70–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.33393/abtpn.2019.294.
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On 26 May 2017, the Medical Devices Regulation (MDR 2017/745) was published, with the aim of replacing the current Medical Devices Directive (MDD 93/43/EC). Following a transition period of 3 years, this regulation will be applied in full from 26 May 2020. This article describes and discusses the impact of MDR on the clinical evaluation and gives advice to manufacturers on the preparation, planning and implementation of processes to support compliance with the new regulation. (HTA & Market Access)
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Pavillon, Charlotte. "ECJ 26 October 2006, Case C-168-05 Mostaza Claro v. Centro Móvil Milenium SL – The Unfair Contract Terms Directive: The ECJ’s Third Intervention in Domestic Procedu." European Review of Private Law 15, Issue 5 (2007): 735–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2007039.
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Abstract:Directive 93/13/EEC requires any court which hears an action for annulment of an arbitration award to determine whether the arbitration agreement is void and to annul the award if it finds that that arbitration agreement contains an unfair term to the consumer’s detriment, where this issue is raised in the action for annulment but was not raised by the consumer in the arbitration proceedings. This ruling is based on an analogy with the Eco Swiss judgment and on the public interest of the protecting the consumer, in view of the risk that of the latter being is unaware of his rights or of encountering difficulties in enforcing them. These grounds as well as the questionable finding that the Directive amounts to Community public policy, are subjected to critical review in this paper, following the Cofidis case – the latter being the second occasion on which a national procedural rule had to yield to the principle of effectiveness. The most striking feature of this judgment is the contrast between the Court’s far-reaching intervention in the domestic procedural legal order, at the expense of the principle of procedural autonomy on the one hand, and its will to leave the assessment of what constitutes an unfair term to the discretion of the national courts on the other. If the Court has its way, the harmonisation of the protection against unfair contract terms will be procedural rather than substantive by nature. Résumé: La directive 93/13/CEE implique qu’une juridiction nationale saisie d’un recours en annulation d’une sentence arbitrale apprécie la nullité de la convention d’arbitrage et annule cette sentence au motif que ladite convention contient une clause abusive, alors même que le consommateur a invoqué cette nullité non pas dans le cadre de la procédure arbitrale, mais uniquement dans celui du recours en annulation. Cette décision est fondée sur une analogie avec l’arrêt Eco Swiss et sur l’intérêt public de la protection du consommateur, eu égard au risque que celui-ci soit dans l’ignorance de ses droits ou rencontre des difficultés pour les exercer. Ces fondements ainsi que la reconnaissance douteuse du caractère d’ordre public communautaire de la directive sont soumis à une évaluation critique. Aprèès l’affaire Cofidis, la Cour fait une seconde fois plier une règle de procédure nationale devant l’effet utile de la directive. L’aspect le plus frappant de cet arrêt est le contraste entre l’immixtion dans l’ordre procédural interne, au prix du principe de l’autonomie procédurale, et sa volonté de laisser la définition de ce qui constitue une clause abusive à la discrétion du juge national. S’il en tient à la Cour, l’harmonisation de la protection contre les clauses abusives sera celle des procédures nationales plutôt qu’une harmonisation sur le plan du contenu de la directive. Zusammenfassung: Richtlinie 93/13/EWG impliziert, daß ein nationales Gericht, das über eine Klage auf Aufhebung eines Schiedsspruchs zu entscheiden hat, die Nichtigkeit der Schiedsvereinbarung prüft und den Schiedsspruch aufhebt, wenn die Schiedsvereinbarung eine missbräuchliche Klausel zu Lasten des Verbrauchers enthält, auch wenn der Verbraucher diese Nichtigkeit nicht im Schiedsverfahren, sondern erst im Verfahren der Aufhebungsklage eingewandt hat. Dieses Urteil stützt sich auf eine Analogie mit der Eco Swiss Entscheidung und auf das öffentliche Interesse am Verbrauc
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Mouttotos, Nicholas. "Does Transparency Lead to Unfairness? The Court of Justice of the European Union on the Duty to Inform about Mandatory Rules." European Review of Contract Law 16, no. 2 (2020): 334–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ercl-2020-0018.
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AbstractThe judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in Ottília Lovasné Tóth v ERSTE Bank Hungary Zrt can be seen as a missed opportunity, first, in elaborating on Article 3(1) of Directive 93/13, in particular whether the two criteria set by the article, of a term causing a ‘significant imbalance’ and it being contrary to ‘good faith’ should be assessed separately; and, second, in clarifying the status of the transparency requirement found in Article 5 of the directive. This case note focuses on the latter question, taking into account the repercussions of the judgment of the CJEU in Verein für Konsumenteninformation v Amazon EU Sàrl. In the latter case, the CJEU introduced an information duty about the existence of mandatory rules such as Article 6(2) of Rome I Regulation. In its decision in Ottília Lovasné Tóth, the CJEU decided to limit the scope of the judgment in Amazon to the particular circumstances of that case.
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Green, James I. J. "Medical Device Regulation: Requirements for Dental Professionals Who Prescribe and Manufacture Custom-Made Devices." Primary Dental Journal 10, no. 1 (2021): 64–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2050168420980980.
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A custom-made device (CMD) is a medical device intended for the sole use of a particular patient. In a dental setting, CMDs include prosthodontic devices, orthodontic appliances, bruxism splints, speech prostheses and devices for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea, trauma prevention and orthognathic surgery facilitation (arch bars and interocclusal wafers). Since 1993, the production and provision of CMDs have been subject to European Union (EU) Directive 93/42/EEC (Medical Device Directive, MDD) given effect in the UK by The Medical Devices Regulations 2002 (Statutory Instrument 2002/618), and its subsequent amendments. Regulation (EU) 2017/745 (Medical Device Regulation, EU MDR) replaces the MDD and the other EU Directive pertaining to Medical Devices, Council Directive 90/385/EEC (Active Implantable Medical Device Directive, AIMDD). The EU MDR was published on 5 April 2017, came into force on 25 May 2017 and, following a three-year transition period was due to be fully implemented and repeal the MDD on 26 May 2020, but was deferred until 26 May 2021 due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. In the UK, in preparation for the country’s planned departure from the EU, the EU MDR, with necessary amendments, was transposed into UK law (Medical Devices (Amendment etc.) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019, UK MDR). The UK left the Union on 31 January 2020 and entered a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020, meaning that, from 1 January 2021, dental professionals in Great Britain who prescribe and manufacture CMDs are mandated to do so in accordance with the new legislation while Northern Ireland remains in line with the EU legislation and implementation date. This paper sets out the requirements that relate to the production and provision of CMDs in a UK dental setting.
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Murphy, J., J. T. Murphy, and A. Sama. "Quinsy trainer." Journal of Laryngology & Otology 121, no. 12 (2007): 1194–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022215107000151.
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AbstractThe implementation of the European Working Time Directive, from the Council of the European Union (93/104/EC), in August 2004 has provoked a change in the working hours of junior doctors in the United Kingdom. With the evolution of the subsequent cross-cover arrangements combined with the modernising of medical careers, training is becoming increasingly important. Here we present a simple method of teaching junior doctors the skills and competencies required to aspirate a peritonsillar abscess or ‘quinsy’. The model is easy to construct, low cost and reusable.
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Mason, Lee. "Protecting Consumers from Unfair Terms in Standard Form Contracts: The UK Approach." European Business Law Review 26, Issue 2 (2015): 335–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eulr2015017.
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This article examines the current UK consumer protection regime specifically relevant to unfair terms in standard form consumer contracts, as provided for by the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 (pursuant to the European Union's Council Directive 93/13/EEC) and the solid body of case law that has grown around it. In particular, the article takes a closer look at the decision in Office of Fair Trading v. Ashbourne Management Services Ltd [2011] EWHC 1237 (Ch) and its impact on protecting UK consumers who enter into standard form gym club contracts.
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MacMillan, Catharine. "EVOLUTION OR REVOLUTION? UNFAIR TERMS IN CONSUMER CONTRACTS." Cambridge Law Journal 61, no. 1 (2002): 1–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197302281507.
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DIRECTORGeneral of Fair Trading v. First National Bank plc [2001] 1 UKHL 52, [2001] 3 W.L.R. 1297 marks the beginning of an evolution in the common law of contract. The House of Lords considered for the first time whether a contractual term was an unfair term under the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1994, S.I. 1994/3159 (which implemented Council Directive (EEC) 93/13, now implemented by the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999, S.I. 1999/2083). The case arose when the Director General sought injunctive relief, pursuant to regulation 8(2), to restrain the use of a contractual term.
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Boonstra, Klara, Johanna Trambowicz, and Christophe Vigneau. "EuGH, 9.9.2003 (Fall Jäger) - Der Bereitschaftsdienst eines Arztes in einem Krankenhaus - Arbeitszeit oder Ruhezeit im Rahmen der Richtlinie 93/104/EG?" European Review of Private Law 13, Issue 2 (2005): 209–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2005013.
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The plaintiff, who was working as an assistant?doctor in a hospital, was obliged to be on stand?by for emergency duties. He was running six such duties per month, which were reimbursed partly by compensatory time?off and partly by extra remuneration. Stand?by duties followed the regular duty and amounted to 16 hours on weekdays, 25 hours on Saturdays (8:30am to 9:30am Sunday) and 22 hours and 45 minutes on Sundays (8:30am to 7:17am Monday). The plaintiff spent these hours in the hospital and rendered his services, if called for. During the times he was not needed, he could sleep in a room at the hospital. On average, he was working 49% of the time of the stand?by duty. The plaintiff argued that, in the light of Directive 93/104/EEC the entire time for his on?duty service were to be considered as full?working time in the meaning of the German law on working time. The defendant was of the opinion that, in the light of jurisprudence and the prevailing doctrine, the idle time within the framework of a stand?by duty had to be considered resting, and not working time. The European Court of Justice was asked by the second instance labour Court to rule on the question whether such stand?by duties are idle time or working time. The ECJ held that such duty?calls are indeed working time, since such work bears the hallmark of the notion of working time in the meaning of Directive 93/104/EEC. It was, inter alia, decisive that the Plaintiff had to stay at a place determined by the employer and that he had to be at the latter?s disposal to render his services immediately if need be.
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Mancaleoni, Anna Maria. "The Obligation on Dutch and Italian Courts to Apply EU Law of Their Own Motion." European Review of Private Law 24, Issue 3/4 (2016): 553–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl2016035.
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Abstract: The European Court of Justice (ECJ) case law relating to the power of and the obligation on national courts to assess, of their own motion, the unfairness of contractual terms in consumer contracts under Directive 93/13/EEC has had a remarkable impact on national legal systems by introducing rules which often derogate from ordinary procedural rules and from the principles of judicial restraint and party autonomy. They also derogate from the traditional rules on contractual invalidity. This article, drawing extensively on the work of Arthur Hartkamp, summarizes the relevant legal framework on the EU level and in the Dutch and Italian legal systems and then focuses on two recent and groundbreaking judgments of the Supreme Courts of the Netherlands and Italy in order to assess the impact of the relevant EU law and to compare these judgments. With regard to the ex officio assessment of the unfairness of terms in consumer contracts, the comparison shows that the impact of EU case law has been greater in the Netherlands than in Italy, as the Italian regulation implementing Directive 93/13/EEC, unlike its Dutch counterpart, already provided explicit rules on the ex officio assessment of unfair terms by courts, similar to the rules subsequently established by the ECJ. Furthermore it emerges that the approach adopted in the Netherlands is restrictive with regard to the power of the court to raise ex officio the question of nullity. In Italy, on the contrary, that power is the characteristic unifying all forms of nullity laid down in the legal system, with the caveat that when the nullity is ‘protective’, as in cases of nullity provided by consumer law, the consumer can oppose the nullity (Pannon).
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Schmidtchen, Dieter, and Christian Koboldt. "A pacemaker that stops halfway: The decompilation rule in the EEC directive on the legal protection of computer programs." International Review of Law and Economics 13, no. 4 (1993): 413–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0144-8188(93)90031-y.
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Foth, H., and AW Hayes. "Background of REACH in EU regulations on evaluation of chemicals." Human & Experimental Toxicology 27, no. 6 (2008): 443–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327108092296.
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Industrial chemicals are needed for chemical synthesis or technical purposes. These beneficial effects are counterbalanced by the potential health risks for all who come into contact with them. The new chemical legislation of the EU, Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH) will force the responsibility of manufacturers and importers of chemical substances to gather the right information needed to decide on the right circumstances of use and control of chemical substances and products. In order to understand the roots of REACH, experiences gained with regard to existing chemicals legislation, particularly in Germany, will be reviewed. Since Council Directive 67/548/EEC all chemicals placed on the market need a set of standard information and provisions for safe transportation. This directive and its amendments (Council Directive(s) 79/831/EEC and 92/32/EEC) have established for new substances a sound information data basis for classification of dangerous properties. Under Council Regulation 793/93/EEC, regulations and administrative provisions have established the requirement to assess the risk to man and the environment of existing substances. So far, only 119 substances have been evaluated under the forces of this regulation. This separation has led to a substantial imbalance between existing substances and new substances with respect to available data needed to recognize hazards for health. The register of produced and imported chemical substances under REACH should eliminate some of this separation and will also be the key for selection of substances of very high concern by the authorization process to restrict the use and distribution accordingly.