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1
Slowey, Maria, ed. Comparative Adult Education and Learning. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/978-88-6453-422-0.
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This volume explores the topics of adult learning and education through the specific lens of comparative research. The book is divided into four chapters comprising two parts: an analytic essay followed by an anthology of readings from a selection of key texts intended to illustrate different perspectives, theories and/or approaches from varying perspectives in different countries. The book represents the second of a series dedicated to adult learning and education and developed within the ESRALE European project. Its companion books are: Empirical Research Methodology in Adult Learning and Education. Authors and Texts and Researches in Adult Learning and Education: the European dimension.
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Math from three to seven: The story of a mathematical circle for preschoolers. Providence. R.I: American Mathematical Society, 2011.
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Bauer, William I. Music Learning Today. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197503706.001.0001.
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Grounded in a research-based, conceptual model called Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK), the essential premise of Music Learning Today: Digital Pedagogy for Creating, Performing, and Responding to Music is that music educators and their students can benefit through use of technology as a tool to support learning in the three musical processes—creating, performing, and responding to music. Insights on how technology can be used to advantage in both traditional and emerging learning environments are provided, and research-based pedagogical approaches that align technologies with specific curricular outcomes are described. Importantly, the book advocates that the decision on whether or not to utilize technology for learning, and the specific technology that might be best suited for a particular learning context, should begin with a consideration of curricular outcomes (music subject matter). This is in sharp contrast to most other books on music technology that are technocentric, organized around specific software applications and hardware. The book also recognizes that knowing how to effectively use the technological tools to maximize learning (pedagogy) is a crucial aspect of the teaching-learning process. Drawing on the research and promising practices literature in music education and related fields, pedagogical approaches that are aligned with curricular outcomes and specific technologies are suggested. It is not a “how to” book per se, but rather a text informed by the latest research, theories of learning, and documented best practices, with the goal of helping teachers develop the ability to understand the dynamics of effectively using technology for music learning.
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Blair, R. J. R. The Developing Moralities. Edited by Philip David Zelazo. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199958474.013.0005.
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This chapter will make five claims regarding the development of morality. First, there are at least three, computationally distinct forms of social norm: victim-based, disgust-based, and social conventional. All three can be referred to as moral (although not all individuals place all of these categories of norm within their domain of morality). Second, these three forms of norm develop because of the existence of specific emotion-based learning systems (victim-based reliant on an emotional response to distress cues, disgust-based reliant on an emotional response to disgusted expressions, and social conventional norms reliant on an emotional response to anger). Third, the development of specific classes of norm can be disrupted if these emotion-based learning systems are dysfunctional. Fourth, these emotion-based systems are not automatic but instead under considerable attentional control. Fifth, these emotion-based systems alone cannot lead to the development of all aspects of morality. Specifically, they will not determine which norms the individual places within the moral domain—that is highly dependent on an individual’s culturally influenced theories of morality. In addition, judgments of morality require access to a concept of immorality to compare the action against. For most individuals, part of the concept of an immoral act includes its intentional nature. In short, full moral development requires the integration of mental state information provided by theory of mind with outcome information provided by the emotion learning systems.
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Chase, Sharon E. Moffat. Domain-specific self-perceptions of university students with and without learning disabilities. 1992.
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Chase, Sharon E. Moffatt. Domain-specific self-perceptions of university students with and without learning disabilities. 1992.
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Heath, Nancy Lee. Domain-specific self-perceptions, achievement and depressive symptomatology in children with and without learning disabilities. 1992.
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Heath, Nancy Lee. Domain-specific self-perceptions, achievement and depressive symptomatology in children with and without learning disabilities. 1992.
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Danks, David. Singular Causation. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.15.
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Causal relations between specific events are often critically important for learning, understanding, and reasoning about the world. This chapter examines both philosophical accounts of the nature of singular causation, and psychological theories of people’s judgments and reasoning about singular causation. It explores the content of different classes of theories, many of which are based on either some type of physical process connecting cause and effect, or else some kind of difference-making (or counterfactual) impact of the cause on the effect. In addition, this chapter examines various theoretical similarities and differences, particularly between philosophical and psychological theories that appear superficially similar. One consistent theme that emerges in almost every account is the role of general causal relations in shaping human judgments and understandings about singular causation.
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Garb, Erica. Can general metacognitive strategies improve domain-specific learning for academically at-risk young adults?: Evaluating a metacognitive EFL curriculum. 2001.
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Proudfoot, Diane, and B. Jack Copeland. Artificial Intelligence. Edited by Eric Margolis, Richard Samuels, and Stephen P. Stich. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0007.
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In this article the central philosophical issues concerning human-level artificial intelligence (AI) are presented. AI largely changed direction in the 1980s and 1990s, concentrating on building domain-specific systems and on sub-goals such as self-organization, self-repair, and reliability. Computer scientists aimed to construct intelligence amplifiers for human beings, rather than imitation humans. Turing based his test on a computer-imitates-human game, describing three versions of this game in 1948, 1950, and 1952. The famous version appears in a 1950 article inMind, ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’ (Turing 1950). The interpretation of Turing's test is that it provides an operational definition of intelligence (or thinking) in machines, in terms of behavior. ‘Intelligent Machinery’ sets out the thesis that whether an entity is intelligent is determined in part by our responses to the entity's behavior. Wittgenstein frequently employed the idea of a human being acting like a reliable machine. A ‘living reading-machine’ is a human being or other creature that is given written signs, for example Chinese characters, arithmetical symbols, logical symbols, or musical notation, and who produces text spoken aloud, solutions to arithmetical problems, and proofs of logical theorems. Wittgenstein mentions that an entity that manipulates symbols genuinely reads only if he or she has a particular history, involving learning and training, and participates in a social environment that includes normative constraints and further uses of the symbols.
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Walker, Stephen G., and Mark Schafer. Operational Code Theory: Beliefs and Foreign Policy Decisions. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.411.
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The process of foreign policy decision making is influenced in large part by beliefs, along with the strategic interaction between actors engendered by their decisions and the resulting political outcomes. In this context, beliefs encompass three kinds of effects: the mirroring effects associated with the decision making situation, the steering effects that arise from this situation, and the learning effects of feedback. These effects are modeled using operational code analysis, although “operational code theory” more accurately describes an alliance of attribution and schema theories from psychology and game theory from economics applied to the domain of politics. This “theory complex” specifies belief-based solutions to the puzzles posed by diagnostic, decision making, and learning processes in world politics. The major social and intellectual dimensions of operational code theory can be traced to Nathan Leites’s seminal research on the Bolshevik operational code, The Operational Code of the Politburo. In the last half of the twentieth century, applications of operational code analysis have emphasized different cognitive, emotional, and motivational mechanisms as intellectual dimensions in explaining foreign policy decisions. The literature on operational code theory may be divided into four general waves of research: idiographic-interpretive studies, nomothetic-typological studies, quantitative-statistical studies, and formal modeling studies. The present trajectory of studies on operational code points to a number of important trends that straddle political psychology and game theory. For example, the psychological processes of mirroring, steering, and learning associated with operational code analysis have the potential to enrich our understanding of game-theoretic models of strategic interaction.
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Proust, Joëlle, and Martin Fortier, eds. Metacognitive Diversity. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789710.001.0001.
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This book focuses on the variability of metacognitive skills across cultures. Metacognition refers to the processes that enable agents to contextually control their first-order cognitive activity (e.g. perceiving, remembering, learning, or problem-solving) by monitoring them, i.e. assessing their likely success. It is involved in our daily observations, such as “I don’t remember where my keys are,” or “I understand your point.” These assessments may rely either on specialized feelings (e.g. the felt fluency involved in distinguishing familiar from new environments, informative from repetitive messages, difficult from easy cognitive tasks) or on folk theories about one’s own mental abilities. Variable and universal features associated with these dimensions are documented, using anthropological, linguistic, neuroscientific, and psychological evidence. Among the universal cross-cultural aspects of metacognition, children are found to be more sensitive to their own ignorance than to that of others, adults have an intuitive understanding of what counts as knowledge, and speakers are sensitive to the reliability of informational sources (independently of the way the information is linguistically expressed). On the other hand, an agent’s decisions to allocate effort, motivation to learn, and sense of being right or wrong in perceptions and memories (and other cognitive tasks) are shown to depend on specific transmitted goals, norms, and values. Metacognitive variability is seen to be modulated (among other factors) by variation in attention patterns (analytic or holistic), self-concepts (independent or interdependent), agentive properties (autonomous or heteronomous), childrearing style (individual or collective), and modes of learning (observational or pedagogical). New domains of metacognitive variability are studied, such as those generated by metacognition-oriented embodied practices (present in rituals and religious worship) and by culture-specific lay theories about subjective uncertainty and knowledge regarding natural or supernatural entities.
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Gould, Marty. Teaching Adaptation. Edited by Thomas Leitch. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199331000.013.36.
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Chapter 36 addresses the leading questions that arise from the use of adaptations in the classroom. Why must teachers engage with adaptation? How can adaptation promote the highest aims of English studies? How can it transform the focus of English and the humanities? How can teachers use adaptation theories as the basis for specific pedagogical practices? How can they use adaptation in assessing student learning? Arguing that adaptation reflects what English has always been about, even as it beckons toward a new model of English studies more responsive to a contemporary digital culture that treats texts and their meanings as constantly evolving rather than canonical, the essay urges teachers to help students to develop an active, productive literacy through adaptation.
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Holmes, Robyn M. Cultural Psychology. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199343805.001.0001.
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Cultural psychology draws upon major psychological topics, theories, and principles to illustrate the importance of culture in psychological inquiry. It explores how culture broadly connects to psychological processing across diverse cultural communities and settings, highlighting its application to everyday life events and situations, and presenting culture as a complex medium in which individuals acquire skills, values, and abilities. One central theme is the view of culture as a mental and physical construct that individuals live, experience, share, perform, and learn; a second core theme is how culture shapes growth and development. Culture-specific and cross-cultural examples reveal connections between culture and psychological phenomena. The text is multidisciplinary and presents different perspectives on how culture shapes human phenomena. It provides an introduction to this field; covers the history of cultural psychology, cultural evolution, and cultural ecology; explains methods; and examines language and nonverbal communication, and cognition and perception. Topics investigating social behavior include the self, identity, and personality; social relationships, social attitudes, and intergroup contact in a global world; and social influence, aggression, violence, and war. Topics addressing growth and development include human development and its processes, transitions, and rituals across the life span; and socializing agents, socialization practices, and child activities. Additional topics explore emotion and motivation, mental health and psychopathology, and future directions for cultural psychology. Chapters contain teaching and learning tools, including case studies, multidisciplinary contributions, thought-provoking questions, class and experiential activities, a chapter summary, and additional print and media resources.
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Theory and Methodology in International Comparative Classroom Studies. Cappelen Damm Akademisk, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.23865/noasp.130.
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This anthology is addressed to researchers, students and professionals within education and special needs education as well as related fields such as psychology, health sciences and other fields within the social sciences and humanities. Part One contains two articles; one is an introduction to the anthology, while the other gives the reader insight into the history of educational ideas from the beginning of elementary education “for all and everyone” in 1739 to current efforts being made to implement the principles of the inclusive school. Part Two contains seven articles that mainly provide perspectives from cultural-historical and didactic-curricular theories, focusing on certain aspects of practice such as communication and care as well as teaching, learning and development. Why does it take such a long time to realise the principle of inclusion? Amongst the many and legitimate assumptions, there is an increasing awareness of ethical issues. Part Three addresses these issues by paying specific attention to Bulgarian-French scholar Julia Kristeva’s social critique and her introduction of an ethical-political programme where our shared human sense of vulnerability is at the centre of civic solidarity and inclusion. Part Four is devoted to methodological considerations and choices. Small-scale research projects are in focus, particularly classroom studies related to international comparative analysis. Various qualitative approaches are investigated, including case studies and “mixed methods”. Action research has in particular attracted interest from classroom researchers and is therefore outlined and discussed in several articles. This is the second of three anthologies related to the international comparative research cooperation project WB 04/06: Development towards the Inclusive School: Practices – Research – Capacity Building.
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Jamieson, Patrick E., and Dan Romer. Cultivation Theory and the Construction of Political Reality. Edited by Kate Kenski and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.83.
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Cultivation theory hypothesizes that over time, heavy television viewers will see the world through TV’s lens. A review of nearly 1,000 media effects articles from sixteen major journals (1993–2005) identified cultivation theory as the most frequently cited communication theory. Despite the controversies it has elicited, a meta-analysis found small but consistent effects in line with the theory. This chapter identifies six broad political effects cultivation theorists attribute to heavy viewing of television or specific genres of television content: increased fear of crime and identification of crime as a significant problem, activation of racialized perceptions, support for punitive policies and embrace of protective behaviors, identification as a political moderate, reduction in social trust and capital in adolescents, and activation of cynicism and depressed learning in political campaigns.
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Walker, Matthew. Inventing Architecture. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198746355.003.0005.
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Here, I turn to the final application of architectural knowledge: to the design itself. But in keeping with the general direction of this book I will not, on the whole, look at examples of the application of acquired knowledge in specific architectural designs. Instead, I will explore how English intellectuals theorized the process of designing classical architecture in general. This was a process that was fundamentally based on the classical orders, understood not just as a set of column types but as an overall system of proportion and, even, a method of design. The final text I turn to will be Wren’s writings on architectural design. Here, I argue that he used ancient variety as justification to be equally varied in one’s use of the orders in architectural design, although the ability to do this was ultimately dependent on the learning and the ingenuity of the architect.
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Wagenaar, Hendrik, Helga Amesberger, and Sietske Altink. Challenges of prostitution policy. Policy Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447324249.003.0002.
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All public policy faces general and domain-specific challenges. General challenges are key tasks, such as mobilising support for an agenda, or transforming policy goals into policy design, that need to be adhered to to realize a policy. In addition we distinguish five domain-specific challenges in prostitution. These are: The pervasive stigma and the urge to control and restrict prostitution that follows from that. Prostitution is morality politics, which results in an ideologically charged, emotive debate about prostitution and a tendency toward symbolic politics. Prostitution policy gets mixed up with immigration policy. Precise, reliable data on prostitution are generally unavailable. And, local policy making is essential for understanding the process and outcomes of prostitution policy. Local policy often deviates from, and is more repressive than national policy making. In our analysis we use concepts and theories of the policymaking process as formulated in the academic policy literature. But above all, by putting the domain-specific challenges central in describing and analysing prostitution policy, we consistently reason from the perspective of the elected official and public administrator.
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Lewis, Marc D. The Development of Emotion Regulation. Edited by Philip David Zelazo. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199958474.013.0004.
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This chapter examines the relation between normative advances and emerging individual differences in emotion regulation (ER), using principles from developmental cognitive neuroscience to integrate these seemingly disparate processes. Like several other theorists, I view corticolimbic development as a self-organizing stream of synaptic alterations, driven by experience rather than biologically prespecified. This conceptualization helps resolve ambiguities that appear when we try, but consistently fail, to neatly parse individual differences and developmental differences. At the neural level, increasingly specific patterns of synaptic activation converge in response to (or in anticipation of) recurrent emotions, creating synaptic networks that link multiple regions. These networks regulate emotions (in real time). But they also stabilize and consolidate with repetition, thus giving rise tohabitsthat are the hallmark of individual development. These configurations are progressively sculpted through individual learning experiences, but they also become increasingly effective with use, thereby expressing both individual trajectories and normative advances as they develop. In sum, experience-driven synaptic changes create a repertoire of individual solutions to universal challenges, shared among members of a culture or society. This description casts individual differences and age-related advances as dual facets of a unitary developmental process.
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Henik, Avishai, Orly Rubinsten, and Sarit Ashkenazi. Developmental Dyscalculia as a Heterogeneous Disability. Edited by Roi Cohen Kadosh and Ann Dowker. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199642342.013.030.
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This chapter discusses heterogeneous aspects of developmental dyscalculia (DD) in terms of behaviour, cognitive operations, and neural structures. It has been suggested that DD is an isolated learning deficiency, involves a domain-specific deficit (in the capacity to enumerate), and a specific neural deficiency (in the intraparietal sulcus). We present findings that (1) DD involves both domain-specific and domain-general abilities; (2) in many cases behaviours, as well as cognition in those with DD are characterized by deficits in other areas, such as attention or memory and not only as a number sense deficiency; and (3) studies of the neural structures involved in DD reveal areas and mechanisms that hint toward heterogeneous damage. We suggest that similar to other learning disabilities, heterogeneity is the rule, rather than an exception. Accordingly, in order to reach a comprehensive understanding of DD, studies should aim at unravelling the basis for this heterogeneity.
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Goldman, Alvin I. Theory of Mind. Edited by Eric Margolis, Richard Samuels, and Stephen P. Stich. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0017.
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The article provides an overview of ‘Theory of Mind’ (ToM) research, guided by two classifications. The first covers four competing approaches to mentalizing such as the theory-theory, modularity theory, rationality theory, and simulation theory. The second classification is the first-person/third-person contrast. Jerry Fodor claimed that commonsense psychology is so good at helping predict behavior that it is practically invisible. It works well because the intentional states it posits genuinely exist and possess the properties generally associated with them. The modularity model has two principal components. First, whereas the child-scientist approach claims that mentalizing utilizes domain-general cognitive equipment, the modularity approach posits one or more domain-specific modules, which use proprietary representations and computations for the mental domain. Second, the modularity approach holds that these modules are innate cognitive structures, which mature or come on line at preprogrammed stages and are not acquired through learning. The investigators concluded that autism impairs a domain-specific capacity dedicated to mentalizing. Gordon, Jane Heal, and Alvin Goldman explained simulation theory in such a way that mind readers simulate a target by trying to create similar mental states of their own as proxies or surrogates of those of the target. These initial pretend states are fed into the mind reader's own cognitive mechanisms to generate additional states, some of which are then imputed to the target.
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Gebuis, Titia, and Bert Reynvoet. Number Representations and their Relation with Mathematical Ability. Edited by Roi Cohen Kadosh and Ann Dowker. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199642342.013.035.
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In this chapter we review research on the processes that underlie the development of mathematical abilities. It is proposed that numerical deficiencies might arise from domain specific problems. The approximate number system that supports reasoning with non-symbolic numbers, on the one hand, and the symbolic number system on the other hand were put forth as possible candidates. To gain insight into the two different systems, we will describe the development of non-symbolic and symbolic number processing and introduce the two main theories about numerical deficiencies: the approximate number system and the access deficit hypothesis. The paradigms used to study both accounts differ in several ways and are of importance for research on the relation between non-symbolic and symbolic number and mathematical abilities. Then, we will review how the studies investigating both accounts relate to two different sets of developmental models that describe the neural representation of number.
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Covarrubias Díaz, Felipe. Evaluación de la Contribución de las Capacidades Numéricas Básicas y de la Memoria de Trabajo al Rendimiento Aritmético en Niños de Edad Escolar. Universidad Autónoma de Chile, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.32457/20.500.12728/88642019mnc12.
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Introduction: There are several causes and explanations of the cognitive mechanisms that underlie the deficits of mathematical learning difficulties. Several studies have evaluated the relations among general domain cognitive abilities (like intellectual coefficient and working memory (WM)) or cognitive abilities of specific domain; However, there are a few studies that evaluate simultaneously the contribution of cognitive variables of both domains to the arithmetic efficiency. Aim: The present study aims to simultaneously evaluate the unique contribution of the basic numerical capacities (BNC-subitizing, counting and symbolic and non-symbolic comparison) and the different components of WM (verbal and visual-spatial) to the explanation of the variance in academic achievement in basic arithmetic, in third-year students of Basic General Education with and without difficulties in basic arithmetic Methodology: A sample of 93 children was evaluated through computerized tests of BNC and working memory tasks: A group of 25 children with arithmetic learning difficulties (ALD) and 68 children without difficulties in arithmetic (NAD). Results: We found that the symbolic comparison and visuo-spatial WM contribute significantly to efficiency in basic arithmetic. Discussion: The results support the hypothesis of a deficit in the access to the symbolic numerical representations as the origin of the difficulties in the performance in arithmetic and show that certain skills of general domain (WM) contribute significantly to the development of mental numerical representations. Conclusions: It is interesting to evaluate the predictive capacity of these variables, delving into pedagogical issues related to assessment and intervention in mathematics.
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Cheng, Patricia W., and Hongjing Lu. Causal Invariance as an Essential Constraint for Creating a Causal Representation of the World. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.9.
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This chapter illustrates the representational nature of causal understanding of the world and examines its implications for causal learning. The vastness of the search space of causal relations, given the representational aspect of the problem, implies that powerful constraints are essential for arriving at adaptive causal relations. The chapter reviews (1) why causal invariance—the sameness of how a causal mechanism operates across contexts—is an essential constraint for causal learning in intuitive reasoning, (2) a psychological causal-learning theory that assumes causal invariance as a defeasible default, (3) some ways in which the computational role of causal invariance in causal learning can become obscured, and (4) the roles of causal invariance as a general aspiration, a default assumption, a criterion for hypothesis revision, and a domain-specific description. The chapter also reviews a puzzling discrepancy in the human and non-human causal and associative learning literatures and offers a potential explanation.
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Abrahams, Frank, and Paul D. Head, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Choral Pedagogy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199373369.001.0001.
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This text explores varied perspectives on teaching, learning, and performing choral music. Authors are academic scholars and researchers as well as active choral conductors. Topics include music programming and the selection of repertoire; the exploration of singer and conductor identity; choral traditions in North America, Western Europe, South America, and Africa; and the challenges conductors meet as they work with varied populations of singers. Chapters consider children’s choirs, world music choirs, adult community choirs, gospel choirs, jazz choirs, professional choruses, collegiate glee clubs, and choirs that meet the needs of marginalized singers. Those who contributed chapters discuss a variety of theoretical frameworks including critical pedagogy, constructivism, singer and conductor agency and identity, and the influences of popular media on the choral art. The text is not a “how to” book. While it may be appropriate in various academic courses, the intention is not to explain how to conduct or to organize a choral program. While there is specific information about vocal development and vocal health, it is not a text on voice science. Instead, the editors and contributing authors intend that the collection serve as a resource to inform, provoke, and evoke discourse and dialogue concerning the complexity of pedagogy in the domain of the choral art.
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Pietroski, Paul, and Stephen Crain. The Language Faculty. Edited by Eric Margolis, Richard Samuels, and Stephen P. Stich. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0015.
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The article illustrates that humans have a language faculty, a cognitive system that supports the acquisition and use of certain languages, with several core properties. The faculty is apparently governed by principles that are logically contingent, specific to human language, and innately determined. A naturally acquirable human language (Naturahl) is a finite-yet-unbounded language, with two further properties that include: its signals are overt sounds or signs, and it can be acquired by a biologically normal human child, given an ordinary course of human experience. Any biologically normal human child can acquire any Naturahl, given an ordinary course of experience with users of that language. An E-language is a set of signal-interpretation pairs, while an I-language is a procedure that pairs signals with interpretations. The I-languages that children acquire are biologically implementable, since they are actually implemented in human biology. A function has a unique value for each argument, but Naturahls admit the possibility of ambiguity. A domain general learning procedure might help children learn the environments in which negative polarity items (NPI) can appear but acquiring the constraint on where such expressions cannot appear is another matter. The language faculty makes it possible to acquire an I-language that permits questions with a medial-wh, even if one does not encounter such questions.
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Wikle, Christopher K. Spatial Statistics. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.710.
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The climate system consists of interactions between physical, biological, chemical, and human processes across a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Characterizing the behavior of components of this system is crucial for scientists and decision makers. There is substantial uncertainty associated with observations of this system as well as our understanding of various system components and their interaction. Thus, inference and prediction in climate science should accommodate uncertainty in order to facilitate the decision-making process. Statistical science is designed to provide the tools to perform inference and prediction in the presence of uncertainty. In particular, the field of spatial statistics considers inference and prediction for uncertain processes that exhibit dependence in space and/or time. Traditionally, this is done descriptively through the characterization of the first two moments of the process, one expressing the mean structure and one accounting for dependence through covariability.Historically, there are three primary areas of methodological development in spatial statistics: geostatistics, which considers processes that vary continuously over space; areal or lattice processes, which considers processes that are defined on a countable discrete domain (e.g., political units); and, spatial point patterns (or point processes), which consider the locations of events in space to be a random process. All of these methods have been used in the climate sciences, but the most prominent has been the geostatistical methodology. This methodology was simultaneously discovered in geology and in meteorology and provides a way to do optimal prediction (interpolation) in space and can facilitate parameter inference for spatial data. These methods rely strongly on Gaussian process theory, which is increasingly of interest in machine learning. These methods are common in the spatial statistics literature, but much development is still being done in the area to accommodate more complex processes and “big data” applications. Newer approaches are based on restricting models to neighbor-based representations or reformulating the random spatial process in terms of a basis expansion. There are many computational and flexibility advantages to these approaches, depending on the specific implementation. Complexity is also increasingly being accommodated through the use of the hierarchical modeling paradigm, which provides a probabilistically consistent way to decompose the data, process, and parameters corresponding to the spatial or spatio-temporal process.Perhaps the biggest challenge in modern applications of spatial and spatio-temporal statistics is to develop methods that are flexible yet can account for the complex dependencies between and across processes, account for uncertainty in all aspects of the problem, and still be computationally tractable. These are daunting challenges, yet it is a very active area of research, and new solutions are constantly being developed. New methods are also being rapidly developed in the machine learning community, and these methods are increasingly more applicable to dependent processes. The interaction and cross-fertilization between the machine learning and spatial statistics community is growing, which will likely lead to a new generation of spatial statistical methods that are applicable to climate science.