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1
Ford, Trevor D. "Dry stone walls take a dip." Geology Today 16, no. 5 (September 2000): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2000.1605006.x.
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Ford, Trevor D. "Dry stone walls take a dip." Geology Today 16, no. 5 (September 2000): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2451.2000.00005.x-i1.
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Johns, Ryan Luke, Martin Wermelinger, Ruben Mascaro, Dominic Jud, Fabio Gramazio, Matthias Kohler, Margarita Chli, and Marco Hutter. "Autonomous dry stone." Construction Robotics 4, no. 3-4 (September 29, 2020): 127–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41693-020-00037-6.
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AbstractOn-site robotic construction not only has the potential to enable architectural assemblies that exceed the size and complexity practical with laboratory-based prefabrication methods, but also offers the opportunity to leverage context-specific, locally sourced materials that are inexpensive, abundant, and low in embodied energy. We introduce a process for constructing dry stone walls in situ, facilitated by a customized autonomous hydraulic excavator. Cabin-mounted LiDAR sensors provide for terrain mapping, stone localization and digitization, and a planning algorithm determines the placement position of each stone. As the properties of the materials are unknown at the beginning of construction, and because error propagation can hinder the efficacy of pre-planned assemblies with non-uniform components, the structure is planned on-the-fly: the desired position of each stone is computed immediately before it is placed, and any settling or unexpected deviations are accounted for. We present the first result of this geometric- and motion-planning process: a 3-m-tall wall composed of 40 stones with an average weight of 760 kg.
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Hollingsworth, Lindsay, and Marcus Collier. "Ground flora of field boundary dry stone walls in the Burren, Ireland." British & Irish Botany 2, no. 4 (December 7, 2020): 352–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.33928/bib.2020.02.352.
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Despite the fact that field boundary (dry) stone walls are globally common in rural landscapes, very little research has been carried out regarding them. Dry stone walls may act as refuges for a range of plants and animals, especially in areas where conditions do not favour a high biodiversity or areas of high exposure. They may also provide connectivity via habitat corridors and may even serve as a habitat in their own right. This paper reports on a case study survey of the forb assemblages of field boundary dry stone walls in terms of species richness, biodiversity, and composition in comparison to the surrounding landscape, and aims to provide some insight into the floral ecology characteristics of dry stone walls. To accomplish this, the forbs growing in and immediately adjacent to 18 segments of dry stone wall in the Burren region of western Ireland, were surveyed. The forb assemblages growing within the walls were compared with those growing in the 0.5 m closest to the walls and those growing the areas 0.5-1.0 m on either side of the walls. The wall assemblages were shown to have lower species richness and each category of assemblage was shown to have significantly different species composition. This research indicates that the dry stone walls of the Burren may be associated with a distinct floral ecology, and therefore may act as habitat corridors in an otherwise exposed landscape.
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Walker, P. J., and J. G. Dickens. "Stability of medieval dry-stone walls in Zimbabwe." Géotechnique 45, no. 1 (March 1995): 141–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geot.1995.45.1.141.
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Agnoletti, Mauro, Leonardo Conti, Lorenza Frezza, Massimo Monti, and Antonio Santoro. "Features Analysis of Dry Stone Walls of Tuscany (Italy)." Sustainability 7, no. 10 (October 15, 2015): 13887–903. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su71013887.
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Vaculik, Jaroslav, Michael C. Griffith, and Guido Magenes. "Dry Stone Masonry Walls in Bending—Part II: Analysis." International Journal of Architectural Heritage 8, no. 1 (October 2, 2013): 29–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2012.663060.
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Restrepo Vélez, Luis Fernando, Guido Magenes, and Michael C. Griffith. "Dry Stone Masonry Walls in Bending—Part I: Static Tests." International Journal of Architectural Heritage 8, no. 1 (October 2, 2013): 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2012.663059.
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Tucci, Grazia, Erica Parisi, Giulio Castelli, Alessandro Errico, Manuela Corongiu, Giovanna Sona, Enea Viviani, Elena Bresci, and Federico Preti. "Multi-Sensor UAV Application for Thermal Analysis on a Dry-Stone Terraced Vineyard in Rural Tuscany Landscape." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 8, no. 2 (February 15, 2019): 87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8020087.
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Italian dry-stone wall terracing represents one of the most iconic features of agricultural landscapes across Europe, with sites listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites and FAO Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). The analysis of microclimate modifications induced by alterations of hillslope and by dry-stone walls is of particular interest for the valuation of benefits and drawbacks of terraces cultivation, a global land management technique. The aim of this paper is to perform a thermal characterization of a dry-stone wall terraced vineyard in the Chianti area (Tuscany, Italy), to detect possible microclimate dynamics induced by dry-stone terracing. The aerial surveys were carried out by using two sensors, in the Visible (VIS) and Thermal InfraRed (TIR) spectral range, mounted on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), with two different flights. Our results reveal that, in the morning, vineyard rows close to dry-stone walls have statistically lower temperatures with respect to the external ones. In the afternoon, due to solar insulation, temperatures raised to the same value for each row. The results of this early study, jointly with the latest developments in UAV and sensor technologies, justify and encourage further analyses on local climatic modifications in terraced landscapes.
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Stamper, Paul. "Dry Stone Walls: History and Heritage, by Angus J. L. Winchester." Archaeological Journal 174, no. 2 (May 3, 2017): 516–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00665983.2017.1319137.
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Ndoro, Webber. "Restoration of dry-stone walls at the Great Zimbabwe archaeological site." Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 1, no. 2 (January 1995): 87–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/135050395793137090.
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Castro, Jaime, Luis E. Vallejo, and Nicolas Estrada. "Mechanical analysis of the dry stone walls built by the Incas." EPJ Web of Conferences 140 (2017): 06012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201714006012.
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Lourenço, Paulo B., Daniel V. Oliveira, Pere Roca, and Agustín Orduña. "Dry Joint Stone Masonry Walls Subjected to In-Plane Combined Loading." Journal of Structural Engineering 131, no. 11 (November 2005): 1665–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9445(2005)131:11(1665).
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Watson, Adam. "Removal of dry‐stone walls on some North‐East Scottish farms." Landscape Research 14, no. 2 (June 1989): 18–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01426398908706284.
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Manenti, Raoul. "Dry stone walls favour biodiversity: a case-study from the Appennines." Biodiversity and Conservation 23, no. 8 (April 13, 2014): 1879–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0691-9.
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Hain, Alexandra, and Arash E. Zaghi. "Applicability of Photogrammetry for Inspection and Monitoring of Dry-Stone Masonry Retaining Walls." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2674, no. 9 (June 30, 2020): 287–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198120929184.
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Dry-stone masonry retaining walls are vulnerable to bulging and leaning because of the lack of cohesion between stones. Currently, the structural integrity of these walls is mainly assessed by qualitative judgments informed by visual inspections. Photogrammetry has the potential to increase the quality and objectivity of retaining wall inspections. This technology uses a series of images to generate a detailed 3D model of a structure. Currently, this technology is most commonly used in civil engineering applications for mapping large areas, often using aerial photographs. In this study, photogrammetry is used in two field trials to evaluate its ability to create accurate, high-resolution 3D representations of masonry retaining walls in Connecticut. The 3D models were used to document the current in-situ conditions to provide a baseline for future comparisons, as well as show cross sections of vulnerable areas, such as bulges or tilts. In one trial, data were collected on two dates to show the progression of movement of the wall. This paper gives an overview of best practices for data collection and discusses results and observations from the field trials. The generated 3D models provide an enhanced form of inspection documentation including detailed representations of geometry and colors. The contribution of this paper is to provide material facilitating the adoption of this promising technology for the inspection of masonry retaining walls and other transportation infrastructure.
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TANAKA, Katsuhiro, Akio BABA, and Akiko MORI. "EVALUATION ON DRY TYPE STONE COMPOSITE PANEL FOR RENEWAL OF BUILDING EXTERNAL WALLS." AIJ Journal of Technology and Design 7, no. 13 (2001): 39–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aijt.7.39.
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Claxton, Mary, Robert A. Hart, Paul F. McCombie, and Peter J. Walker. "Rigid Block Distinct-Element Modeling of Dry-Stone Retaining Walls in Plane Strain." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 131, no. 3 (March 2005): 381–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0241(2005)131:3(381).
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Liszka, Kate. "Egyptian or Nubian? Dry-Stone Architecture at Wadi el-Hudi, Wadi es-Sebua, and the Eastern Desert." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 103, no. 1 (June 2017): 35–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307513317714407.
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When building in dry-stone, Nubians and Egyptians used different techniques to construct walls. Wadi es-Sebua has been used as a type-site for C-Group Nubian settlements. Its exterior wall exhibits courses of stones laid at an angle, a technique I associate with Nubians. The Egyptian fortified mining settlements at Wadi el-Hudi, el-Hisnein, and Dihmit use dry-stone architecture, similar to the architecture at Wadi es-Sebua. Texts and pottery support that many Nubians also worked for contemporary Egyptian mining expeditions in the Eastern Desert during the early Middle Kingdom. I suggest that Nubian workforces carried out much of the architectural construction of these fortified settlements using their own traditional building techniques, but following an Egyptian design, and I argue that the so-called ‘loopholes’ found in these exterior walls were not for military defence, but rather were windows. These construction techniques point to a latent Nubian agency within the operation of Egyptian mining settlements.
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Chirikure, Shadreck, and Innocent Pikirayi. "Inside and outside the dry stone walls: revisiting the material culture of Great Zimbabwe." Antiquity 82, no. 318 (December 1, 2008): 976–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00097726.
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Abstract‘Any study of Great Zimbabwe has to rely a great deal on re-examining and re-assessing the work of early investigators, the men who removed all the most important finds from the ruins and stripped them of so much of their deposits’ (Garlake 1973: 14). The authors have here done us a great service in reviewing the surviving archaeological evidence from this world famous site. They challenge the structuralist interpretation – in which different parts of the site were allocated to kings, priests, wives or to circumcision rituals – and use the architectural, stratigraphic and artefactual evidence accumulated over the years to present a new sequence. The early enclosures on the hill, the Great Enclosure and the valley enclosures now appear as the work of successive rulers, each founding a new residence and power centre in accord with Shona practice.
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Le, Hong Hanh, Jean-Claude Morel, Anne-Sophie Colas, Benjamin Terrade, and Denis Garnier. "Assessing the Three-Dimensional Behaviour of Dry Stone Retaining Walls by Full-Scale Experiments." International Journal of Architectural Heritage 14, no. 9 (May 5, 2019): 1373–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2019.1607627.
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Camera, C., T. Apuani, and M. Masetti. "A coupled distributed hydrological-stability analysis on a terraced slope of Valtellina (northern Italy)." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 10, no. 2 (February 21, 2013): 2287–322. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-10-2287-2013.
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Abstract. The aim of this work was to understand and reproduce the hydrological dynamics of a slope, which was terraced using dry-stone retaining walls and its response to these processes in terms of stability at the slope scale. The slope studied is located in Valtellina (northern Italy), near the village of Tresenda, and in the last 30 yr has experienced several soil slip/debris flow events. In 1983 alone, such events caused the death of 18 people. Direct observation of the events of 1983 enabled the principal triggering cause of these events to be recognized in the formation of an overpressure at the base of a dry-stone wall, which caused its failure. To perform the analyses it is necessary to include the presence of dry-stone walls, considering the importance they have in influencing hydrological and geotechnical processes at the slope scale. This requires a very high resolution DEM (1 m × 1 m because the walls are from 0.60 m to 1.0 m wide) that has been appositely derived. A hydrogeological raster-based model, which takes into account both the unsaturated and saturated flux components, was applied. This was able to identify preferential infiltration zones and was rather precise in the prediction of maximum groundwater levels, providing valid input for the distributed stability analysis. Results of the hydrogeological model were used for the successive stability analysis. Sections of terrace were identified from the downslope base of a retaining wall to the top of the next downslope retaining wall. Within each section a global method of equilibrium was applied to determine its safety factor. The stability model showed a general tendency to overestimate the amount of unstable areas. An investigation of the causes of this unexpected behavior was, therefore, also performed in order to progressively improve the reliability of the model.
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Oetomo, James J., Eric Vincens, Fabian Dedecker, and Jean-Claude Morel. "Modeling the 2D behavior of dry-stone retaining walls by a fully discrete element method." International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 40, no. 7 (December 9, 2015): 1099–120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/nag.2480.
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Savalle, Nathanael, Eric Vincens, and Stéphane Hans. "Pseudo-static scaled-down experiments on dry stone retaining walls: Preliminary implications for the seismic design." Engineering Structures 171 (September 2018): 336–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.05.080.
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Gupta, R. C., and T. K. Kaushik. "Field Observations on Stone Curlews in and around Kurukshetra, Haryana, India." Our Nature 10, no. 1 (March 13, 2013): 71–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/on.v10i1.7753.
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Stone Curlew, albeit claimed to be a wader bird of wetlands, is more biased towards dry or semi-dry shores of wetlands and open grasslands in Kurukshetra environs. Although, reported to be a nocturnal bird, it was often observed in day time here. The diurnal visibility of nocturnal Stone Curlews in Kurukshetra certainly points towards its distracted, disturbed, fragmented, scarce habitat so as to compel it to take shelter beside walls in a most unsafe state. The present studies hint towards the fact that, they are summer migratory often seen between April to September but certainly not in November, December and January. They shuttle between different spot in a given area indicating its habitat range up to 1 to 3 km or so. They are facing difficult circumstances due to loss of habitat; so much so, their feeding spots are not traceable at all. This study proves that the scattered and isolated groups of a nocturnal bird like Stone Curlew are compelled to retire in full view of one and all during daytime and hence are immensely vulnerable. Their survival is threatened. Given the continuance of present adverse conditions, they will no more be seen in the next 10-15 years in Haryana, specially in Kurukshetra. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/on.v10i1.7753
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Pulatsu, Bora, Semih Gonen, Ece Erdogmus, Paulo B. Lourenço, Jose V. Lemos, and Ravi Prakash. "In-plane structural performance of dry-joint stone masonry Walls: A spatial and non-spatial stochastic discontinuum analysis." Engineering Structures 242 (September 2021): 112620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112620.
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Martynenko, Anna. "Vernacular Values in Architectural Heritage. The Case of Vale de Poldros." Architecture and Urban Planning 13, no. 1 (December 1, 2017): 15–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aup-2017-0002.
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Abstract The article describes a traditional one-story building named cardenha, which is a type of vernacular building in the village of Vale de Poldros and widespread in the northern region of Portugal. The author has done the comparative analysis of construction of cardenha and similar structures that have dry stone masonry walls and corbelled dome roofs in the territory of the Mediterranean Basin. Related construction systems of cardenha were identified in the basic types of corbelled domes and unique features of the structures in Vale de Poldros are described.
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Vazzano, Emanuele, Amato Bonavita, and Paolo Pellegrini. "LINEAR INFRASTRUCTURES THAT CHARACTERIZE A PAST LAND MANAGEMENT: THE MONTAGNOLA SENESE DRY STONE WALLS. A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH OF ANALYSIS." Journal of Agricultural Engineering 42, no. 1 (June 30, 2012): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/jae.2011.38.
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Ogilvie, David, Adrian Bauman, Louise Foley, Cornelia Guell, David Humphreys, and Jenna Panter. "Making sense of the evidence in population health intervention research: building a dry stone wall." BMJ Global Health 5, no. 12 (December 2020): e004017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004017.
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To effectively tackle population health challenges, we must address the fundamental determinants of behaviour and health. Among other things, this will entail devoting more attention to the evaluation of upstream intervention strategies. However, merely increasing the supply of such studies is not enough. The pivotal link between research and policy or practice should be the cumulation of insight from multiple studies. If conventional evidence synthesis can be thought of as analogous to building a wall, then we can increase the supply of bricks (the number of studies), their similarity (statistical commensurability) or the strength of the mortar (the statistical methods for holding them together). However, many contemporary public health challenges seem akin to herding sheep in mountainous terrain, where ordinary walls are of limited use and a more flexible way of combining dissimilar stones (pieces of evidence) may be required. This would entail shifting towards generalising the functions of interventions, rather than their effects; towards inference to the best explanation, rather than relying on binary hypothesis-testing; and towards embracing divergent findings, to be resolved by testing theories across a cumulated body of work. In this way we might channel a spirit of pragmatic pluralism into making sense of complex sets of evidence, robust enough to support more plausible causal inference to guide action, while accepting and adapting to the reality of the public health landscape rather than wishing it were otherwise. The traditional art of dry stone walling can serve as a metaphor for the more ‘holistic sense-making’ we propose.
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Santa-Cruz, Sandra, Dominique Daudon, Nicola Tarque, Criss Zanelli, and Julio Alcántara. "Out-of-plane analysis of dry-stone walls using a pseudo-static experimental and numerical approach in scaled-down specimens." Engineering Structures 245 (October 2021): 112875. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112875.
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Bragança dos Santos, Carlos. "Rehabilitation and Renewal of Mediterranean Structures. The Utopic Landscape of Algarve." REGION 5, no. 1 (June 25, 2018): 113–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.18335/region.v5i1.218.
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One of the remarkable features of Mediterranean landscapes is the terraced land frame, usually supported by dry stone walling. The terraces, property division walls, pathways and traditional paths design a network compartmentalization that defines landscape identity. The informational content, aesthetic quality, ecological and cultural values allowed by this articulated construction are particularly important at coastal zones with intense human impact. On the Algarve, the hills displayed by such structures form the background scenario of an urban-touristic system. This paper aims to interrelate ecological, aesthetic, symbolic, socio-economic and political aspects that influence the spatial distribution and image of the terraces. The values that local people may assign to their landscapes will determine the acknowledgement of the structural elements under analysis, but the role of tourists must be seriously take into account. Beyond nostalgic solutions, one must prospect the future of the dry stone walling structure into the diversity of possible solutions for a sustainable landscape development, which enhances the living part of an inseparable unit that includes the densest urbanized areas with less ecological functions. We call such unit the urban-touristic region of Algarve and, therefore, we try to use landscape as an instrument of knowledge and acknowledgement of regional spaces.
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Cambi, Martina, Yamuna Giambastiani, Francesca Giannetti, Elena Nuti, Andrea Dani, and Federico Preti. "Integrated Low-Cost Approach for Measuring the State of Conservation of Agricultural Terraces in Tuscany, Italy." Water 13, no. 2 (January 6, 2021): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13020113.
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Agricultural terraces are an important element of the Italian landscape. However, abandonment of agricultural areas and increase in the frequency of destructive rainfall events has made it mandatory to increase conservation efforts of terraces to reduce hydrological risks. This requires the development of new approaches capable of identifying and mapping failed or prone-to-fail terraces over large areas. The present work focuses on the development of a more cost-effective alternative, to help public administrators and private land owners to identify fragile areas that may be subject to failure due to the abandonment of terracing systems. We developed a simple field protocol to acquire quantitative measurements of the degree of damage—dry stone wall deformation—and establish a damage classification system. This new methodology is tested at two different sites in Tuscany, central Italy. The processing is based on existing DTMs derived from Airborne Laser Scanner (ALS) data and open source software. The main GIS modules adopted are flow accumulation and water discharge, processed with GRASS GIS. Results show that the damage degree and terrace wall deformation are correlated with flow accumulation even if other factors other than those analyzed can contribute to influence the instability of dry stone walls. These tools are useful for local land management and conservation efforts.
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Wilson, R. J. A. "Campanaio—an agricultural settlement in Roman Sicily." Antiquity 74, no. 284 (June 2000): 289–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00059299.
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Roman Sicily has long been known from classical sources for its agricultural fertility, but little archaeological research has been conducted on the rural economy. The Campanaio project is uncovering a wealth of information about a small (3 ha) hellenistic and Roman rural settlement and its economy, 25 km west of Agrigento. Excavations (1994-95,1997-98) have revealed seven principal phases. Activity started c. 200 BC, and was intensive for two centuries in the central part of the site. A complex of buildings underwent two complete reconstructions between 200 BC and AD 25; in its last phase (c. 50 BC) it comprised an Lshaped building some 17 m long and 8.40 m wide, with dry-stone walls, earth floors and mud-brick superstructure (FIGUR1E
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Fukumoto, Yutaka, Jun Yoshida, Hide Sakaguchi, and Akira Murakami. "The effects of block shape on the seismic behavior of dry-stone masonry retaining walls: A numerical investigation by discrete element modeling." Soils and Foundations 54, no. 6 (December 2014): 1117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.11.007.
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Angistalis, Georgios, Georgios Dounias, Grigorios Tsokas, and Costas Zambas. "The Walls of Eupalinos Aqueduct, Samos Island, Greece. Description, Pathology and Proposed Restoration Measures." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 53, no. 1 (November 14, 2018): 193. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.18710.
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The Aqueduct of Eupalinos was built in the mid-sixth century B.C, on the island of Samos that lies in the archipelago of the north Aegean Sea. Herodotus (481-425 B.C.) was the first historian to refer to the monument. He names Eupalinos, son of Naustrophus, born in the city of Megara as the engineer responsible for the design and construction of this ancient project. He also describes the method of construction that makes this monument unique: “…One is a tunnel, under a hill one hundred and fifty fathoms high, carried entirely through the base of the hill; its excavation started from two portals (αρξάμενον, αμφίστομον) …”. Egnatia Odos S.A2. in cooperation with the Prefecture of Samos and the Ministry of Culture initiated a multi-discipline design study to protect and restore the monument. The designs included surveying works, geological and geophysical investigations, as well as geotechnical, structural and architectural works. The main component of the aqueduct is the 1036 m long tunnel described by Herodotus. For a length of 165 m the tunnel is protected by dry masonry walls and vaults of remarkable quality, built in the Archaic era. For a length of 63 m it is protected by mortared masonry walls and vaults, built in the Roman-era. These walls at some locations have suffered significant deformation, due to ground pressures, and have partially failed. In order to restore the damaged sections of the wall, its structure was investigated with the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) and Εlectrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT). These methods indicated the thickness of the wall and to some extent the width of the excavation behind it. The space between the dry masonry of the Archaic wall and the excavation perimeter is backfilled with well stacked partially hewn stones. GPR seems to accurately determine the thickness of the massive building stones (20 to 40 cm thick) that form the wall’s sides. ET seems to accurately determine the interface between the excavation perimeter and the backfill. The thickness of the backfill and the wall was found to range from 60 cm to 200 cm. This most likely suggests that at the protected sections the tunnel excavation suffered significant and systematic ground collapses. This is because the derived tunnel excavation dimensions at that point are much larger than the ones of the unprotected tunnel. The latter combined with the high ground water inflows now present, in the area and the identified poor ground conditions, could justify the decision of Eupalinos to protect the tunnel’s excavation perimeter with the dry masonry walls. Other geophysical and geological investigations identified significant fault zones that cross the tunnel at the previously mentioned locations, where the assumed ground collapses were observed. A simplified deformation analysis that was carried out using finite element modelling shows that the deformation and the observed wall failures can be roughly explained by assuming poor ground conditions around the tunnel. The protection/restoration measures that were dimensioned for the Archaic type wall include: a) a staged, stone by stone, dismantling of the vaults and partially of the wall, b) supporting the ground behind them with stainless steel rock bolts, steel sets and a concrete mantle, and c) rebuilding the whole at its original “pre-deformed” position. These measures (steel sets, concrete mantle and rock bolts) aim in undertaking the full ground load so that the wall, when rebuilt, will be practically unloaded. Due to the different loading conditions and ground failure mode, the restoration measures designed for the Roman-era wall, aim to remove the rock (load) that fell on the roof arch, to prevent further rock falls and to strengthen the mortared masonry with neutral grouts.
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Sassu, Mauro, Juris Zarins, Linda Giresini, and Lynne Newton. "The ‘Triple R’ Approach on the Restoration of Archaeological Dry Stone City Walls: Procedures and Application to a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Oman." Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 19, no. 2 (April 3, 2017): 106–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13505033.2017.1321358.
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Engel, J., P. Heinze, and R. Plagge. "Adapting Hydrophobizing Impregnation Agents to the Object." Restoration of Buildings and Monuments 20, no. 6 (December 1, 2014): 433–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/rbm14.20.6-0042.
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Abstract In general, old buildings consume substantially more energy than new ones. Many historical buildings have brick-, natural stone and lavishly decorated facades that limit installation of outer insulation hence this is done on the inner side during energetic refurbishment. As a result, heat hardly gets into these walls during winter. Therefore, when driving rain penetrates into the facade in winter months, moisture cannot properly dry out and consequently, such facades remain wet for a very long time cooling down extremely, which increases the potential for frost damages. A solution is to match the degree of water repellency of the existing building materials in the specific construction with its driving rain load as well as to the properties of the chosen interior insulation. This should be done under the premise of a minimum intervention, i.e., do as much as necessary but as little as possible. One example is thoroughly discussed to illustrate this approach.
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Vlasova, Marina, Aguilar Márquez, Veronica González-Molina, Ariadna Trujillo-Estrada, and Mykola Kakazey. "Development of an energy- and water-saving manufacturing technology of brick products." Science of Sintering 50, no. 3 (2018): 275–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/sos1803275v.
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In the work, the carrying of realizing three problems in the manufacture of brick products, namely, energy saving, water saving, and processing of large-scale waste (ecological problem), are considered. Four types of bricks have been obtained and investigated: red clay, red clay-milled cullet mixture, red clay-milled basalt (tezontle) mixture, and red clay-milled glass-milled tezontle mixture. To form the semi-finished products, water or wet waste of activated sludge were added to the dry mixtures. It is established that the presence of low-melting glass into double and triple compositions reduces the sintering temperature of ceramic products down to 900-1000 ?C and sintering time to 8-12 h while maintaining good strength properties of ceramics. This means that the energy-saving technology is provided. The use of waste activated sludge (biowaste) with high water content allows us to exclude the introduction of water into dry mixtures at the stage of molding. This means that the water-saving technology is achieved. The introduction of a different content of burnt out bio waste contributes to the formation of brick products of different porosity. Variations on mixtures compositions and sintering modes make possible to synthesize ceramics of different applications: as a stone products, bricks for external and internal walls, porous bricks, and a filtering ceramics.
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Fredriksson, Bengt-Arne, Paul Bell, and Margaretha Lindroth. "High-performance combined freeze-dryer and sputter coater for cryosputtering of biological samples for Electron Microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 3 (August 12, 1990): 786–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100161497.
Full textAbstract:
Freeze-drying followed by sputter coating is the optimal method for preparing detergent-extracted cells for scanning electron microscopy. However, during transfer from the freeze dryer to the sputter coater, the cells are warmed to room temperature, exposed to the atmosphere, and returned to vacuum, which will cause “melting”, partial rehydration, and subsequent redrying of the sample. To avoid these potential sources of damage, we have developed an improved device that allows samples to be freeze-dried and then sputter coated while still frozen (cryosputtered) and without first exposing them to atmospheric moisture.The construction is based on a Tis-U-Dry Histological Freeze dryer, model TFD-130 (FTS Systems, Inc., Stone Ridge, NY, USA). The walls of the cylindrical vacuum chamber are cooled to -130 °C by a three-stage refrigeration system and the circular platen in the bottom of the chamber is cooled to -110 °C by conduction. The chamber is evacuated with a turbomolecular pump (Balzer model TPH 330), backed by a rotary vane pump (Balzer model DUO 016B), giving a clean, high vacuum.
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Sayari, M., V. Babaeizad, M. A. T. Ghanbari, H. Rahimian, B. Borhani, M. M. Mohammadi, and J. S. Nasiri. "First Report of Hyphodermella rosae Causing Dry Fruit Rot Disease on Plum in Iran." Plant Disease 96, no. 8 (August 2012): 1228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-10-11-0825.
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Plum (Prunus domestica) and peach (P. persica) are widely grown, often in alternate rows with citrus, in the Mazandaran Province of Iran. In June 2011, a dry fruit rot of plum was observed in several production regions in Mazandaran Province (35°47′N, 50°34′E). Initial symptoms at pit-hardening stage appeared as dark brown, circular, necrotic spots from 2 to 5 cm in diameter. They later developed into a dry fruit rot. Severe symptoms occurred during June and July when warm weather (temperature around 28°C) and high relative humidity (RH) (>85%) were present. Marketable yield losses reached 50% to almost 100% in many orchards. To isolate the causal organism, symptomatic fruits were surface disinfested for 1 min in 0.5% active chlorine, washed thoroughly with sterile distilled water, and segments were plated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) amended with 50 mg/liter of streptomycin sulfate and incubated at 25°C for 3 days. The fungus Hyphodermella rosae (Bresadola) Nakasone was consistently isolated (37 isolates from 79 samples) and identified on the basis of morphological characteristics on PDA. Basidiomata were effuse, resupinate, 15 × 10 mm, crustaceous, tubercules small with apical bristles, and light orange to grayish orange. Subhymenium was up to 30 μm thick, composed of vertically arranged, short-celled, nonagglutinated hyphae; subhymenial hyphae were 3 to 4 μm in diameter. Basidiospores were ellipsoid, 7.5 to 8.5 × 4.5 to 5.5 μm (100 determination), and their cell walls were thin, hyaline, and smooth (1). Genomic DNA was extracted from mycelium with a DNA extraction kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer's directions and grown on potato dextrose broth for 4 days at 28°C. The rDNA region was amplified with the primers ITS4 (5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′) and ITS5 (5′- GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAA-3′) (4) and the PCR product was sequenced. Nucleotide BLAST analysis of the amplified 627-bp fragment confirmed a 99% similarity with the sequence of H. rosae (GenBank Accession No. JN593086). A pathogenicity test was conducted with isolate MA4099 by placing 5-day-old mycelial plugs grown on PDA at the surface of healthy fruit (n = 6) incubated under >85% RH at 25°C for at least 4 days until the appearance of symptoms, which were similar to those displayed under orchard conditions. Control fruits, inoculated with blocks of PDA plugs, remained intact and symptomless. Reisolation from inoculated fruit samples consistently yielded the inoculated fungus, completing Koch's postulates. The genus Hyphodermella has been reported to be causing wood rot on apricot (2) and sweet and sour cherry (3). To our knowledge, this is the first report of H. rosae causing dry fruit rot on a stone fruit species in the world. References: (1) K. K. Nakasone. Mycologie, 29:231, 2008. (2) J. M. Ogawa et al. Diseases of Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.). The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 2003. (3) J. K. Uyemoto et al. Diseases of Sweet Cherry (Prunus avium L.) and Sour Cherry (P. cerasus L.). IS-MPMInet, http://www.ismpminet.org/resources/common/comment/cherry.asp , accessed June 2012. (4) T. J. White et al. Page: 315 in: PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Application. M.A. Innis et al., eds. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1990.
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Turconi, Laura, Francesco Faccini, Alessandra Marchese, Guido Paliaga, Marco Casazza, Zoran Vojinovic, and Fabio Luino. "Implementation of Nature-Based Solutions for Hydro-Meteorological Risk Reduction in Small Mediterranean Catchments: The Case of Portofino Natural Regional Park, Italy." Sustainability 12, no. 3 (February 8, 2020): 1240. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12031240.
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Nature-based solutions (NBS) are usually defined as complementary or alternative solutions to “grey infrastructures” (traditionally made with cement) aimed at conserving and regenerating the functionality of natural and semi-natural ecosystems. The research to date shows a considerable potential of NBS to address the current challenges related to climate change and geo-hydrological risks. Despite significant interest in NBS by researchers and practitioners, knowledge concerning their practical implementation, monitoring, and evaluation is still lacking. This is particularly true for large-scale NBS. The present paper discusses how such solutions can be implemented in the context of hydro-meteorological risk reduction in small Mediterranean catchments with a strong tourist vocation. The work presented here is situated within the RECONECT Project (Regenerating ECOsystems with Nature-based solutions for hydro-meteorological risk rEduCTion), which aims to contribute to a European reference framework on NBS by demonstrating, upscaling, and replicating large-scale NBS in rural and natural areas. The Italian case study of RECONECT is the Portofino Natural Regional Park, which represents a unique natural landscape element with high ecologic, social, and economic (touristic) value, which is threatened by a range of geo-hydrological hazards, such as flash floods, hyper-concentrated floods, shallow landslides, rockfalls, and storm surges. This paper also presents details of NBS interventions in two pilot catchments (San Fruttuoso and Paraggi) visited by thousands of tourists throughout the year. It addresses some of the key aspects related to monitoring meteorological and hydrological processes, as well as remote sensing activities (i.e., LiDAR surveys), which are necessary for the identification of critical-instability areas along waterways and the reconstruction of dry stone walls. Lastly, a discussion of relevant mitigation and adaptation strategies that are potentially replicable at national and international levels is also provided.
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Zonouz, Hassan Khalili. "EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CONDITIONS IN FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ZONUZ'S HISTORICAL GARDEN CITY ARCHITECTURE." Journal of Architecture and Urbanism 39, no. 2 (June 30, 2015): 124–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/20297955.2015.1048839.
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Zonuz architecture has originated from prehistoric era by having worthwhile architectural signs of the Kura – Aras culture related to Bronze Age (3800 BC), as seen in Qiz Qala and Oğlan Qalasi, located about 5 km from the city. This architecture by the dry stone method is standing at the top of the mountain and has been made of field stone which was undoubtedly outstanding in its period. This technique has reached its style as back to back diagonal stones placed within 30–45 different degrees among them with respect to the wall making evolution during the period of 6000 years. This method has been used in all buildings and walls of house-gardens of the city for millenniums appropriately. The technique reveals that instead of brick, natural elements with more resistance have been applied. Availability of travertine is the reason of using it along with mortar in order to constructing the entire city and many other buildings. However, in some cases like Qizil-Korpi bridge plaster has been used and in some others – that needed more strength – a composition of lime and clay is applied. But it can be acknowledged that the structure of the building and foundations is part of the natural environment. Urban areas in this location have developed condition of constructing new architecture and house-garden urban engineering in terms of more convenient natural situation including better utilizing sun light, more appropriate slope as well as plenty of springs – about 360. This is a city with spatial shape which is integrated with natural beauty of Azerbaijan and has created a rare house-garden quality. Although urban engineering and architecture of this city have got an outstanding index and many articles have been published in the field of Geology, Geography, Philosophy and so on, but nothing can be found about its architectural report, techniques and thoughts throughout the resources. The aim of present research is based on finding out topography and climate conditions effecting the architecture and city planning; in this article the author also tries to mention Zonuz architecture and type of architectural spaces and its structures in order to make a better understanding and increasing sensitivity about the building and urban setting, conservation and restoration. In order to come to a conclusion we had to choose a method for this subject and going through library shelves seemed to be real poor; hence we had to do site study and consider actual cultural, technical and historical cases and their relation with topography and city planning.
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Miano, Andrea, and Giovanni Chiumiento. "An Innovative School Building Design in the Town of Montemiletto." Open Civil Engineering Journal 14, no. 1 (September 14, 2020): 200–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874149502014010200.
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Background: This paper presents an innovative design for a school building, awarded in the concourse “Scuole innovative”, published by the italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. The new school building is located in a newly built urban area of Montemiletto (Avellino, Italy), at the south-east of the Leonessa castle and the ancient nucleus of the town. The Comprehensive Institute that includes a kindergarten, a primary school and a secondary school, is proposed as a Civic Center, an “urban place”, characterized by new spaces of relationship and aggregation. Objective: The main idea of the project design is the creation of an innovative school with respect to the architectural, structural and plant system aspects and to the energetic efficiency and characterized by the presence of new environments of learning and openness to the territory. Materials and Methods: The project proposals can be summarized in the different points: a) unit of the morphological-settlement solution and the articulation of the Civic Center, to be identified as new reference point in the city; b) adherence of the characters of the school to the landscape and visual connection with the castle; c) urban and architectural role of the system of the paths and connections, which surround and enter in the intervention area; d) extension and permeation between the natural and artificial environments assigning to the roof the task of increasing open spaces; e) accentuation of the public and multi-functional character of the different spaces, so that the school can be a place for meeting and comparison, in which it is possible to test new ways of teaching; f) use of different types of green open spaces as gardens, flowerbeds, educational vegetable gardens that change with the seasons, sporting fields, cycle-forgave routes among the green. Moreover, with respect to the structural aspects, seismic isolation at the basis of the building is proposed. This paper focuses mainly on the aspects related to energy and environmental sustainability and life cycle cost with reference to the case study design. The goal is to reduce the impact on the ecosystem, trying to make the school building organic to the existing environment. The containment of energy consumption for the air conditioning of the rooms is done through the isolation of the massive walls of the façade, covered with local stone (Irpinia breccia) and polycarbonate. Water-saving is obtained by reusing rainwater for the irrigation of vegetable gardens, vegetation and sanitary use. Results and Conclusion: The use of recycled materials and components is proposed: the Irpinia breccia covering the façade and, with different grain sizes, the external roofing and flooring; the polycarbonate; the polyester insulation; the outdoor furniture in recycled wood. In addition, dry reinforced concrete construction technologies are chosen. Definitively, the main concept is to have “a school in the park”.
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Boric, Dusan, and Vesna Dimitrijevic. "Absolute chronology and stratigraphy of Lepenski Vir." Starinar, no. 57 (2007): 9–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/sta0757009b.
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In the last decade, a number of specialist analyses were made on the material from old excavations of Mesolithic-Neolithic sites in the Danube Gorges. These new results altered significantly our understanding of the Lepenski Vir culture. The question of chronology of this regional phenomenon has been acute since the discovery of Lepenski Vir in the 1960s, and it remains of key importance for understanding the character of Mesolithic-Neolithic transformations in this and the neighbouring regions. The most heated debate was fuelled by the initial stratigraphic and chronological attribution of the type-site itself. There remained the question about the adequate dating of the most prominent phase at this site characterized by buildings with trapezoidal bases covered with limestone floors and with rectangular stone-lined hearths placed in the centre of these features. There have been suggestions that these features also contain Early Neolithic Starcevo type pottery and other similar items of material culture and should thus be dated to the Early Neolithic historical context. Moreover, the first series of conventional radiocarbon determinations (21 dates) also suggested that the absolute chronology of these features should be confined to the period from around 6400-5500 cal BC (Fig. 1). Due to the importance of defining more precisely the chronology for the start of construction of these particular features at Lepenski Vir and for establishing the life-span of these buildings and their associated material culture, we have AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) dated a number of contexts from this site. The results are presented in this paper. The project was made possible through the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerate Dating Service (ORADS) programme funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) of the Great Britain. Apart from those dates presented in this paper, there are 29 previously published radiometric dates from Lepenski Vir 21 made by the conventional 14C dating of charcoal and 8 AMS dates made on animal (3 dates) and human bones (5 dates). There is also a series of 20 new AMS dates made on human bones from Lepenski Vir. The last group of dates has not been published with all the contextual details and are of limited use in our analyses of absolute chronology and stratigraphy of Lepenski Vir. New dates are listed in Table 1. From 32 dated contexts from Lepenski Vir, 27 contexts are stratigraphically related to trapezoidal buildings while 5 dates are connected with the area outside of buildings. From those contexts related to trapezoidal structures, 24 contexts are dated with animal and 3 with human bones. The emphasis on the dating of animal bones is connected with problems of precision when dating samples made on human and dog bones due to the reservoir effect and the deposition of 'old' carbon. Dated remains of animal and human bones originate from the following types of stratigraphic contexts a) beneath building floors, i.e. stratigraphically the oldest contexts in the settlement (2 dates) (Fig. 2); b) between two superposed floors of trapezoidal buildings as 'sealed' contexts (8 dates) (Fig. 3); c) lying directly on top of the floors of trapezoidal buildings but not overlapped by a later floor (17 dates) (Fig. 3); d) outside of trapezoidal buildings, found in contexts such as pits, domed ovens, and burials, or in contexts that can be attributed to the occupation layer only (6 dates) (Fig. 4). The new dates indicate a very long duration of the Mesolithic period, from around 9400 to around 7500 cal BC (Fig. 2, 23). These early dates are concentrated in two particular periods that may point to two separate phases within these two millennia, with settlement discontinuities. It remains possible that there were many more occupation episodes that these dates do not encompass, and more AMS dates may indicate whether these two groupings with three dates per grouping are meaningful and representative of two separate and defined phases of occupation at this locale. This early period would correspond with the phase that the excavator of Lepenski Vir defined as Proto-Lepenski Vir although his ideas about the spatial distribution of this phase, its interpretation, duration and relation to the later phase of trapezoidal buildings must be revised in the light of new AMS dates and other available data. The phase with trapezoidal buildings most likely starts only around 6200 cal BC and most of the trapezoidal buildings might have been abandoned by around 5900 cal BC. The absolute span of only two or three hundred years and likely even less, for the flourishing of building activity related to trapezoidal structures at Lepenski Vir significantly compresses Srejovic's phase I. Thus, it is difficult to maintain the excavator's five subphases which, similarly to Ivana Radovanovic's more recent re-phasing of Lepenski Vir into I-1-3, remain largely guess works before more extensive and systematic dating of each building is accomplished along with statistical modeling in order to narrow the magnitude of error. On the whole, new dates from these contexts better correspond with Srejovic's stratigraphic logic of sequencing buildings to particular phases on the basis of their superimposing and cutting than with Radovanovic's stylistic logic, i.e. her typology of hearth forms, ash-places, entrance platforms, and presence/absence of -supports around rectangular hearths used as reliable chronological indicators. The short chronological span for phase I also suggests that phase Lepenski Vir II is not realistic. This has already been shown by overlapping plans of the phase I buildings and stone outlines that the excavator of the site attributed to Lepenski Vir II phase. According to Srejovic, Lepenski Vir phase II was characterized by buildings with stone walls made in the shape of trapezes, repeating the outline of supposedly earlier limestone floors of his phase I. However, the trapezoidal buildings must be envisioned as dug-in features with their rear, narrow side dug deep into the slope since these features were dug into the sloping terrace where the site is situated. It is more likely that these stone constructions assigned to a separate phase were part of the same trapezoidal buildings with limestone floors assigned by the excavator to phase I. Thus, vertical stone walls existed on the level above limestone floors, built in dry wall technique around buildings' floors and cuts. The visual overlap of phases I and II clearly shows the match between these stone constructions and trapezoidal limestone floors (Fig. 27). Even on the published section of the western part of the settlement of Lepenski Vir which runs through the backs of Houses 43, 34, 27, 20, 33 and 32, phase II is not marked (see Fig. 28), which might lend further support to our conclusion about its elusive character. Furthermore, no activity areas were reported with regard to the 'floor' level of these structures, with the exception of the largest building at the site, XLIV. Therefore, trapezoidal stone walls previously attributed to phase II were part of the same phase I buildings. Henceforth we suggest treating Srejovic's phases I and II as a single phase and we refer to this building horizon as Lepenski Vir I-II (see Table 2). The new dating programme also suggests no temporal break between phases Lepenski Vir I-II and phase III. The dates indicate that Srejovic was right to separate the latter as it seems that most of the trapezoidal buildings were abandoned by 5900 cal BC and that new and different occupation pattern commenced at the site in the period following 5900 cal BC. Yet, some of the dates indicate that, at the current resolution of the chronological scale there could have been some overlapping between the use of particular trapezoidal buildings, perhaps primarily for the interment of human burials (e.g. House 21 and Burials 7/I and II, see Fig. 11), and the new types of contexts that appear around 5900 cal BC. These new contexts included a number of pits, dug primarily in the rear area of the site, outside of the zone with trapezoidal buildings. There are also several domed ovens the function of which remains unclear. Also, crouched inhumations became the dominant burial rite (of possibly migrant individuals) during this phase. Some of these crouched burials were found lying on the floors of trapezoidal buildings. This seems to have been the time of significant changes in patterns of habitation of the Lepenski Vir community. Bones of domestic animals were also found in those features assigned to phase III. We have directly dated four samples that come from domestic animals (sheep/goat, cattle and pig) found in these contexts at Lepenski Vir. In this way, it was possible to directly date the introduction of domestic animals to the site. The results suggest that the these domestic animals must have been introduced to Lepenski Vir in the post-5900 cal BC period. The upper limit of this Middle Neolithic phase Lepenski Vir III remains to be elucidated further. While previous charcoal dates indicated that the site was used up until around 5400 cal BC, the upper limit of new dates is around 5700 cal BC. Existing dates from the neighbouring site of Padina suggest that some trapezoidal buildings at that site (Houses 15 and 18) might have been used up until 5500 cal BC. It is possible that future dates will move this limit to the end of the Middle Neolithic, i.e. c. 5500 cal BC. At this time, previously occupied sites on the Danube, such as Lepenski Vir, Padina, Vlasac, etc., were abandoned for more than a millennium. Lepenski Vir is used again during the Eneolithic period, when a burial of the Salku?a culture, AMS dated to around 4300 cal BC, was interred here (see Burial 2, Fig. 25). New radiometric dates from Lepenski Vir, together with all other newly available data, demand a revision of conclusions previously made with regard to the absolute chronology of particular phases as well as stratigraphic attribution of certain contexts. Such a revision inevitably leads us to suggest a new stratigraphic division and phasing of Lepenski Vir (see Table 2). This revised phasing largely keeps the old nomenclature of the excavator of Lepenski Vir. We would like to avoid confusions and complications in suggesting completely new labels for particular phases when there is no need for such a radical break from the original understanding of the site's stratigraphy. We are aware that the future dating of Lepenski Vir may affect certain elements of our conclusions and that the suggested changes thus remain tentative. Yet, at present, our conclusions are firmly grounded in the available data.
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Magaš, Damir, and Josip Faričić. "Basic Physicogeographical Characteristics of the Rava Island in the Zadar Archipelago." Geoadria 4, no. 1 (January 11, 2017): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.15291/geoadria.147.
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The island of Rava (3,62 km2 and 120 inhabitants, 1991) is one of those small islandssituated in the Zadar archipelago, on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. From the geographical point of view it has not been much elaborated so far. The paper gives physicogeographic characteristics, which is connected with the project on small Croatia’s islands. The first part of the paper treats the position of the island, its size and extent. According to its area, this is the 53rd island in Croatia,and the 37th with regard to the number of inhabitants (1991). The highest point is Babićovac (98m). The sea cliff of Ravica appertains to it. The island makes part of the middle range of Zadar islands and, administratively, belongs to the city of Zadar. It is an autonomous cadastral commune and Roman Catholic parish. The settlement consists of two separated nuclei along SW coast: Vela Rava in the central part of the island and Mala Rava in its NW part. Its geological structure is relatively simple. There is a predominance of nonlayered greyish lower-upper cretaceous dolomites, to 600m thickness. These are the oldest sediments in the Zadar archipelago. Their form is anticlinal. There are two smaller unexamined speleological objects in the NW part of the island. The island is well carved. The coast is 15.45 km in length. The coastline index is 2,29. There are many more coves and promontories in the central and SE parts. Larger coves are Lokvina, Vićabok, Paladinjica, Marnjica, Tanko, Vališina, Ivanoševica, Pavajsko, Pestehovac, Dražice, Golubovac, Martinjica, Grbavač and Grbačina. Relief features show dry dolinas and torrents with well expressed slope drainage and weathering. Along the coastthere is a shallow zone (1,5 m deep, called singular) large several metres, followed by deeper waters. There is a small number of flat superficies, which are used as gardens, while slopes serve for olives and less often as vineyards. The island surfaces are divided into properties by horizontal stone walls (mocira) and vertical ones (trmezal). The authors emphasize a numerous and interesting toponimy connected with the terrain geomorphology. From pedological point of view there are not remarkable soil zones. It is a question of shallow and poor reddish-brown soils originated from degraded dolomites. There is plenty of rocky soil and broken stones. There is no superficial running water on the island. There are several wells with brackish water, and potable water is found in a 40 metres deep pit on the nearby islet of Mrtovnjak. There is also a Pool in Vela Rava. Because of water deficiency, the inhabitants have built public cisterns in both settlements and the owners of new houses have their own cisterns. The authors study in particular the sea water surrounding the island. Physical properties of the sea (depth, sea bottom, temperatures, density, transparency, colour, currents, tides, waves) are elaborated in accordance with accessible data. Chemical characteristics follow (salinity, oxygenconcentration, pH factor, the quantity of silicate, phosphate and nitrate, ammoniac) and biological data (organic world: plankton, nekton, benthos). Climatic indicators connected with insolation, global radiation and cloudness are elaborated. Temperature data follow (annual t. ca 15oC; ca 23,5oC in July and ca 6,8oC in January), precipitation (ca 880 mm per annum), winds. Mediterranean climate conditions adequate vegetation. The island of Rava belongs to the climazonal association of holm oak (Quercus ilex). Mediterranean sorts are numerous. The present day high and low maquis and garigues predomine and, here and there, even larger specimens of trees grow. It is significant that cupresses can be seen on certain locations. The paper ends with elaborating the significance of physicogeographical basis for the social and economic development of the island. Consideration is given to the population since the oldest times of Mediterranean polyculture. Cultivation of olives, figs and grape vine (the latter till not long time ago) has considerable importance as well as breeding small cattle. Restrictive factors of development (lack of water and fertile soils, isolation, depopulation) are analysed too. The influence of regional centre Zadar is also important, as well as the prospects of tourist and aquaculture objects.
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"Deflections and failure modes in dry-stone retaining walls." International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts 24, no. 3 (June 1987): 117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(87)90788-1.
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Kumar, Pankaj, M. P. Hariprasad, Arun Menon, and K. Ramesh. "Experimental study of dry stone masonry walls using digital reflection photoelasticity." Strain 56, no. 6 (September 8, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/str.12372.
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Pickard, John. "Early Australian rabbit-proof fences: paling, slab and stub fences, modified dry stone walls, and wire netting." Rural History, June 15, 2021, 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793321000145.
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Abstract Fences were critical in the fight against rabbits in colonial Australia. Initially, domestic rabbits were farmed in pens or paddocks fenced with paling fences or walls. Wild-caught rabbits imported from England escaped and became serious pests from the 1850s. As their status changed from protected private property to a major pest, the functions of fences changed to fencing rabbits out. Legislation requiring or specifying rabbit-proof fences lagged several years behind recognition of rabbits as a problem. Most log and brush fences in infested districts were burnt to destroy rabbit harbour. Dry stone walls were modified in many ways; paling, slab, picket and stub fences were all tried, but were unsuccessful, and by 1886 netting was standard. Using examples from the rich agricultural Western District and the considerably poorer Mallee Region of Victoria, this article describes the many forms of rabbit fences used between the 1850s and the mid-1880s. All of the experimentation with different structures was by individual landholders, with colonial governments conspicuous by their lack of involvement until they erected rabbit-proof barrier fences.
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Desta, Zemeda. "Socio-economic Profile of Sheep and Goat Rearers in Tahtay Adyabo District, Tigray, Ethiopia." Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, November 7, 2019, 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2019/v37i130256.
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The present study was conducted to assess the socio–economic profile of sheep and goat rearers in Tahtay Adyabo District, Tigray, Ethiopia. For this study 138 sample households were selected randomly. Of the total sample respondents, 26.1% of them owned sheep, 35.5% of them owned goats and 38.4% of them owned both sheep and goats. Of the 138 interviewed sheep and goat producing households, 81.2% were male headed and the rest 18.8% were female headed households. The average ages of the sampled respondents were 44 year. The average family size of the total sample respondents was found to be 6 persons. The average years of experience related to sheep and goat production was 10.7 years. The survey result with respect to land holding of the respondents reveals that an average size of land holding per household was 2.3 hectare. Sheep and goats are kept for income generation from sell of live sheep and goat, manure, meat and milk, saving insurance and for the sale of sheep and goat product purposes in the study area. Of the total sampled households 77(55.8%) of the respondents housed their sheep and goat in both open ended during dry season and hdmo (constructed shelter from stone or wood walls with soil roof during rainy season) at night, 34(24.6%) respondents used only constructed shelter made from stone with wood walls with soil roof, 22(16%) used shelter made of mud or wood walls with leaf roof and 5(3.6%) used fenced area without roof. Therefore provision of input technologies and modern practices, increasing the dimension of access to formal financial systems, provision of timely and adequate veterinary services and provision of timely and accurate market information are important for benefits of producers and for production and productivities of sheep and goats.
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Walters, Mark, Timothy K. Perttula, and LeeAnna Schniebs. "Certain Caddo Sites on Stone Chimney Creek, Cherokee County, Texas." Index of Texas Archaeology Open Access Grey Literature from the Lone Star State, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.21112/.ita.2012.1.22.
Full textAbstract:
Limited archaeological investigations coupled with private landowner’s surface collections on Stone Chimney Creek in northwestern Cherokee County, Texas has resulted in the recording of nine new Caddo sites, several of which appear to have been occupied after ca. A.D. 1650 in the Allen phase. The landowner had collected artifacts on his farm and contacted the Texas Historical Commission (THC) about getting information about them, who in turn contacted the author, a member of the Texas Archeological Stewardship Network. The landowner was interested in learning more about the native inhabitants who had once called this portion of Stone Chimney Creek home. Stone Chimney Creek originates in northern Cherokee County and flows in a southerly direction before joining the Neches River under present day Lake Palestine. The study area is some 4.8 km north of the confluence of Stone Chimney Creek and the Neches River. Stone Chimney Creek, in the study area, is deeply entrenched with a narrow floodplain and steep valley walls. Therefore, in the study area, there are no good alluvial settings for archaeological sites. Rather, archaeological sites are located on upland slopes or on top of upland landforms paralleling Stone Chimney Creek. Some of the site settings are unusual, being at the head of dry drainages and gullies, as they are in the adjoining Flat Creek basin and long distances (in terms of easy access to water) from Stone Chimney Creek proper. The soils in the study area are of the Nacogdoches series, which are the principal red soils in the Redlands section of East Texas. The iron and red pigments in these soils permeate everything: skin, clothing, the outside of houses, even artifacts. Depending on the degree of slope, soil layers and fertility vary across the study area; the steeper slopes are heavily eroded. Parent material is greensand marl or glauconitic sandy clay and clay. Certain locations in the study area have been mined of soil for construction purposes. There is evidence of old farming activities, such as farming terraces, but currently large portions of the study area have been cleared and developed for pasture. This land clearing and mining provided good surface visibility at certain sites, resulting in some large surface collections from those areas. Shovel tests were conducted at six of the recorded sites and a 1 x 1 m test unit was placed in a midden deposit at 41CE426. This article characterizes the work to date on these Stone Chimney Creek sites, focusing mainly on five sites with the largest surface collections. The article concludes with a discussion of the broader character and cultural affiliation of these sites with respect to the recently defined Upper Neches River cluster of Historic Caddo sites.