Journal articles: 'Ecology : Woodland resources : Zimbabwe'

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Sprengelmeyer, Quentin D., Suzan Mansourian, Jeremy D. Lange, Daniel R. Matute, Brandon S. Cooper, Erling V. Jirle, Marcus C. Stensmyr, and John E. Pool. "Recurrent Collection of Drosophila melanogaster from Wild African Environments and Genomic Insights into Species History." Molecular Biology and Evolution 37, no. 3 (November 15, 2019): 627–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msz271.

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Abstract A long-standing enigma concerns the geographic and ecological origins of the intensively studied vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster. This globally distributed human commensal is thought to originate from sub-Saharan Africa, yet until recently, it had never been reported from undisturbed wilderness environments that could reflect its precommensal niche. Here, we document the collection of 288 D. melanogaster individuals from multiple African wilderness areas in Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Namibia. The presence of D. melanogaster in these remote woodland environments is consistent with an ancestral range in southern-central Africa, as opposed to equatorial regions. After sequencing the genomes of 17 wilderness-collected flies collected from Kafue National Park in Zambia, we found reduced genetic diversity relative to town populations, elevated chromosomal inversion frequencies, and strong differences at specific genes including known insecticide targets. Combining these genomes with existing data, we probed the history of this species’ geographic expansion. Demographic estimates indicated that expansion from southern-central Africa began ∼13,000 years ago, with a Saharan crossing soon after, but expansion from the Middle East into Europe did not begin until roughly 1,800 years ago. This improved model of demographic history will provide an important resource for future evolutionary and genomic studies of this key model organism. Our findings add context to the history of D. melanogaster, while opening the door for future studies on the biological basis of adaptation to human environments.

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Jeffrey Kurebwa. "Women's Access and Control over Woodland and Water Resources in Rural Zimbabwe." African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review 7, no. 1 (2017): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/africonfpeacrevi.7.1.02.

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Campbell, B. M., R. N. Cunliffe, and J. Gambiza. "Vegetation structure and small-scale pattern in Miombo Woodland, Marondera, Zimbabwe." Bothalia 25, no. 1 (October 9, 1995): 121–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/abc.v25i1.721.

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The aim ol this paper is to describe woodland structure and small-scale patterning of woody plants at a miombo site, and to relate these to past disturbance and soil properties. Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. and Julbemardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin were the most frequent woody plants at the five hectare site, with size-class distributions which were markedly skewed towards the smaller size classes. The vegetation structure at the site and the increase in basal area over the past thirty years point to considerable disturbance prior to the present protected status. Six woodland subtypes were identified, grouped into two structural types: open and closed woodland. The distribution of woodland subtypes related closely to certain soil properties. It was hypothesized that the distribution of open and closed woodland is stable and a positive feedback mechanism by which this occurs is postulated.

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Mapaure, I. "A floristic classification of the vegetation of a forest-savanna boundary in southeastern Zimbabwe." Bothalia 27, no. 2 (October 8, 1997): 185–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/abc.v27i2.680.

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The vegetation of Chirinda Forest boundary was classified into eight types using Two-way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). The moist forest comprises three types: Strychnos mellodora-Chrysophyllum gonmgosanum Forest on deep dolerite soils; Chrysophyllum gorungosanum-Myrianthus holstii Forest on shallow dolerite soils; and Teclea iiobilis-Ehretia cymosa Forest on drier, but deep dolerite soils. The non-forest vegetation comprises five types: Themeda triandra Grassland on shallow dolerite soils; Psidium guajava Bushland on sandstone; Bridelia micrantha-Harungana madagascariensis Mixed Woodland not restricted to any one particular soil type; Acacia karroo- Heteropyxis dehniae Woodland on shallow soils derived from sandstone but sometimes on dolerite; and Julbemardia globiflora-Brachystegia spiciformis (Miombo) Woodland on sandstone.

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Tingle, Colin C. D., Sasha Lauer, and Geoffrey Armstrong. "Dry season, epigeal invertebrate fauna of mopane woodland in northwestern Zimbabwe." Journal of Arid Environments 23, no. 4 (November 1992): 397–414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1963(18)30613-x.

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Dunham, Kevin M. "Litterfall, nutrient-fall and production in an Acacia albida woodland in Zimbabwe." Journal of Tropical Ecology 5, no. 2 (May 1989): 227–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400003515.

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ABSTRACTLitterfall was recorded for one year in Acacia albida woodland in Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. Leaves fell throughout the year, but leaf-fall rate peaked in the wet season. Litterfall was 1.5 t ha−1 year−1, comprising 50% leaves, 20% fruits, 17% ‘fine’ material (mainly frass), 4% flowers and 9% wood and bark. Net above ground production by A. albida trees was 1.7 t ha−1 year−1, including leaf production of 1.0 t ha−1 year−1, twig production of 0.3 t ha-1 year−1 and fruit production of 0.3 t ha−1 year−1. Insects consumed about 26% of leaf production. Net above ground herbaceous production was estimated from rainfall data using regression equations: it was 6.8 t ha−1 year−1 for annual grasses and 2.8 t ha−1 year−1 for forbs. Net above ground primary production in A. albida woodland was 11.3 t ha−1 year−1. The seasonal variations in the nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and calcium concentrations of different A. albida litter components were recorded. The estimated falls of N, P, K, Ca and Mg were 31.1, 2.1, 9.8, 15.0 and 3.4 kg ha−1 year−1 respectively.

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McCall, C., and R. B. Primack. "Resources limit the fecundity of three woodland herbs." Oecologia 71, no. 3 (February 1987): 431–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00378717.

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CAMPBELL, B. M., J. R. A. BUTLER, I. MAPAURE, S. J. VERMEULEN, and P. MASHOVE. "Elephant damage and safari hunting in Pterocarpus angolensis woodland in northwestern Matabeleland, Zimbabwe." African Journal of Ecology 34, no. 4 (December 1996): 380–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1996.tb00633.x.

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Mwabvu, T. "The density and distribution of millipedes on termite mounds in miombo woodland, Zimbabwe." African Journal of Ecology 43, no. 4 (December 2005): 400–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00602.x.

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Linzey, A. V., and M. H. Kesner. "Small mammals of a woodland-savannah ecosystem in Zimbabwe. II. Community structure." Journal of Zoology 243, no. 1 (September 1997): 153–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05761.x.

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Loveridge, John P., and Stein R. Moe. "Termitaria as browsing hotspots for African megaherbivores in miombo woodland." Journal of Tropical Ecology 20, no. 3 (April 21, 2004): 337–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467403001202.

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Thirteen termite mounds and 13 similar-sized control plots were surveyed in central Zimbabwe in order to study large mammalian browsing and vegetation characteristics. The mounds supported almost twice as many tree species as the control plots and the woody vegetation was denser on mounds compared with the woodland plots. Species of woody plants were recorded along with the percentage of branches browsed (cumulative browsing score) by black rhino, Diceros bicornis, elephant, Loxodonta africana and other browsers combined. In addition we measured how the cumulative browsing score on three woody plant species, Acacia nilotica, Colophospermum mopane and Dichrostachys cinerea, which were common both on and off mounds, was related to the distance from mound centre. Both black rhino and elephant cumulative browsing scores were significantly higher on the mound plants compared with the woodland plots. Cumulative browsing score was negatively related to distance from the mound centre for Dichrostachys cinerea, Colophospermum mopane and Acacia nilotica. We propose that termite mound construction in miombo woodland contributes to sustaining populations of megaherbivores and perhaps some woody species in these areas.

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Gandiwa, E., T. Magwati, P. Zisadza, T. Chinuwo, and C. Tafangenyasha. "The impact of African elephants on Acacia tortilis woodland in northern Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe." Journal of Arid Environments 75, no. 9 (September 2011): 809–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.04.017.

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SANTOS, MARIA J., and JAMES H. THORNE. "Comparing culture and ecology: conservation planning of oak woodlands in Mediterranean landscapes of Portugal and California." Environmental Conservation 37, no. 2 (April 12, 2010): 155–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892910000238.

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SUMMARYMediterranean ecosystems are biodiversity hotspots, however translating conservation need into implementation has been hindered by their function as working landscapes that integrate both human and natural components. This paper compares oak woodland working landscapes in California and Portugal: can conservation policy be reshaped to conserve Mediterranean oak woodland ecosystems with differing sociopolitical cultural contexts? Each oak woodland's cultural-historical legacy and socioecological system (SES) is described, and how each system can cross-inform improvements to conservation policies is assessed. The SES analysis shows that oak woodlands are managed to maximize revenue from one or more of four resources: forestry, rangeland, agriculture and natural areas. Sustainability of extractable resources may be threatened by replacement rate, land-use history and interdependence with other resources. Non-extractable resources (natural areas) are more volatile and sustainable management is dependent on the voluntary nature of collective-choice rules. Conservation planning and implementation require attention to the characteristic heterogeneity of oak woodlands and to the processes that generate biodiversity, such as fire and regeneration. Conservation plans should aim for the preservation of oak woodland functions (for example multiple use systems) and cultural characteristics (such as keeping people on the land), and governmental and public recognition of the value of preserving these woodlands.

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Douthwaite, R. J. "Occurrence and Consequences of DDT Residues in Woodland Birds Following Tsetse Fly Spraying Operations in NW Zimbabwe." Journal of Applied Ecology 32, no. 4 (November 1995): 727. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2404812.

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Bell, Morag, and Neil Roberts. "The Political Ecology of Dambo Soil and Water Resources in Zimbabwe." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16, no. 3 (1991): 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/622950.

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Thomas, Hannah, Skye F. Cameron, Hamish A. Campbell, Mariana A. Micheli-Campbell, Ellie C. Kirke, Rebecca Wheatley, and Robbie S. Wilson. "Rocky escarpment versus savanna woodlands: comparing diet and body condition as indicators of habitat quality for the endangered northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus)." Wildlife Research 48, no. 5 (2021): 434. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr20032.

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Abstract ContextUnderstanding what constitutes high-quality habitat for threatened species is critical for conservation management planning. The endangered northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus) has experienced an uneven range contraction among habitat types. Once common across multiple habitats of northern mainland Australia, declining populations have now contracted to rocky escarpments. AimThe island refuge of Groote Eylandt, Northern Territory, Australia, has not experienced the declines as seen on mainland Australia. Here, northern quolls persist in both rocky escarpment and savanna woodland, which provides a rare opportunity to investigate the habitat quality of rocky escarpments and savanna woodland for the northern quoll. MethodsNorthern quolls (n=111) were trapped in both rocky escarpment (n=61) and savanna woodland (n=50) habitats before the breeding season (May). We conducted body condition assessment, scat analysis, and measured trophic niche breadth of individuals occupying each habitat type. Key resultsFemale quolls occupying rocky escarpments exhibited a lower body condition than did quolls occupying savanna woodland. Quolls from rocky escarpments consumed a significantly higher proportion of mammals and fed within a narrower dietary niche than did those occupying savanna woodland. ConclusionsQuolls had adapted to the dietary resources available within each habitat type, suggesting that the lack of quolls in savanna woodland on the mainland is due to factors other than availability of dietary resources. ImplicationsGroote Eylandt is of critical conservation significance, where high numbers of northern quolls exist in both rocky escarpment and savanna woodland habitats. For population viability on the mainland, managing threats such as feral predators and inappropriate fire regimes in savanna woodland, particularly those surrounding rocky escarpment, should be prioritised.

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Gambiza, J., B. M. Campbell, S. R. Moe, and I. Mapaure. "Season of grazing and stocking rate interactively affect fuel loads inBaikiaea plurijugaHarms woodland in northwestern Zimbabwe." African Journal of Ecology 46, no. 4 (December 2008): 637–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00951.x.

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Linzey, A. V., and M. H. Kesner. "Small mammals of a woodland-savannah ecosystem in Zimbabwe. I. Density and habitat occupancy patterns." Journal of Zoology 243, no. 1 (September 1997): 137–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05760.x.

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Moore, T. L., L. E. Valentine, M. D. Craig, G. E. StJ Hardy, and P. A. Fleming. "Do woodland birds prefer to forage in healthy Eucalyptus wandoo trees?" Australian Journal of Zoology 61, no. 3 (2013): 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo13045.

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Globally, many forests and woodlands are in decline. The marked loss of canopy foliage typical of these declines results in reduced foraging resources (e.g. nectar, pollen, and insects) and, subsequently, can reduce habitat quality for woodland birds. In south-west Western Australia, patches of Eucalyptus wandoo woodlands have shown a decline in condition since at least 2002. We investigated how changes in E. wandoo condition affect the woodland bird community. Foraging activities of three bird species were recorded for 20 sites in Dryandra State Forest and Wandoo Conservation Park either by conducting watches on focal trees (‘sitting’ method), or following individuals through the woodland (‘following’ method). Condition assessments of trees used by the birds were compared with those for trees available at the study site. Weebills (Smicrornis brevirostris; canopy insectivore) displayed preference for healthy trees (low amounts of canopy dieback), whereas rufous treecreepers (Climacteris rufa; bark-foraging insectivore) preferred trees with a higher proportion of dead branches. Yellow-plumed honeyeaters (Lichenostomus ornatus; insectivore/nectarivore) foraged in older, larger E. wandoo trees having full canopies with few signs of tree decline. Tree declines, such as that happening in E. wandoo, alter the foraging resources and habitat available to woodland birds.

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Holdo, Ricardo M., and Jonathan Timberlake. "Rooting depth and above-ground community composition in Kalahari sand woodlands in western Zimbabwe." Journal of Tropical Ecology 24, no. 2 (March 2008): 169–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467408004835.

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Abstract:The pattern of coarse-root distribution was analysed in the woody plant community along a 200-m edaphic gradient on a Kalahari sand woodland catena in Zimbabwe. The root systems of 45 trees and shrubs were excavated, mapped, and digitized to analyse rooting depth and architecture. Patterns of change in the above-ground community were also identified along this transect. Rooting depth increased, and the centre of mass of the root profile shifted towards the maximum rooting depth as a function of distance up the catena. The data also suggest that interspecific variation in rooting depth may increase up the catena. The below-ground pattern was accompanied by above-ground changes: species richness and basal area also increased up the catena. It is hypothesized that increasing soil depth allows greater coexistence of alternative water-use strategies, resulting in the observed increase in species richness up the catena.

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DANGERFIELD, J. M. "The distribution and abundance of Cubiterrnes sankuvensis (Wassmann) (Isoptera; Termitidae) within a Miombo woodland site in Zimbabwe." African Journal of Ecology 28, no. 1 (March 1990): 15–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1990.tb01132.x.

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Sprent, Jenny, and Stewart C. Nicol. "Influence of habitat on home-range size in the short-beaked echidna." Australian Journal of Zoology 60, no. 1 (2012): 46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo11098.

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The size of an animal’s home range is strongly influenced by the resources available within it. In productive, resource-rich habitats sufficient resources are obtainable within a smaller area, and for many species, home ranges are smaller in resource-rich habitats than in habitats with lower resource abundance. Location data on 14 male and 27 female echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus) fitted with tracking transmitters, in the southern midlands of Tasmania, were used to test the influence of habitat type on home-range size. We hypothesised that as woodland should offer more shelter, food resources and refuges than pasture, echidnas living in woodland would have smaller home ranges than those living in pasture areas. We found significant differences between the sexes. Male echidnas had a significantly larger mean home range than females and a quite different relationship between home-range size and habitat type from females. There was no relationship between the proportion of woodland within male home ranges and home-range size whereas female echidnas had a highly significant negative relationship. This suggests that home-range size of female echidnas is highly influenced by the amount of woodland within it, but the home-range size of male echidnas is controlled by factors other than habitat. This pattern is consistent with the spatial ecology of many other solitary species with a promiscuous mating system. The home ranges of females are scaled to encompass all necessary resources for successfully raising their young within a minimal area, whilst the large home ranges of males are scaled to maximise access to females.

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Gaytán, Á., A. Ricarte, and G. González-Bornay. "Hoverfly diversity (Diptera: Syrphidae) of Pyrenean oak woodlands in Central-Western Spain: a preliminary study with conservation outcomes." Journal of Insect Conservation 24, no. 1 (December 21, 2019): 163–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10841-019-00208-z.

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AbstractHoverflies are frequently used as biodiversity indicators and are targets of ecological studies across Europe. How hoverfly diversity responds to ecological variables is essential for species and habitat conservation. The present study is a first attempt to assess the hoverfly diversity of deciduous woodlands of Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) in La Vera (Central-Western Spain), a habitat in need of conservation and a region that is poorly known in terms of hoverflies. Hoverflies were sampled with hand net in a mature-woodland site, a young-woodland site, and two close-by grassland sites. A higher number of species and individuals was recorded in woodland sites than in grassland sites, with only two species exclusive to the grasslands and thus, suggesting that woodland sites might be acting as a hoverfly reservoir and source. The proportion of species with phytophagous and saprophagous larvae in woodland sites was higher than outside the woodlands, probably due to a higher availability of resources in woodland sites for phytophagous and saprophagous species. The mature woodland was found to have a higher number of species and individuals than the young woodland, possibly due to the presence of grassy clearings and rotting materials in the trees of the mature woodland. The highest number of species was found in the predatory guild (Syrphinae), and smaller-bodied species within this guild were found to be more frequent in grassland than in woodland sites; possible explanations for this result are discussed. Further investigation is required to confirm and expand the results and conclusions found in this initial study on the hoverfly community of the poorly studied Q. pyrenaica woodlands of Central-Western Spain.

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Jones, P., T. J. Hall, R. G. Silcock, and P. G. Filet. "Open woodland tree and shrub dynamics and landscape function in central Queensland after killing the trees with herbicide." Rangeland Journal 40, no. 5 (2018): 473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj18002.

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Herbicides are used in savanna to control tree and shrub density, primarily to maintain the value of the country for pastoral enterprises. However, the concomitant effects on biodiversity and landscape functioning need to be recognised and better understood. This study monitored tree and shrub dynamics and eventual landscape functionality in response to tree-killing over 7–8 years at two open eucalypt woodland sites in central Queensland. Paddocks denuded of trees using herbicide or not so treated were subject to three differing grazing pressures by cattle. Similarly treated but ungrazed sets of plots were subjected to either regular spring burns or were rarely burnt. Tree and shrub growth and seedling recruitment were slightly affected by grazing pressure but regular spring burns minimised recruitment of minor woodland species and reduced the population of original saplings and seedlings that survived the herbicide. Few eucalypt seedlings emerged from soil surface samples taken each spring in any treatment, despite the presence of flowering trees in half the treatments. Capture and retention of resources, particularly rainfall and nutrients, were slightly improved by killing the trees, and worsened by grazing. We conclude that killing trees with herbicide at these sites did not adversely affect landscape function and that woody species regeneration was almost inevitable on these open eucalypt woodland native pastures.

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Mapaure, Isaac N., and Bruce M. Campbell. "Changes in miombo woodland cover in and around Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, in relation to elephants and fire." African Journal of Ecology 40, no. 3 (August 6, 2002): 212–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2028.2002.00355.x.

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Majer, Jonathan D., Harry F. Recher, Christopher Norwood, and Brian E. Heterick. "Variation in bird assemblages and their invertebrate prey in eucalypt formations across a rainfall gradient in south-west Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology 23, no. 4 (2017): 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc17024.

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Our previous work has shown how invertebrate food resources influence usage of tree species by birds. Using data from Western Australian forests and woodlands, we extend the findings to indicate how the avifauna is influenced by these resources at the landscape level. The northern dry sclerophyll forest of south-west Australia comprises jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) to the west, with an abrupt replacement by wandoo (E. wandoo) plus powderbark wandoo (E. accedens) woodland to the east; codominant marri (Corymbia calophylla) trees occur throughout. Knockdown samples have previously indicated that the canopy invertebrate fauna is richer and more abundant in wandoo woodland than in jarrah/marri forest. To provide an indication of their general abundance and diversity in these formations, invertebrates using the trunks of the ubiquitous marri were measured along a transect from jarrah/marri forest to wandoo woodland. Mirroring the canopy, the trunk fauna had high species turnover over short distances. As with the canopy fauna, invertebrate diversity and abundance was higher on marri situated in the wandoo zone than in the jarrah/marri areas, indicating a generally larger invertebrate fauna in the drier regions of the transect. Abundance and diversity of birds, many of which are wholly or partly insectivorous, were measured at the same sites. Birds were more abundant and there were more species in areas with the wandoo species than in those dominated by jarrah/marri. Assemblage composition also differed in the two forest types. It is evident that changes in bird abundance, richness, and assemblage composition are likely determined on a landscape scale by the type, abundance, and diversity of food resources available to them. These patterns of change within forest invertebrate faunas and their primary vertebrate predators need to be considered when making decisions on conserving or managing forest communities in Australia.

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Weber, Daniela, Paul A. Egan, Anne Muola, and Johan A. Stenberg. "Genetic variation in herbivore resistance within a strawberry crop wild relative (Fragaria vesca L.)." Arthropod-Plant Interactions 14, no. 1 (November 9, 2019): 31–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11829-019-09724-w.

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Abstract To decrease the dependency on chemical pesticides, the resistance of cultivated strawberry to pests needs to be increased. While genetic resources within domesticated varieties are limited, wild genotypes are predicted to show high heritable variation in useful resistance traits. We collected 86 wild accessions of Fragaria vesca L. from central Sweden and screened this germplasm for antibiosis (pest survival and performance) and antixenosis (pest preference) traits active against the strawberry leaf beetle (Galerucella tenella L.). First, extensive common garden experiments were used to study antibiosis traits in the sampled plant genotypes. Heritable genetic variation among plant genotypes was found for several antibiosis traits. Second, controlled cafeteria experiments were used to test for plant genetic variation in antixenosis traits. The leaf beetles avoided egg laying on plant genotypes possessing high antibiosis. This indicates a high degree of concordance between antibiosis and antixenosis and that the beetles’ egg-laying behavior optimizes the fitness of their offspring. The existence of high genetic variation in key resistance traits suggests that wild woodland strawberry contains untapped resources that are sought to reduce pesticide dependence in cultivated strawberry. Given that only a very small portion of the species’ distribution area was sampled, even higher variation may be expected at the continental scale. As a whole, the genetic resources identified in this study serve to strengthen the position of woodland strawberry as a key crop wild relative.

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Yelenik, Stephanie G., Carla M. D’Antonio, and Elizabeth August-Schmidt. "The influence of soil resources and plant traits on invasion and restoration in a subtropical woodland." Plant Ecology 218, no. 10 (August 19, 2017): 1149–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11258-017-0757-3.

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Musasa, Tatenda, and Thomas Marambanyika. "Threats to sustainable utilization of wetland resources in ZIMBABWE: a review." Wetlands Ecology and Management 28, no. 4 (June 9, 2020): 681–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-020-09732-1.

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Gustine, D. D., and K. L. Parker. "Variation in the seasonal selection of resources by woodland caribou in northern British Columbia." Canadian Journal of Zoology 86, no. 8 (August 2008): 812–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z08-047.

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Conservation planning for species of concern or importance can be aided by resource selection functions (RSFs) that identify important areas or attributes. Models that can be interpreted biologically and provide reasonable predictive capacity may best be based on data from individuals grouped into seasonal selection strategies for particular geographical areas or similarities in topographical and vegetative associations. We used logistic regression, the information–theoretic approach, satellite imagery, and locational data (n = 31 females; 16 803 locations) from global positioning system (GPS) collared woodland caribou ( Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin, 1788)) to model resource selection by animals during calving, summer, fall, breeding, winter, and late-winter seasons. Higher variation in resource use corresponded to times when caribou and their young were most susceptible to predation or when food resources were limited. Even with multiple selection strategies, caribou followed a general progression from higher to lower elevation habitats from calving and summer to late winter. Caribou selected against or completely avoided the burned–disturbed vegetation class in every season except summer. We incorporated RSFs with a raster geographic information system to create selection landscapes. We validated selection landscapes using withheld GPS data (n = 6077), 50 known calving sites, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Selection models and final selection landscapes performed well in validating use locations of woodland caribou in all seasons (all P < 0.003) and in predicting known calving sites (P < 0.001). When seasonal selection strategies are identified and models are coupled with validation, RSFs are effective tools to assist in conservation planning.

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Pecot, Stephen D., Robert J. Mitchell, Brian J. Palik, E. Barry Moser, and J. Kevin Hiers. "Competitive responses of seedlings and understory plants in longleaf pine woodlands: separating canopy influences above and below ground." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, no. 3 (March 2007): 634–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x06-247.

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A trenching study was used to investigate above- and below-ground competition in a longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris P. Mill.) woodland. Trenched and nontrenched plots were replicated in the woodland matrix, at gap edges, and in gap centers representing a range of overstory stocking. One-half of each plot received a herbicide treatment to remove the understory. We monitored pine survival and growth, understory productivity, light level (gap fraction), and soil resources. The overstory facilitated pine seedling survival. Pine seedling growth was reduced as overstory stocking increased. Reduced growth of seedlings was also observed in gaps when the understory was left intact. Understory plants competed with seedlings by filling the root gaps that developed as a result of overstory disturbance. Hardwood growth increased in gaps, owing to decreased belowground competition with adult pines, while growth of herbaceous plants and pine seedlings increased with light availability. Large overstory gaps are not required to initiate regeneration in longleaf pine woodlands. Retaining overstory dispersed throughout the stand but variable in density, through single-tree selection approaches, may be an alternative to gap-based approaches. This approach would allow for the fuel continuity needed to sustain the frequent fire required to maintain the diversity characteristic of this type of woodland.

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Mapaure, I. "Small-Scale Variations in Species Composition of Miombo Woodland in Sengwa, Zimbabwe: The Influence of Edaphic Factors, Fire and Elephant Herbivory." Systematics and Geography of Plants 71, no. 2 (2001): 935. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3668729.

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Mukwada, Geoffrey. "Voices from the Past and Echoes of the Future: Management of Forest and Woodland Resources by Local Religious Institutions within the Mufurudzi Resettlement Scheme in Zimbabwe." Journal of Ecological Anthropology 12, no. 1 (January 2008): 39–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/2162-4593.12.1.3.

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Scarff, F. R., and J. S. Bradley. "Invertebrate prey of the bark-foraging insectivore Phascogale tapoatafa: distribution of biomass amongst alternative foraging substrates within south-western Australian woodlands." Australian Journal of Zoology 54, no. 5 (2006): 335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo05051.

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The bark of trees is an important foraging substrate for a range of vertebrate insectivores. This study aimed to investigate the distribution of food resources available to the bark-foraging insectivore Phascogale tapoatafa, and to compare prey biomass on bark versus the litter layer. We conducted nocturnal sampling for arthropods on tree trunks and litter in a forest in south-western Australia. The bark fauna biomass was dominated by spiders, with cockroaches, beetles and ants also well represented. In contrast, the litter was dominated by orthopterans. Invertebrate biomass was much greater in the litter layer than on tree trunks. Prey items in bark were more plentiful in Melaleuca swamps than in the surrounding dry sclerophyll woodland. Within swamps, trees with the highest invertebrate densities had thin trunks or loose bark, whilst in woodland it was trees with thick bark. Water availability may increase the prey resource used by bark-foraging insectivores.

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Mwakiwa, Emmanuel, Tendai Maparara, Simbarashe Tatsvarei, and Nolyn Muzamhindo. "Is community management of resources by urban households, feasible? Lessons from community gardens in Gweru, Zimbabwe." Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 34 (August 2018): 97–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.06.013.

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Watson, David M. "On tropical mistletoes: tractable models for evolutionary ecology, ecosystem function, and phytochemistry." Botany 95, no. 3 (March 2017): 211–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjb-2016-0232.

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In 2001, I synthesised published information on mistletoe–animal interactions, demonstrating the pervasive influence these hemiparasites have on community composition and proposing that mistletoes represent keystone resources. Although the review was global in scope, I noted “Tropical regions, in particular, are underrepresented in the mistletoe literature, and it is unclear if mistletoe is as important in structuring these highly diverse ecosystems as in less diverse temperate areas”. Since then, research on tropical mistletoes has burgeoned, as a growing number of researchers use these forest and woodland hemiparasites to address a wide range of ecological and evolutionary questions. In this commentary, I highlight some recent findings, revisit and refine some emergent inferences, and suggest that tropical mistletoes offer many opportunities for further research, representing tractable models to address many unanswered questions in the life sciences. As well as reinforcing the role of mistletoes as facilitators for plant communities and keystone resources for animal assemblages, research on mistletoe pollination, seed dispersal, and host-range, challenge the established views about the ecological maintenance and evolutionary trajectory of specialization.

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French, Kristine, and Anita Zubovic. "Effect of the Weed Chrysanthemoides monilifera (Bitou Bush) on Bird Communities." Wildlife Research 24, no. 6 (1997): 727. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr96011.

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Bird communities in native coastal woodland were compared with those in woodland infested with Chrysanthemoides monilifera rotundata (bitou bush) in order to determine the impact of infestations of this weed on birds. Little evidence was found to suggest that bitou bush negatively affected the bird communities as a whole. Overall, the total number of birds in each type of habitat did not differ while numbers of species differed only at one area. Weed infestations have a differential impact on foraging groups. Canopy-feeding generalists and understorey insectivores showed differences in abundance and species richness in a few areas, with greater numbers in weed sites than in native sites. Temporal variation in weed-site use was also evident for canopy foragers. For these groups, weed infestations are providing at least some resources, although the details of resource use need to be investigated further. Species richness and abundance of birds relying almost exclusively on plant material were negatively affected by weed infestations, indicating that this foraging guild may not be provided with adequate resources in weed-infested habitats. Similarly, although numbers were low, scavengers and raptors also showed lower abundances and species richness in weed-infested habitats. For these foraging groups, management programmes to rehabilitate weed-infested habitats are likely to have a positive effect on numbers.

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Belder, Donna J., Jennifer C. Pierson, Karen Ikin, and David B. Lindenmayer. "Beyond pattern to process: current themes and future directions for the conservation of woodland birds through restoration plantings." Wildlife Research 45, no. 6 (2018): 473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr17156.

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Habitat loss as a result of land conversion for agriculture is a leading cause of global biodiversity loss and altered ecosystem processes. Restoration plantings are an increasingly common strategy to address habitat loss in fragmented agricultural landscapes. However, the capacity of restoration plantings to support reproducing populations of native plants and animals is rarely measured or monitored. This review focuses on avifaunal response to revegetation in Australian temperate woodlands, one of the world’s most heavily altered biomes. Woodland birds are a species assemblage of conservation concern, but only limited research to date has gone beyond pattern data and occupancy trends to examine whether they persist and breed in restoration plantings. Moreover, habitat quality and resource availability, including food, nesting sites and adequate protection from predation, remain largely unquantified. Several studies have found that some bird species, including species of conservation concern, will preferentially occupy restoration plantings relative to remnant woodland patches. However, detailed empirical research to verify long-term population growth, colonisation and extinction dynamics is lacking. If restoration plantings are preferentially occupied but fail to provide sufficient quality habitat for woodland birds to form breeding populations, they may act as ecological traps, exacerbating population declines. Monitoring breeding success and site fidelity are under-utilised pathways to understanding which, if any, bird species are being supported by restoration plantings in the long term. There has been limited research on these topics internationally, and almost none in Australian temperate woodland systems. Key knowledge gaps centre on provision of food resources, formation of optimal foraging patterns, nest-predation levels and the prevalence of primary predators, the role of brood parasitism, and the effects of patch size and isolation on resource availability and population dynamics in a restoration context. To ensure that restoration plantings benefit woodland birds and are cost-effective as conservation strategies, the knowledge gaps identified by this review should be investigated as priorities in future research.

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Smith, Alistair M. S., and Andrew T. Hudak. "Estimating combustion of large downed woody debris from residual white ash." International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, no. 3 (2005): 245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf05011.

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The production of residual white ash patches within wildfires represents near-complete combustion of the available fuel and releases a considerable quantity of gases to the atmosphere. These patches are generally produced from combustion of large downed woody debris (LDWD) such as fallen trees and snags. However, LDWD are generally ignored in calculations of fuel combusted within environments where surface fires dominate (e.g. southern African savannas). To assess the potential of fractional white ash cover as a remotely sensed measure of LDWD combustion, both the proportion of the surface covered by white ash and the combustion completeness required to produce white ash must be quantified. An aerial photograph of woodland savanna fires in north-western Zimbabwe was analysed to estimate the proportion of white ash cover within a typical satellite sensor pixel. The proportion loss on ignition (LOI) of wood samples from the study area was measured and combined with previous estimates of mean tree biomass. The proportion of white ash within the aerial photographs was 0.2% (± 0.06), which corresponded to an additional 67 320 kg ha−1 of biomass combusted above that typically recorded as combusted from a surface fire in this environment (~7000 kg ha−1). This analysis should be repeated in other savannas and forests, where pre-fire fuel loads and post-fire fractional white ash cover may be higher.

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Dosso, Kanvaly, Souleymane Konaté, Daouda Aidara, and K. E. Linsenmair. "Termite diversity and abundance across fire-induced habitat variability in a tropical moist savanna (Lamto, Central Côte d'Ivoire)." Journal of Tropical Ecology 26, no. 3 (March 30, 2010): 323–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467410000015.

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Abstract:At Lamto, little is known about animal community responses to habitat variability resulting from fires and the mosaic pattern of the vegetation in general and in particular about that of termites which play key roles in this ecosystem. With a standardized method, data were collected on termites from four habitats differing in their vegetation cover and fire-history: annually burned savanna, savanna woodland, forest island and gallery forest. A range of environmental variables was measured and correlated with species abundances. The number of termite species collected in the savanna woodland was very close to that found in the gallery forest while the forest island was the richest habitat. The species richness of the savanna woodland and forest island seemed partly due to their heterogeneous and transitional vegetation structures and variable food resources. With regard to the fire-history of habitats, Connell's intermediate disturbance hypothesis offers an explanation for differences in the patterns of habitat-specific species richness. Variation in species abundances was significantly correlated with only two environmental variables (soil pH and woody plant species richness). The pH appeared as the most influential factor for fungus-growers while tree invasion in the savanna strongly reduces the abundance of grass-feeding species (e.g. Trinervitermes geminatus). Although not significantly correlated with species abundances, soil carbon showed a positive correlation with the dominant soil-feeder Basidentitermes potens. As for wood-feeders, they were not strongly correlated with woody plant species richness; this fact might be linked to their use for other sources of nourishment. Overall, it appears that habitat variability in the Lamto reserve contributes to the maintenance of different subsets of the termite community.

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Cousin, Jarrad A., and Ryan D. Phillips. "Habitat complexity explains species-specific occupancy but not species richness in a Western Australian woodland." Australian Journal of Zoology 56, no. 2 (2008): 95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo07065.

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Habitat complexity is an important factor governing species richness and habitat selection in birds. The present study examined this relationship in a large wandoo woodland in Western Australia. Habitat complexity (comprising canopy, shrub, ground vegetation, log and leaf litter cover) and bird species richness was recorded in 48 sites, each ~3 ha in size. We found no significant correlation of habitat complexity with species richness. We propose that the absence of such a relationship results from the resource-poor environment of the woodlands of south-western Australia. The relative scarcity of food resources results in a species richness threshold beyond which there are insufficient niches and resources to support additional species with increasing habitat complexity. Only two species exhibited significant associations with habitat complexity, with the western yellow robin (Eopsaltria griseogularis) occupying sites with higher habitat complexity, and the restless flycatcher (Myiagra inquieta) occupying sites with lower habitat complexity. Although some species may respond specifically to habitat complexity, management of avian biodiversity within Australian woodlands should take into account the potentially greater role that productivity and resource availability play in influencing species richness, rather than habitat complexity per se. Furthermore, the individual components comprising habitat complexity may be of equal importance in assessing relationship of species richness to overall habitat complexity.

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Kaplan, Didi, and Mario Gutman. "EFFECT OF THINNING AND GRAZING ON TREE DEVELOPMENT AND THE VISUAL ASPECT OF AN OAK FOREST ON THE GOLAN HEIGHTS." Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 44, no. 4 (April 12, 1996): 381–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07929978.1996.10676659.

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An attempt to create an open woodland was made in Israel by opening large tracks of maquis thickets by hand, cutting out lower shrubs, and thinning, coppicing, and pruning desirable trees. Three treatments were compared: moderate, heavy, and control with no thinning. The effects of the treatments on the visual transparency of the forest were measured by a transparency index defined as the maximum distance from which a vertical post 1.8 meters high could be fully observed. In general, thinning caused a 38.0% increase in the diameter of all the trunks over a seven-year period for heavy thinning, compared with 26.4% and 12.8% in the moderate and control treatments, respectively. The difference between heavy and moderate thinning was not always significant. A combination of thinning and grazing successfully created an open woodland, without additional input of resources. The “transparency index” used in this study can be used as a quantitative measurement index for accessibility and aesthetics.

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Palmer, Carol, Owen Price, and Christine Bach. "Foraging ecology of the black flying fox (Pteropus alecto) in the seasonal tropics of the Northern Territory, Australia." Wildlife Research 27, no. 2 (2000): 169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr97126.

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Pteropus alecto uses landscape patchiness at two scales: firstly, between broad vegetation types (i.e. eucalypt open forest/savanna woodland versus rainforest vegetation); secondly, within vegetation types. Radio-collared Pteropus alecto selected foraging sites that were richer in flower or fruit resources than floristically similar sites and moved through the landscape in response to the flowering and fruiting of a number of plant species occurring in different vegetation types. Abundance of P. alecto within four monitored rainforest patches and the outside vegetation fluctuated substantially during the study. Overall, P. alecto was more abundant in the rainforests than in the surrounding vegetation. P. alecto foraged on the flowers and fruit from 23 species in 11 families.

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Benwell, Andrew, and Bruce McCorkell. "Life history and morphological variation in intraspecific seeder and resprouter populations of two species from rock outcrop vegetation in north-east New South Wales." Australian Journal of Botany 59, no. 3 (2011): 197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt07084.

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The processes underlying differentiation of seeder and resprouter life histories were explored by studying changes in life history and morphological traits in intraspecific seeder and resprouter populations of the grass Entolasia stricta and shrub Keraudrenia hillii var. hillii from adjoining rock pavement and fringing woodland habitats. Population traits were sampled in the field and studied under controlled conditions in a randomised experimental design with two levels of population/habitat (seeder/rock outcrop and resprouter/woodland) and two levels of fertiliser (low and high). Life history traits reflecting rate of growth, relative allocation of resources to reproductive and vegetative growth and timing of events, as well as a selection of simple morphological traits were recorded. Generalised linear model analysis showed that population had a strong, significant effect on the majority of traits examined, particularly those relating to reproductive output. Many traits were also significantly responsive to nutrient, or induced plasticity, and significant interaction terms were very few. The two species exhibited parallel intraspecific changes in life history between habitats and traits recorded under experimental conditions were similar to those observed in the field. The populations from pavement shrubland produced a more compact shoot system, faster early shoot growth (E. stricta), more numerous flowers and more numerous and lighter seeds. In fringing woodland, both species produced a larger shoot system, slower early shoot growth and fewer and larger seeds. Significant intraspecific differences in population traits and correlation of population with habitat type indicated that the intraspecific seeder-resprouter populations of both species were ecotypes selected by habitat factors, most likely associated with the edaphic environment rather than fire regime variables.

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Mbereko, Alexio, Billy B. Mukamuri, and Moses J. Chimbari. "Exclusion and contests over wetlands used for farming in Zimbabwe: a case study of broad-ridge and broad-furrow tillage system on Zungwi Vlei." Journal of Political Ecology 22, no. 1 (December 1, 2015): 322. http://dx.doi.org/10.2458/v22i1.21111.

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In Zimbabwe, a broad-ridge and broad-furrow tillage system was promoted by the state, scientists and a nongovernmental organisation for its presumed agronomic and environmental viability and economic returns for small farmers. Zungwi vlei, a wetland of value to the community was transformed from a common use natural resource into a limited access broad-ridge and broad-furrow irrigation landscape that benefited a small number of people. Our study sought to understand conflicts over natural resources access, use and management arising from this land use change. The study adopted mixed methods combining qualitative and quantitative data collection tools. The results indicated the presence of a wide range of internal and external conflicts following the transformation of the landscape. Prior to the transformation, low levels of conflict were noted. We concluded that despite the ability of the broad-ridge and furrow tillage system to boost agricultural productivity per square meter, it triggered considerable resource use conflicts as fewer families directly benefited from the innovation.Key words: Development, vlei, agricultural technology, resources conflict, political ecology, Zimbabwe

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Davies, Althea L., and Fiona Watson. "Understanding the changing value of natural resources: an integrated palaeoecological?historical investigation into grazing?woodland interactions by Loch Awe, Western Highlands of Scotland." Journal of Biogeography 34, no. 10 (October 2007): 1777–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01725.x.

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Gross, C. L., M. A. Whalen, and M. H. Andrew. "Seed selection and removal by ants in a tropical savanna woodland in northern Australia." Journal of Tropical Ecology 7, no. 1 (February 1991): 99–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400005150.

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ABSTRACTAnt species in the genera Chelaner, Meranoplus and Pheidole were found to be seed-harvesters in a tropical savanna woodland in northern Australia. Despite the availability of other seed types (legume seeds in particular were abundant), all five seed-harvesting species studied are specialists in that they store only grass seeds. Depot experiments, in which seeds were placed along foraging trails, also indicate a preference for grass seeds over legume seeds. At least for some ant species the handling efficiency of legume seeds may be less than that of grass seeds. Marked differences in seed composition of granaries were observed among different seed-harvesting ant species and among colonies of the same species at different sites. All ant species studied, except Pheidole sp. 1, stored only one type of grass seed in granaries at any site despite the availability of other seed types. This contrasts with studies conducted elsewhere in Australia in which generalist foraging by seed-harvesters was found to be common. With the possible exception of Pheidole, dietary specialization docs not appear to arise from a low diversity or abundance of seed supplies. In addition to differences in seed preferences, species of seed-harvesting ants also exhibited some differences in temporal foraging behaviour and some partitioning of resources may be occurring among these co-occurring species. Temporal overlap in foraging, however, was much greater than dietary overlap. The viability of granary seeds was very low for three ant species suggesting that seeds stored by these ants were largely predated rather than dispersed.

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Mtapuri, Oliver. "A REVIEW OF SOCIAL PROTECTION PROGRAMMES IN ZIMBABWE: LESSONS LEARNT." Southern African Journal of Social Work and Social Development 26, no. 3 (March 3, 2017): 365–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.25159/2415-5829/2260.

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This article makes an entrée into the social protection arena by exploring the political, technical, social, economic, legal and environmental dimensions of social protection using the ecology of human development as a foundation. As a point of departure, it argues that a clear understanding of the ‘total environment’ is critical in the design, formulation and implementation of social protection programmes. The method used for purposes of compiling this article is a desk study in which documents on social protection interventions used in Zimbabwe were reviewed. The key contribution of the article is a framework which may assist countries in the global south to understand social protection in general and to guide policy implementation and practice in particular. Some of the key lessons learnt from the Zimbabwean experience include the need to interrogate all interventions for feasibility, efficiency, effectiveness, dependency-reduction, appropriateness, sustain-ability, gender-sensitivity, incorruptibility, provision of exit mechanisms, administrative costs and adequacy of resources.

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Sinclair, Paul J. J. "Archaeology in Eastern Africa: An Overview of Current Chronological Issues." Journal of African History 32, no. 2 (July 1991): 179–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700025706.

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Even at this still early stage in the development of the chronostratigraphic framework in eastern Africa a number of important advances have been reported. As more attention is paid to the different responses of food producers to the variety of resources provided by the range of available environments then, and only then, will we be in a position to understand the diachronic processes which result in settlement aggregation and urban development.In the Lake Nyanza region at the hub of the Sudanic and Guinea–Congolian regional vegetation centres, early dates for iron working are not yet convincing enough to demonstrate independent invention of iron working, but the region is almost certainly the most important diffusion source of the technique to the eastern and southern sectors of the sub-continent.Currently available data from the Maasai–Somali region show clearly the early adoption of food production techniques and a capacity to absorb iron technology without necessarily abandoning pastoral production. This did not, however, mean a lack of development based on agriculture as the towns of the Somali coast with their advanced craft production clearly show. However, it is interesting that the urban development seems closely linked to the juxtaposition of the valuable agricultural resources provided by the Shabelle river running close to the coast and the marine resources of the littoral.The Zanzibar–Inhambane floral mosaic provides a context for the spread southwards of the early farming communities and for the development of the coastal towns. Particularly important here appears to have been the combination of surface and arboreal forms of agriculture with the exploitation of marine resources. Links eastwards with the specialized floral communities of the Comoro archipelago and Madagascar were also fully established. The highlands of Madagascar experienced the expansion from the eleventh century a.d. onwards of a settlement system increasingly focused upon hydraulic agriculture which culminated in the powerful Merina kingdom and ultimately the present day capital of Antananarivo.On the continent relatively little penetration into the Zambezian miombo woodland communities was achieved by the coastal urban dwellers. In the woodlands of the vast highlands of the interior different developmental trajectories of settlement systems occurred. Here food production cannot be shown to have become established earlier than the late first millennium b.c. But by the mid first millennium a.d. significant settlement hierarchies based on mixed cropping and cattle keeping were established on the Zimbabwe plateau and the margins of the Kalahari. These together with the incorporation of the opportunities presented by inter-regional exchange and the exotic trade goods penetrating from the coast ultimately gave rise to the powerful state formations of the Mapungubwe and Zimbabwe traditions.Together these developments show a remarkable degree of regional articulation and it remains true that an adequate understanding of the processes giving rise to urbanism in any part of eastern Africa cannot be understood in isolation.

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Recher, Harry F., and William E. Davis Jr. "Foraging Ecology of a Mulga Bird Community." Wildlife Research 24, no. 1 (1997): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr96052.

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Mulga is a distinctive woodland or shrub community with a wide distribution across the semi-arid zone of southern and central Australia. Mulga (Acacia aneura) is the dominant shrub and small tree, but other species of Acacia are common. Typical of Australian habitats in the arid zone, mulga has a core of resident bird species that is augmented by nomadic (opportunistic) species when conditions are favourable. This paper describes the foraging behaviour and habitat use of a mulga avifauna in the vicinity of Alice Springs during late winter, when many opportunistic species were present. Data were obtained for 24 species, of which 16 were confirmed as nesting. Many birds, regardless of their normal foraging habits, converged on a common food resource: a geometrid moth (Geometridae) that was abundant on mulga plants. Despite their use of a common food resource, species differed in their foraging behaviour, proportions of different substrates used, and foraging heights. Ground-foraging species dominated the avifauna, but in most respects the guild structure of the community was a scaled-down version of Eucalyptus forest avifaunas. Differences in guild structure between mulga and eucalypt forest are best explained by differences between the two habitats in the kinds of resources (e.g. foraging substrates, types of food) that are available.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Ecology : Woodland resources : Zimbabwe'

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