Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Economic aspects of Human fertility'

In these papers I discuss the causal estimation of the effects of fertility and fertility planning developments on mother and child outcomes. A number of concerns are raised with existing identification techniques, and alternative methodologies to consistently estimate the effect of interest are proposed. These concerns and new techniques are illustrated using microdata on slightly more than 43,000,000 births ocurring between 1972 and 2013. In the first substantive chapter (written with Sonia Bhalotra), we discuss the validity of the use of twin births in fertility research. We demonstrate that twin births are not random. Successfully taking twins to term depends upon positive maternal health behaviours and investments in the periods preceding birth. We show that this is of considerable concern for estimation techniques which rely on twin births being (conditionally) randomly assigned to identify causal effects. To illustrate, we consider the estimation of the child quantity-quality (QQ) trade-off, and show that existing instrumental variable estimates are inconsistent in the contexts examined. Upon partially correcting for the fact that twin births are not random, a statistically significant QQ trade-off begins to emerge. We close by examining a number of partial identification techniques to bound the true effect of fertility on child outcomes. In the second substantive chapter, I examine the effect of fertility control policies on the fertility decisions and outcomes of women. I consider the case of the emergency contraceptive pill in Chile. The staggered arrival of this technology to Chile over the last decade has resulted in the availability of the first safe and legal post-coital birth control policies. In a context of high teenage pregnancy rates, difference-in-difference (DD) style estimates suggest that this policy has accounted for reductions in short-term teen childbearing by as much as 7%, an effect similar to the arrival of abortion in the USA. This policy is also shown to reduce fetal deaths reported in early gestation with no similar reduction in late gestation: suggestive evidence that an alternative fertility control policy may reduce costly and dangerous illegal abortions. Finally, I turn to the use of DD estimators as a policy-analysis tool. I discuss how such estimators perform in the case of reforms which may not be sharply demarcated to treatment and control clusters, but rather subject to local spillovers or externalities. I propose an extension of the typical DD estimator: a spillover-robust DD estimator. This methodology is applied to estimate the effect of two localised fertility control reforms in Mexico and Chile, where women close to treatment clusters who were not themselves subject to the reform may nonetheless travel to access treatment.

Because pronatalist sentiments may be an important aspect of Mexican-American ethnic heritage, this research focuses on cultural as well as socioeconomic factors which may contribute to higher Mexican-American fertility. Language use and nativity are used as indirect indicators of identification with an ethnic culture. Wives' characteristics are generally considered adequate to the study of couples' fertility, but in light of earlier research by the author indicating the importance of cultural factors to the fertility expectations of Mexican-American adolescent males, characteristics of husbands as well as wives are included in this analysis. For this reason, the sample, which is drawn from the 1980 Census data for Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico, is limited to Mexican-American and Anglo women who have been married only once and live with their husbands. Two complementary methods of analysis are used. Linear regression describes the significance of husband's and wife's language use, nativity, and socioeconomic characteristics to mean family size. Parity progression ratios are used to study the contribution of these variables to the likelihood of the addition of one more child at each stage of the family building process. While wife's characteristics are sufficient to account for most of the variation observed in Anglo fertility, husband's socioeconomic characteristics significantly contribute to variation observed in the fertility of Mexican-American couples. Husbands' identification with Mexican-American culture may be somewhat more important to couples' fertility than that of their wives. This is consistent with research which suggests that children are more central to male sex role expectations as they are expressed in the context of Mexican-American culture than in that of Anglos. The measures of ethnic identity used in this study are clearly associated with socioeconomic status. The differential fertility of Anglos and Mexican Americans could be attributed to these differences. The association of Spanish language use and fertility has been linked to the lower opportunity costs represented by additional children to women who do not speak English proficiently. However, the analysis of these data, which compares structural and cultural explanations of fertility differentials, provides evidence of cultural effects as well as the effects of socioeconomic status on fertility.

This controlled descriptive study was designed to investigate the psychological status of couples who are engaged in advanced fertility treatments. A battery of psychological test instruments, including the Millon Behavioral Health Inventory (MBHI), the Health Attribution Test (HAT), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS), was used to measure psychological variables that have been shown in the infertility research literature to be associated with the psychological experiences of infertility patients. The scores from the four assessment instruments were compared with those of pregnant couples in childbirth education classes to differentiate the impact of stress associated with fertility treatment from the stress experienced by third trimester pregnant couples. Eighty-five subjects (42 male and 43 female) volunteered for the study and completed packets of questionnaires. The groups were designated Treatment (infertile couples) and Control (pregnant couples). The resulting data were collected and analyzed on the basis of group mean scores on the test instruments.

This dissertation focuses on the relationship between the education-based fertility gap and economic growth and on policy as a determinant of fertility. In the first essay I evaluate the impact of differential fertility (the difference between fertility rates of women with high educational attainment and women with low educational attainment) on economic growth by accounting for critical marginal effects and the general level of educational attainment in a given country. I also examine the possibility that this effect varies based on level of inequality and income levels. I find that for a less developed country with high income inequality, higher fertility rates of women with lower education has a favorable impact on economic development. In the second essay I examine the transmission and magnitude of the effect of differential fertility on economic growth at the subnational level. I explore the relationship between differential fertility and economic growth in a cross-U.S. state context. I find that a larger gap in fertility rates between highly-educated and less-educated women is strongly associated with a decrease in the rate of long-run economic growth across U.S. states, even after accounting for the levels of inequality and overall fertility. In the third essay I explore policy as a determinant of the education-based fertility gap. I use the 2007 Massachusetts healthcare reform which provides a good setting for evaluating the effect of an exogenous policy on the fertility. I find that fertility increases among young married women and decreases among young unmarried women but that there is no asymmetrical fertility response based on the education level of the mother.

Bibliography: leaves 148-155. This thesis investigates whether cross-country variations in schooling quality (the productivity of the time spent studying) affect the empirical results in studies of economic growth based on an augmented method of Solow. It was found that schooling quality is positively and statistically significantly associated with mean economic growth rates in regressions which control for physical capital investment rates, population growth rates and secondary school enrolment rates. Education levels of parents, hours of homework and the non-teaching duties of teachers were also significant determinants.

ix, 88 p. A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number.
This dissertation addresses the high disease burden in developing countries today by examining the role of disease in economic development through its impact on productivity, fertility and human capital investment. In the second chapter of this dissertation, I model the impact on labor productivity of a change in disease susceptibility that results from intellectual property rights (IPR) reform. I develop a North-South model in which the disease environments differ between the rich and poor countries, and individuals consume innovated health goods to avoid the cost (labor time lost) of getting a disease. Southern welfare is shown to increase with the imposition of IPR protection when health needs in the South differ sufficiently from those in the North, and when health goods are accessible (in terms of adequate health care infrastructure) and effective (in counteracting disease). In the third chapter of this dissertation, I model the impact of child disease burden on fertility and human capital investment. The fertility response to a decline in child mortality depends on the morbidity effect of the disease, the level of disease burden, and whether prevalence rates or case fatalities decline. Fertility rates follow mortality and morbidity, but since mortality and morbidity do not always move in the same direction, the fertility response may be dampened or non-monotonic. Using a 20-year panel data set on malaria prevalence for 44 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, I find empirical support for the cases defined by the model; changes in malaria prevalence affect fertility more in non-endemic areas, where cases are more severe and more fatal relative to endemic areas. Historical and biological evidence suggest a link between (infectious) diseases early in life and (non-infectious) diseases later in life. In Chapter IV I model this link using a three-period overlapping generations model in which childhood disease outcomes affect longevity. Simulations in a general equilibrium framework duplicate the defining characteristics of the epidemiological-demographic transition as it occurred in many industrialized countries: as disease declines parents engage in a quantity-quality tradeoff for children, longevity rises and population declines after an initial jump. This dissertation includes unpublished co-authored material.
Committee in charge: Shankha Chakraborty, Chairperson, Economics; Bruce Blonigen, Member, Economics; Peter Lambert, Member, Economics; Laura Leete, Member, Planriing Public Policy & Mgmt; Jean Stockard, Outside Member, Planning Public Policy & Mgmt

The main objective of this paper was to explore and evaluate the viability of incorporating the promotion, enforcement and protection of human rights within the WTO agenda, mandate and framework. It further aimed to investigate the viability of accelerating multilateral cooperation amongst international major role players, thus assessing and evaluating the kind of cooperation necessary for the adequate protection and enforcement of human rights by the WTO and major role players involved.

Using regime theory, we consider in this thesis whether there is evidence of the gradual establishment of norms, principles, rules and regulations governing donor policies with regards to linking foreign aid to human rights practices. We hypothesize that, despite the constraints caused by the multiplicity of foreign policy objectives for any given donor, there is evidence of a developing human rights regime in the foreign aid policies and practices of donors of aid. Using a historical approach, we study the aid policies and practices of two international organizations (the United Nations and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) and two aid donors (Norway and the United States). We investigate the donors' policy statements, monitoring mechanisms, policy implementation and changes in donor behavior for evidence of the presence of a regime. Our findings suggest regime development occurring over three distinct periods of time (1945-50; 1973-83; 1989-94), with the resulting regime operating at three distinct levels with varying degrees of efficiency and effectiveness.

This thesis consists of a short introduction and three self-contained chapters. Chapter 1 develops a model of intra-household specialization and human capital formation for couples, taking into account of assortative sorting on income potentials in the marriage market. I assume people are matching on potential wage growth rates which differ across individuals and are realized through actual work experiences. The model is estimated by a simulated minimum distance estimator with PSID data from 1968 to 2011. I find there is strong positive assortative matching on wage growth rates, which helps explain the correlated wage growth residuals of married couples. If matching is switched to random, there will be more variation in household specialization arrangements and higher observed wage growth rates. The estimated elasticity of substitution between market goods and home production is approximately 0.37. Husband's time and wife's time turn out to be complements in the home production function. Chapter 2 studies a marriage market with two-sided information asymmetry in which the gains from marriage are stochastic. Contracts specify divisions of ex-post realized marital surplus. I first study a game in which one side of the matching market offers contracts, and then study a social planner's problem, finding necessary and sufficient conditions for a truthful direct revelation mechanism to achieve matching efficiency. These conditions become more stringent as the number of agents in the matching market increases. Chapter 3 examines the relationship between women's preference towards marriage and her marital outcomes. I propose using the mother's marital status as a proxy for her daughter's ex-ante preference towards marriage. Using 1980 and 2008 U.S. Census data, I estimate the impact of women's preference towards marriage and their educational attainments on their probability of getting married, and with Heckman correction, the impact on their husbands' earnings conditional on being married.

The global emphasis on human rights has generated a surge of studies into what causes regimes to abuse the basic rights of their citizens. Causes of abuse can be internal or external in nature, based on economics, politics or cultures. This study examines the effects of foreign aid and foreign direct investment on three types of human rights: personal integrity, civil and political, and subsistence. I perform ordinary least squares regression analyses with panel-corrected standard errors on a pooled cross-sectional time series design incorporating 127 countries from 1976 to 1996. While my results are not significant, it is important to observe that there is a tendency toward negative relationships for the majority of the analyses.

I look at knowledge networks emerging through individual collaboration within incumbent firms and I make an effort to identify individual roles that are driving a number of meaningful firm-level innovation-related outcomes. I document how certain individuals occupy such positions in their firms' knowledge network that equip them with unique blends of human and social capital, thus making them consequential for the innovative performance of the system as a whole. Integrators are the actors with an extraordinarily large and dense network of different collaborators. Connectors are the individuals who collaborate with others across diverse knowledge areas and clusters. Isolates are actors who are productive while remaining relatively unconnected and independent. I find that relational stars (i.e. integrators and connectors) positively affect their organization's quantity and quality of inventive output. On the other hand, I find that it is isolates and star inventors who positively affect inventive productivity. I find that individuals with extreme patterns of collaborative behavior (either local or distant) facilitate exploration and that productive isolates drive exploitation. In addition, I find that organizational ambidexterity can be attained by having individuals who can simultaneously explore and exploit or by increasing the connectedness between exploratory and exploitative activities. Finally, I find that knowledge boundary choices are also affected by internal organization and human resource attributes.

My doctoral thesis examines the broad question of whether appropriately designed institutions and policies can address the short- and long-term consequences of determinants of human capital which are "immutable'' by nature or are perceived as such. I consider three different types of immutable determinants of human capital: male versus female biology; colonization; and traditional norms of gender roles. In Chapter 1, I examine whether, and how, change in political regime type affects excess male infant mortality. Analyzing data on more than 3 million live births from sub-Saharan African countries, I exploit within-mother variation in political regime type to find that excess male infant mortality significantly decreases following a transition to democracy. I identify competitiveness of executive recruitment, constraints on the chief executive, and political participation as the features of democracy that matter most. Examining causal mechanisms, I find that democracy fosters the provision of health inputs, including maternal education, tetanus immunization, breastfeeding, and normal birth weight, all of which have stronger health benefits for boys than for girls, despite being found to be ex-ante "gender-neutral'' in my setting. In Chapter 2, I examine how colonial reproductive laws interact with market incentives to shape long-term fertility behavior in Africa. Exploiting the arbitrary division of ancestral ethnic homelands and the resulting discontinuity in institutions across the British-French colonial borders, I find that women in former British areas are more likely to delay sexual debut and marriage, and have fewer children. However, these effects disappear in areas close to sea, where market access and the opportunity cost of childbearing appear to be high irrespective of the colonizer identity. This heterogeneous impact of colonial origins extends to measures of local economic development and household welfare. Examining causal mechanisms, I argue that the fertility effect of colonial origins is directly linked to colonial population policies and reproductive laws and their impact on the use of modern methods of birth control. I find little evidence that the fertility effect of British colonization operates through education or income. While British colonization is linked to higher female education levels, this occurs mainly close to the sea while the fertility effects do not. Again, while income levels differ, the fertility gap between British and French colonies opened prior to 1980, while the income gap opened-up after 1990. This chapter highlights the heterogeneous nature of the colonial origins of comparative fertility behavior and economic development, and implies that economic incentives may overcome historical determinism. In Chapter 3, I examine the interplay between legal origins and pre-colonial cultural norms of gender roles in determining female economic empowerment in sub-Saharan Africa. Taking advantage of the arbitrary division of ancestral ethnic homelands across countries with different legal origins, I directly compare women among the same ethnic group living in civil law countries and common law countries. I find that women in common law countries are significantly more educated, are more likely to work in the professional sector, and are less likely to marry at young age. However, these effects are either absent or significantly lower in settings where ancestral cultural norms do not promote women's rights and empowerment. In particular, I find little effect in bride price societies, patrilocal societies, and societies where women were not involved in agriculture in the past.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The research report investigates the theoretical foundation of the understanding of decision-makers at local government level of the term "development", with specific reference to local government as development agent and Local Economic Development. The choice of theoretical model by these decision-makers to conceptualise their understanding has historical and analytical antecedents, and secondly, the decision-maker is faced with a basic dualism in developmental thinking, ie. the emphasis on universalism (global competitiveness) on the one hand and the need for specificity (local economic development) on the other. The theoretical principles and assumptions on which the neoliberal and market-orientated approach to development is based are incorporated in the macroeconomic policy approach 'Growth, Employment and Redistribution' in South Africa. This approach has recently overshadowed the social welfarist developmental approach represented by the 'Reconstruction and Development Program' or Sustainable Human Development. The basis for specific policy formulation and intervention strategies are found in the theoretical assumptions, goals and objectives in each of these alternate approaches to development. The research design for the study is primarily qualitative. A semi-structured interview schedule is applied in directing in-depth interviews with identified central decisionmakers in metropolitan and larger "B" municipalities. The research design and process is constructed around three themes based on current and historic analysis of development thinking as a means to address poverty and inequality: theme 1 - theoretical understanding of the term development, Economic Growth in the formal sector versus Sustainable Human Development; theme 2 - the nature and relevance of participation by civil society in the Local Economic Development (LEO) process; and theme 3- Local Economic Development and the role of infrastructure investment, land use planning and zoning as intervention strategy. A benchmark position is developed on local government as development agent and LEO, using various sources, for example, interview with Director-General in the Department of Provincial and Local Government dealing with Local Economic Development, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and legislative acts and policy papers relevant to LED. This position is compared with the position held by local government decision-makers dealing with LED. The analysis of the information collected suggests that the theoretical perspective and policy framework on development, participation and strategies to address inequality and poverty, ie Sustainable Human Development (researchers title) held by the Department of Provincial and Local Government (DPLG) is not compatible with the definition and understanding of the majority of the decision-makers at local government level dealing directly with LED. The notion of participative development with anti-poverty strategies focussed on poor urban citizenry at the local level is not seen as the relevant theoretical or applied focus by developmental decision-makers at municipal level. In addition, limited knowledge is available to local government decision-makers on both formal and informal economic activity. In this regard, de facto leadership has already been handed over to formal-economy organisations and institutions. The idea of using land-use planning and zoning regulations to reorientate economic activity to low- and informal housing settlements and the reconstitution of low-and informal housing as sites of manufacture utilising flexible specialisation principles was positively received. However, the respondents were either not knowledgeable about these principles, for example; Globalisation of production and flexible production processes, or had not considered them in relation to their planning, land use or zoning and development functions. In the light of the above, the notion of local government as development agent with specific reference to addressing poverty and inequality utilising the Local Economic Development process as envisaged by the Department of Provincial and Local Government does not have the majority support of decision-makers at city and metro level. The majority of respondents defined the process of consultation as limited to formal economic sectors that were/could be competitive in the new global economy. The majority of decision-makers hold the view that the redefinition and location of sites of economic activity could be delegated to these formal sector organisations and institutions. Their common understanding of development and the related intervention strategies was based on formal sector growth and related job creation strategies, as well as the "trickle-down" of resources and opportunities to the informal sector. If they wish to remain relevant in this context the Department of Provincial and Local Government has to develop intervention strategies to reorientate and redefine the theoretical and applied definition of development held by the decision-makers especially with regard to Local Economic Development. If these issues are not addressed the form and shape of South Africa cities and metros will be based on the entrenchment and escalation of economic dualism and exclusion of the poor from any developmental decision-making and strategies. This has serious implications for the development of local democracies and developmental institutions based on the formulation and understanding of local conditions and circumstances of poverty and inequality and holds serious implications for social stability in the South African metros and municipalities in the future.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die navorsingsverslag ondersoek die teoretiese begronding van die begrip wat besluitnemers op plaaslike regeringsvlak het van die term "ontwikkeling "met spesifieke verwysing na plaaslike regering as ontwikkelingsagent en Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkeling. Die keuse van teoretiese modelle deur hierdie besluitnemers het historiese en analitiese voorlopers en tweedens, word die besluitnemer in die gesig gestaar deur 'n basiese dualisme in ontwikkelingsdenke, die klem op universalisme (globale kompeterendheid) aan die een kant en die behoefte aan spesifiekheid (plaaslike ekonomiese ontwikkeling) aan die ander kant. Die teoretiese beginsels en aannames waarop die neoliberale en markgeorienteerde benaderings tot ontwikkeling berus, word gei"nkorporeer in die makro-ekonomiese benadering "Groei, Werkverskaffing en Herverdeling" (GEAR) in Suid Afrika. Hierdie benadering het onlangs die sosiale welsynsontwikkelingsbenadering, wat verleenwoordig is deur die "Heropbou en Ontwikkelingsprogram" (HOP) of Volhoubare Menslike Ontwikkeling, in die skadu gestel. Die basis vir spesifieke beleidsvorming en intervensiestrategiee word gevind in die teoretiese aannames, doelwitte en doelstellings in elk van hierdie altematiewe benaderings tot ontwikkeling. Die navorsingsontwerp vir hierdie studie is primer kwalitatief. 'n Semi-gestruktureerde onderhoudskedule word toegepas am rigting te gee aan in-diepte onderhoude met geidentifiseerde sentrale besluitnemers in metropolitaanse en groter "B" munisipaliteite. Die navorsingsontwerp en proses is gekonstrueer rondom drie temas wat gebaseer is op huidige en historiese analise van ontwikkelingsdenke as 'n manier waarop armoede en ongelykheid aangespreek kan word: tema 1 - teoretiese begrip van die term ontwikkeling, ekonomiese groei in die formele sektor teenoor Volhoubare Menslike Ontwikkeling; tema 2 - die aard en relevansie van deelname deur die siviele samelewing en die Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkelingsproses (PEO); en tema 3 - Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkeling en die rol van infrastruktuurbelegging, grondgebruikbeplaning en sonering as 'n intervensie-strategie. 'n Beginpuntposisie word ontwikkel oar plaaslike regering en PEO deur gebruik te maak van verskeie bronne, byvoorbeeld, onderhoude met die Direkteur-Generaal in die Deparlement van Provinsiale en Plaaslike Regering gemoeid met Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkeling (PEO) , die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid Afrika en wetgewing en beleidskrifte relevant tot PEO. Hierdie posisie word vergelyk met die posisie wat ingeneem word deur plaaslike regeringsbestuurbesluitnemers gemoeid met PEO. Die analise van die inligting wat ingesamel is suggereer dat die teoretiese perspektief en beleidsraamwerk oor ontwikkeling, deelname en strategiee om ongelykheid en armoede aan te spreek, die Volhoubare Menslike Ontwikkeling (navorserstitel) wat gehuldig word deur die Departement van Provinsiale en Plaaslike Regering (DPPR) nie versoenbaar is met die definisie en begrip van die meerderheid van die besluitnemers op plaaslike regeringsvlak wat direk gemoeid is met PEO nie. Die idee van deelnemende ontwikkeling met anti-armoede strategiee wat gefokus is op arm stedelike burgers op plaaslike vlak word nie deur die ontwikkelingsbesluitnemers op munisipale vlak beskou as die relevante oftoegepaste fokus nie. Bykomend is beperkte kennis tot beskikking van plaaslike regeringsbesluitnemers oor beide formele en informele ekonomiese aktiwiteite. In hierdie verband is de facto leierskap alreeds oorhandig aan formele ekonomiese organisasies en instellings. Die idee van die gebruik van grondgebruik- en soneringsregulasies om ekonomiese aktiwiteite tot lae en informele behuisingsnedersetfings te herorienteer en die hersamestelling van lae en informele behuising as plekke vir vervaardiging deur gebruik te maak van buigbare spesialiseringsbeginsels is goed ontvang. Die respondente was egter nie ingelig oor hierdie beginsels, of hulle het weggelaat om hierdie beginsels in berekening te bring by hul beplanning, grondgebruik of sonering en ontwikkelingsfunksies. In die lig van bogenoemde het die idee van plaaslike regering as ontwikkelingsagent met spesifieke verwysing tot die aanspreek van armoede en ongelykheid, deur gebruik te maak van die Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkelingsproses, soos in die vooruitsig gestel deur die Departement van Provinsiale en Plaaslike Regering, nie die meerderheidsteun van besluitnemers op staats- en metrovlak nie. Die meerderheid van die respondente het die proses van beraadslaging gedefinieer as beperk tot die formele ekonomiese sektore wat kompeterend was of kan wees in die nuwe globale ekonomie. Die meerderheid van hierdie besluitnemers is van mening dat die herdefiniering en plasing van plekke van ekonomiese aktiwiteite gedelegeer kan word aan hierdie formele sektororganisasies en instellings. Hierdie gedeelde begrip van ontwikkeling en verbandhoudende intervensie-strategiee was gebaseer op groei in die formele sektor en verbandhoudende werkskeppingstrategiee, asook die "afsyfering" van bronne en geleenthede na die informele sektor. As dit hul wens is om in hierdie konteks relevant te bly, moet die Oepartement van Provinsiale en Plaaslike Regering intervensiestrategiee ontwikkel om die teoretiese en toegepaste definisie van ontwikkeling, wat gehuldig word deur besluitnemers, veral met betrekking tot Plaaslike Ekonomiese Ontwikkeling te herorienteer en te herdefineer. Indien hierdie aangeleenthede nie aangespreek word nie sal die vorm en fatsoen van Suid-Afrikaanse stede en metros gebaseer wees op die verskansing en uitbreiding van ekonomiese dualisme en die uitsluiting van die armes van enige ontwikkelingsbesluitneming en strategie. Oit het ernstige implikasies vir die ontwikkeling van plaaslike demokrasie en ontwikkelingsinstellings gebaseer op die formulering en begrip van plaaslike toestande en omstandighede van armoede en ongelykheid en hou ernstige implikasies in vir die sosiale stabiliteit in die Suid-Afrikaanse metros en munisipaliteite in die toekoms.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Socio-economic rights are the subject of much debate in South Africa and elsewhere. At first they were simply denied the status of any rights at all. Lately, there is a fair amount of recognition for them as rights. The tendency is, however, to relegate them to paper rights and invest very little effort in bringing about their actual realisation. In this thesis I inquire into the question of what a human right, properly so called, is, and then whether, in the light of that inquiry, there is a basis for the reluctance to embrace socio-economic rights. South Africa is uniquely fortunate in having a constitution that gives recognition to socio-economic rights and requiring the Human Rights Commission to monitor their implementation. But again there is a risk that the recognition of socioeconomic rights is left as a constitutional matter, and nothing or little is done for their practical implementation. Therefore I inquire into the manner in which the Human Rights Commission monitors the implementation of these rights. The inquiry into the Human Rights Commission's monitoring role is largely a question of methodology. Whether, in other words, the methods of the Commission are such as to yield reliable information on the subject. I also inquire whether the government's budgetary allocations indicate a serious approach to these rights. The budgetary allocations that are brought under the microscope relate to the seven core rights enshrined in the constitution, namely, housing, health care, food, water, social security, education, and environmental rights.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sosio-ekonomiese regte is die onderwerp van vele debatte in Suid-Afrika en elders. Aanvanklik was daar nie erkenning gegee aan die status van hierdie regte nie. Hierdie situasie het die afgelope tyd begin verander. Die tendens is egter steeds om dit te sien as regte slegs op papier en daar word nie 'n poging aangewend vir die realisering van hierdie regte nie. Ek ondersoek in hierdie tesis die kwessie van wat 'n mensereg, korrek so genoem, is en ook of, in die lig van hierdie ondersoek, daar 'n basis is vir die huiwering om sosio-ekonomiese regte te aanvaar. Suid-Afrika is uniek in die sin dat die konstitusie erkenning gee aan sosioekonomiese regte en die Waarheid-en Versoeningskommissie opdrag gegee het om die implementering daarvan te monitor. Daar is egter weereens die risiko dat die erkenning van sosio-ekonomiese regte slegs gesien word as 'n konstitusionele aangeleentheid en dat niks of baie min gedoen word rakende die praktiese implementering daarvan. Ek stel daarom ook ondersoek in na die wyse waarop die Menseregtekommissie die implementering van hierdie regte moniteer. Die ondersoek na die monitering van die Menseregtekommissie is hoofsaaklik metodologies van aard; dus of die metodes wat gebruik is, deur die Menseregtekommissie, betroubare inligting verskaf. Ek ondersoek ook of die regering se begrotingallokasies 'n ernstige ingesteldheid jeens hierdie regte toon. Die begrotingsaspekte wat ondersoek word hou verband met die sewe kernregte soos vervat in die konstitusie naamlik behuising, gesondheidsorg, voedsel, water, sosiale sekuriteit, opvoeding en omgewingsregte.

The main objective of this study is to investigate the practical treatment of Unaccompanied Minor Refugees (UMR) in Ghana and South Africa, and to explore whether such treatment is in accordance with existing international norms and standards for the protection of refugee children. The study will focus on the realisation of children’s socio-economic rights in order to measure treatment. This study also seeks to address the obstacles which prevent the full and proper treatment of UMR, and to make recommendations as to how the international community can better regulate the treatment of UMR. In essence, this paper aims to investigate whether there is a discrepancy between the rights of child refugees acknowledged in international law and the situation of UMR in practice, and, if so, how this can be remedied. This paper seeks to show, through the case studies of Ghana and South Africa, that UMR are, to a certain extent, lost in the system
A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Mr E.Y. Benneh of the Faculty of Law, University of Ghana, Legon
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

Objectives and Research Questions 1. To reconstruct the history of invasion of Lantana in India from where, by who, and when was Lantana species introduced into India?, given its long history in the country, is it still spreading or has it become more or less stable? 2. To study the human adaptation to Lantana invasion: socioeconomic causes and consequences of the use of Lantana as an alternative source of livelihood for forest dependent communities in southern India; how have local communities adapted to the invasion?; what are the key determinants that may have driven communities to use Lantana?; what are the economic consequences of the use of Lantana by local communities? 3. To critically review local practices and forest policy for the management of Lantana in southern India.; how has the use of Lantana by local communities impacted its local regeneration?; does the use of Lantana in local context have implications for its management?; what has been the role of the Forest Department and its policies in managing Lantana?

With its point of departure of increasing numbers of people being engaged in commuting, the aim of this thesis is to reveal prerequisites for and consequences of long-distance commuting in Sweden for the individual and his or her partner. Special attention has been given to prerequisites for long-distance commuting in sparsely populated areas, and to social consequences related to long-distance commuting in terms of gender differences in commuting patterns, earnings and separation. The thesis is based on four empirical studies, presented in different papers. Two studies draw on individual longitudinal register data on all Swedish long-distance commuters living with a partner. The other two focus on commuting behaviour in sparsely populated areas, one based on individual register data and the other on a survey. Long-distance commuting (>30 kilometres) has become an increasingly common mobility strategy among Swedish workers and their households. Results from the thesis show that 11 percent of Swedish workers are long-distance commuters and about half of them live in a relationship. Among these couples many are families with children, indicating the importance of social ties in households’ decisions on where to work and live. Most long-distance commuters are men, and it is also likely that long-distance commuters have a high education level and are employed in the private sector. For the majority, long-distance commuting gives higher earnings; however, men benefit economically more than women do. As long-distance commuting reduces available family time, the non-commuting spouse often takes on a larger share of household commitments. The thesis shows that men’s long-distance commuting may therefore serve to reproduce and reinforce traditional gender roles on the labour market and within households. On the other hand, women’s long-distance commuting can lead to more equalitarian relationships on the labour market and within households. For the majority of couples it seems as if long-distance commuting becomes more than a temporary mobility strategy, while for some couples it does not work out very well. Separation rates are found to be higher among long-distance commuters compared to other couples; especially the first years of commuting seem to be the most challenging. It is suggested that coping strategies are important to make the consequences of long-distance commuting easier to handle and adjust to in the daily life puzzle. For those unable to handle these consequences, long-distance commuting is not a sustainable mobility strategy and can even end a relationship. The extent of long-distance commuting is low in sparsely populated areas, and those who do long-distance commute are mainly men. Most people work and live within the same locality and do not accept longer commuting times than do those in densely populated areas. In this thesis it is argued that facilitating car commuting in the more sparsely populated areas of Sweden can be more economically and socially sustainable, for the individual commuters as well as for society, than encouraging commuting by public transportation.

In Africa, the fight against poverty has a great deal in common with the struggle for political and economic security. For many migrant workers around the continent and elsewhere, the need for socio-economic security serves as the underlining motive for migration to boundaries beyond their own, in search of ‘greener pastures’ - a life of dignity, respect and socio-economic security. The high level of infrastructure, economic and political stability remains an attractive incentive for irregular migrants to migrate to South Africa. Thousands of migrant workers make annually the journey to South Africa with the hope of finding a better life. However, their arrival in South Africa marks the beginning of an even more tenacious struggle against unimaginable odds. For many irregular migrants, the dream of a better life soon becomes a nightmare highlighted by constant struggle against xenophobia, police brutality, exploitation by unscrupulous employers, marginalisation and disregard for fundamental human rights by the state.
Mini Dissertation (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2011.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
nf2012
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

The private and social returns to education literature share the same conclusion: that education is beneficial for both the individual and society. However, the theoretical underpinnings are flawed as the literature does not account for the main feature that leads to the acquisition of education: the private demand for education. An understanding of the factors that motivate the individual to invest in education would lead to a deeper insight as to why both private and social returns to education exist, and would provide a clearer framework on which to base the government funding of education. This thesis provides a first attempt at filling this gap by introducing a method of estimating the returns to government investment in education, which is labelled the ‘labour market drop-out rate approach’. The approach focuses on the social return to education, not in terms of graduate earnings, but in terms of the interaction of the graduate with the economy. The approach introduces a measure of expertise utilisation, based on the premise that there is no social return to an individual acquiring education if he or she does not utilise the acquired knowledge base on entering the labour market. The approach is tested using the labour market for marine scientists in South Africa as a case study. In this case the private demand for education is found to be heavily influenced by the provision of student bursaries from the National Research Foundation, with a resulting estimate of the social return to a degree in marine science being a mere 20% to 25%. Owing to this, a new approach to government investment in marine science is introduced, that of graduate contribution schemes. Of broader significance is the ease of application of this approach, it may be adopted to analyse any funding programme in which a government may decide to invest. As such, the labour market drop-out rate provides an extension to the returns to education literature through its theoretical dealings of the private demand for education, as well as a practical tool which government agencies can use to evaluate the efficacy of any government funding of education.

This research is founded upon three fundamental premises. The first is that good governance is central to human development. The second premise is that the realisation of socio-economic rights is a necessary condition for the attainment of human development. The third premise is that pro-poor growth policies and frameworks are veritable tools through which human development can be delivered and socio-economic rights realised. The research Focuses on the view that human development should be the end of every growth policy regime and good governance the means to such end. Socio-economic rights on the other hand should serve as indicators to the formulation, implementation and the measurement of such policies
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2008.
A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Dr Lilian Chenwi of the Community Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of the Western Cape
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

This treatise takes the form of an impact study. It is based on a three-month period of research involving literature review, interviews with VWSA officers and a survey of 111 of the 5500 workers who comprised the workforce of the VWSA plant in Uitenhage at that time. The author has attempted to portray the general views of experts in the field of HIV/AIDS corporate impact and impact management. In addition he has attempted to assay the current and forecast policies and practices in respect of the management of the epidemic by VWSA. The workers in the plant were consulted by survey and a variety of insights into the level of understanding of the epidemic, tolerance levels, expectations and so on were made. The quantification of these insights must be viewed with caution since the survey sample of 111 was relatively low for a workforce of circa 5500. Calculations in respect of representativity are included to facilitate calculated caution. It has been shown that the HIV/AIDS epidemic has a considerable current impact on the company and that this impact can be expected to grow considerably in the future. It has been suggested that an active intervention program would be well timed if implemented immediately

This study argued that the issue of non-state actors requires a comprehensive response that includes the recognition of both non-binding and binding human rights obligations of these actors. It examined critically the emerging norms on voluntary obligations, state responsibility, and direct responsibility of these actors with regard to human rights at both international and domestic levels.

O propósito desta tese consiste em estimar o efeito da educação sobre os salários no Brasil. Utiliza-se, o número de escolas em cada estado no ano de nascimento do indivíduo como instrumento para lidar com o problema de endogeneidade da variável educação. É feita também uma descrição histórica das principais políticas educacionais e suas mudanças, que afetaram a educação brasileira desde Dutra até Figueiredo. Os resultados mostram que a variável número de escolas no ano de nascimento tem uma relação positiva com a probabilidade de escolarização, sendo que as gerações de Geisel e Médici têm uma menor probabilidade de escolarização do que as de Figueiredo. Os resultados apontam para uma diminuição significativa dos retornos à educação quando utilizamos o método de variáveis instrumentais.
The aim of this dissertation is to estimate the impact of education on wages in Brazil We use the number of schools in the state and year when the individual was born as instruments for his education level. We also make a historical description of the main educational policies which affected the Brazilian education system since president Dutra´s term until president Figueiredo´s. The results show that the number of schools in the individual´s year of birth bears a positive relationship with his education, and that the cohorts born during the Geisel and Médici´s terms had lower education than in Figueiredo´s. The main results show that the returns to education decrease quite substantially when the method of instrumental variables is used.

This thesis analyzes the pecuniary aspects of education in Turkey. It consists of three essays. The first essay deals with the demand for education, focusing on private tutoring expenditures of households. The study investigates the determinants of private tutoring expenditures of households using a Tobit model as the estimation method. It is found that wealthier households with higher levels of parental education are more likely to participate in private tutoring. The second essay concerns the wage inequality in the male wages in 1994 and 2002. The study found that the differences in the educational attainment levels are a major determinant of wage inequality. However, returns to education declined at each school level from 1994 to 2002. Wage inequality is also found to exist within the same educational categories. The study shows that differences in returns to the same level of education at distinct points of wage distribution became more pronounced in 2002 compared to 1994. Secondary schooling is found to benefit the least able more compared to those positioned in the middle quantiles of ability distribution. The last study in this thesis attempts to elucidate the determinants of self-employment versus wage employment choice and earnings in the two employment states. The study concludes that financial wealth and risk factor are important determinants of self-employment activity. As the educational attainment levels of individuals increase, the likelihood of becoming self-employed decrease. Education increases the earnings of both self-employed and wage earners. However, education returns are higher for the sub-group of wage employees compared to self-employed.

Considering the backward and forward linkages, the agro-industrial sector contributes about 12 percent of South Africa‘s GDP, and employs approximately 8.5 million people. In the Eastern Cape Province, the sector contributes about 1.9 percent of the Provincial GDP, and over 3 million people derive their livelihoods from subsistence smallholder farming. Despite its importance, agricultural productivity has stagnated for several years across the Eastern Cape rural communities. There have been several attempts by the government to improve the agricultural productivity on smallholder farms since the end of apartheid, especially through the establishment of small-scale irrigation schemes, subsidization of farm inputs, and provision of credit facilities and enacting a number of land reform policies. In spite of the government support, most rural communities like Qamata and Tyefu are still faced with high levels of poverty affecting 76 percent and 91 percent of the population, respectively. This research evaluated the current smallholders‘ production efficiency, and the link between smallholder farmers‘ human dimensions (entrepreneurial spirit and positive psychological capital, goals and social capital, and other efficiency related variables) with production efficiency and household commercialisation index/level. The study used participatory approaches for site selection, sample selection and data collection. The analysis was based on both information from informal interviews and formal primary data collection. The Data Envelopment Analysis and Stochastic Production Frontier techniques were used to determine the relative efficiencies of individual farmers and to identify the major factors that influence the efficiency of production. Overall, 158 farmers were interviewed both at Qamata and Tyefu irrigation schemes. Descriptive statistics of this study indicated that most of the farmers were men with an average age of 61 years, and mean household size of 4 persons with the household head having at least obtained some primary school education. Farming is the major source of livelihood for smallholders with an average income of R4527.49 per crop season. Smallholders use improved seeds, fertilizers and tractor for ploughing with less use of pesticides and herbicides. Although smallholder irrigators generate more gross margins from maize and cabbage enterprises, generally both categories of farmers exhibited a low average household commercialization index for maize and cabbage at 0.41 and 0.22, respectively. Both Data Envelopment Analysis and Stochastic Production Frontier results indicate that farmers are about 98 percent technically efficient in maize and cabbage enterprises, respectively. However, farmers were allocatively inefficient as they were under-utilizing seed and pesticides while over-utilizing inorganic fertilizers. Factors that are positively associated with technical efficiency in maize production included household size, farming experience, off-farm income, use of agro-chemical; gross margins and commercialisation level of maize output. Determinants of technical efficiency in cabbage enterprise included farming experience, amount of land owned, use of agro-chemicals, group membership and gross margins accrued to cabbage sales. Farmers‘ human dimensions that could be more positively and significantly associated with production, efficiency and household commercialisation level included risk taking (hope), innovativeness (confidence) and optimism for entrepreneurial/positive psychological capital. Farmers‘ goals included self-esteem and independence, and only external social capital which were identified to be more positively and significantly associated with farmers‘ production efficiency and commercialization level. The transition from homestead subsistence to commercial oriented small-scale irrigation farming is inevitable since smallholder irrigators earn more incomes from maize and cabbage and are relatively food secure. However, the key policy options that must be considered to address inefficiencies and improved commercialization level to aid the transition include: agricultural policies geared toward attracting youth in farming, improved quality of extension services, speeding up the land reform process, and formation of cooperatives and participatory policy formulation that takes full cognizance of the farmers‘ human dimensions. Since farmers‘ human dimensions as defined in the literature and this study are not things that are amenable to direct policy intervention, they can only be modified indirectly through policy actions that affect their determinants. This means that a number of the demographic and socio-economic characteristics such as age, sex and education level of household head, farming experience, size of land owned, crop incomes, source of water for irrigation and location of the irrigation scheme that govern the way people perceive reality and respond to them must be the focus of concerted policy actions over the medium to long term.

This work critically examines the justiciability of the Sudan model of constitutionalising socio-economic rights (SER) and the legal implications of this model. Discusses the following questions: (1) What is the scope and extent of the Sudan Bill of Rights? (2) What is the effect of section 27(3) on section 22 of the Sudan Interim National Constitution? (3) Does the Constitution provide for justiciable SER, if yes, can the South African model of rendering SER justiciable and their standard of review provide a useful guide to the Sudan?
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2008.
A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Professor Julia Sloth-Nielsen of the Community Law Centre, University of the Western Cape
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

Muitos estudos dão suporte à idéia de que o capital humano possui um papel importante na determinação da taxa de crescimento econômico de uma região. Entretanto, é discutível a maneira como esse fator afeta o dinamismo econômico: se é diretamente, via o aumento da produtividade dos trabalhadores; se é através das novas inovações; ou indiretamente, por meio da difusão tecnológica. Além disso, alguns trabalhos vêm dando destaque quanto às diferenciações da ação do capital humano sobre a renda quando se considera os seus aspectos quantitativos e quando se leva em conta os seus aspectos qualitativos. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste estudo é analisar a influência do capital humano na taxa de crescimento econômico per capita das microrregiões paranaenses, entre 1999 e 2006. Mais precisamente, buscou-se mensurar o estoque de capital humano em cada microrregião paranaense, caracterizando a sua distribuição espacial e a sua evolução, analisando as semelhanças existentes entre as microrregiões frente a essa variável. Em seguida, analisou-se a relação existente entre o capital humano e a taxa de crescimento econômico per capita, identificando os canais de sua ação e a importância das variáveis qualitativas e quantitativas do capital humano nesta relação. Como resultado, entre 1999 e 2006, o estoque de capital humano em todas as microrregiões se elevou, existindo ainda diferenças significativas, entretanto, essas diferenças se reduziram consideravelmente. Desse modo, num período de seis anos, houve um aumento significativo quanto a habilidade e o conhecimento dos paranaenses, principalmente no que concerne à qualidade desse capital humano formado. Na sequência, analisando-se a relação entre o capital humano das microrregiões e as suas taxas de crescimento do PIB per capita, observou-se que a sua ação não se dá por meio da criação de tecnologias. Indiretamente, via difusão de tecnologia, o seu efeito é percebido apenas quando se considera a qualidade do capital humano. Diretamente, por meio do aumento das habilidades e capacitações dos agentes envolvidos na produção, a sua ação também é captada, entretanto, apenas quando se leva em conta a qualidade da força de trabalho ou quando se considera a qualidade e a quantidade de capital humano em conjunto, ou seja, a quantidade, por si só, não afeta a taxa de crescimento do PIB per capita das microrregiões paranaenses.
Many studies support the idea that the human capital has an important role in the assessment of economic growth in a region. Although, it is questionable how this factor affects the economic dynamism: if it is direct, through the raise of workers’ productivity or through new innovations; or indirectly, by the technological diffusion. Moreover, some papers focus on the differences of human capital actions on the income considering quantitative aspects and considering qualitative aspects. In this context, the objective of this study is to analyze the influence of human capital in the economic growth per capita of the Parana’s micro regions between 1999 and 2006. More precisely, we attempted to measure the stock of human capital in each micro region of Parana, characterizing the spatial distribution and its evolution, analyzing the similarities among these micro regions according to this variable. Next, we studied the relationship between human capital and economic growth rate per capita, identifying the channels of their action and the importance of the qualitative and quantitative human capital in this relationship. As result, between 1999 and 2006, the stock of human capital in all the regions rose, and there are significant differences, however, these differences were considerably reduced. Thus, during a period of six years, there was a significant increase on the skill and knowledge of Parana, especially when we talk about the quality of human capital that was formed. After analyzing the relationship between human capital for the micro and its growth rates of GDP per capita, we found that its action does not occur through the creation of technologies. Indirectly, via diffusion of technology, its effect is just seen when one considers the quality of human capital. Directly, by increasing the skills and capabilities of those involved in the production, its action is also captured, however, only when one takes into account the quality of the workforce or when considering the quality and quantity of human capital together, i.e. the amount by itself does not affect the growth rate of GDP per capita of micro regions of Parana.

Climate change and the HIV/AIDS epidemic are two of the most critical long-term global challenges, especially for Africa and even more so Southern Africa. There is great concern that the poor will be unable to adapt to the impacts of climate variability and change while HIV/AIDS will exacerbate the impacts of such stressors and deepen the insecurities of many communities already affected by this disease. Studies that consider the interlinked effects of climate change and HIV/AIDS along with other multiple stressors are increasingly needed. This study, located in two rural communities in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, namely Lesseyton and Willowvale, assessed the responses of vulnerable households to the linked shocks and stressors of climate change and HIV/AIDS. This involved assessing, through household surveys, life history interviews and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA), the way in which multiple stressors interacted and affected vulnerable households, the way in which these households responded to and coped with such shocks and stressors, and the barriers which prevented them from coping and adapting effectively. Unemployment emerged as the dominant stress amongst households. The lack of development and having too few opportunities for employment has limited vulnerable households from being able to invest in assets, such as education or farming equipment. This, in combination with the impacts of increased food and water insecurity from recent drought, has created an extremely vulnerable environment for these households. They rely largely on two important safety-nets, namely social capital and the use of natural and cultivated resources; however the latter has been limited due to the impacts of water scarcity and an inability to farm. It was evident that there was little planned long-term adaptation amongst households and from government. Maladaptive short-term coping strategies, such numerous household members depending on one social grant and transactional sex, were too often relied upon, and although they may have helped relieve the stress of shocks momentarily, they did not provide for the long-term well-being of individuals and households. Poor communication and capacity between the different levels of government and between the government (especially at the local level) and the two rural communities has created an environment full of uncertainty and lacking in advocacy. Local government needs increased human, informational, and financial capacity and a clear delegation of responsibilities amongst the different departments in order for the two communities to benefit from the implementation of support strategies. There is also a great need for educational programmes and capacity development within the two rural communities, particularly based on improved coping and longer-term adaptation strategies in response to climate change in order for households to better prepare themselves for the future.

By using ethnographic methods based on extensive participant observation, this thesis explores the role of pastoralism and rural work as a medium of social reproduction for families in rural Mongolia. This work is reported in four articles, which examine herder household management, decision making, and the spatial aspects of household social and economic production. As standalone pieces and as a united work, the articles make a case for understanding social change through the lens of spatialized performative relations. Pastoralism as a form of work and social system is one aspect of these relations. I contend that people consciously engage with herding as a form of work, which is an important reference point in political subjectivities and administrative practices that idealize the state. The policies and practices of government institutions, including non-state agencies, play powerful roles in the particular forms through which relations are spatialized. By taking this approach and prioritizing herder critical reflections on their own lives, I argue against the dual claim that herders exist outside the state and are bound to local environments. I show, in contrast, how herder efforts to access resources beyond local environments, such as formal schooling for children, spatially transform the labour, finance, and mobility systems of households. My work presents three key arguments with reference to these concepts. The first is that patron-client relations continue to play a strong role in family hierarchies and wider social alliances used to gain access to needed resources and services. Secondly, I argue that pastoralist work is an integral part of governance and the propagation of the moral authority of the state. Pastoralism as a form of work should be seen as a political enterprise as much as an economic or cultural one. Finally, attention to the spatial organisation of household economies, including household splitting and new types of mobility, reiterates the significance of place in human agency.

Livelihood stressors in southern Africa, such as HIV/Aids and climate change, do not act in isolation but rather interact concurrently in complex socio-ecological systems with diverse, interrelated and compounded affects. Households experience differential vulnerability to such stressors based on contextual factors such as geographical location, income level and the gender and age of its members. Households’ differential experiences of vulnerability are further defined by the households’ use of their capital stocks: the human, social, natural, financial and physical capital available to the household to form livelihoods and resist the detrimental effects of a stressor. The capital stocks of 340 households were measured in two sites in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, using a household survey. These data were analysed to determine differences between the sites, households with heads of different gender and households of different income levels. Further data relating to the drivers and interactions of stressors over temporal and spatial scales, as well as the perceived value of various forms of capital by different social groups in the two sites, were collected via Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) methods including timelines, mental modelling and pair-wise ranking. Although the two sites have similar levels of income and fall within the same province, many significant differences emerged. The two sites showed different distributions of household head genders and different stressors and perceptions of vulnerability, perhaps owing to differences in their capital stocks, acting alongside the influence of culture and access on a shifting rural-urban continuum. These discrepancies further transpired to reflect crucial differential experiences along gender lines and income levels in each site. Vulnerability was often context specific, not only because of unique drivers of stress in different areas, but also because socio-economic groups and localities often had characteristics that could potentially exacerbate vulnerability, as well as characteristics that can potentially facilitate adaptive capacity. Stressors were found to have depleted multiple forms of capital over time, while new stressors were emerging, raising concerns over the most appropriate means of social protection within these contexts.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the problem of VVF-HIV/AIDS, stigmatization, the threat to the human dignity of women and the role of the church, with specific reference to the role of Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA). In order to show this, models of practical theology methodology were used as theoretical and methodological basis for the study. Practical theology is as a study area deals with the praxis of God, i.e. salvific and eschatological involvement and engagement with the trajectories of human lives and the suffering of human beings. Within the context of theological reflection, it involves man’s attempt to express and portray the presence and will of God in such a way that meaning in life and comfort is contextually disclosed and discovered (Louw, 2008:71). Having established the latter, the focus falls firstly on the description of the conditions addressed in the study about VVF-HIV/AIDS and its prevalence in Northern Nigeria. A detailed contextual study also shows that a variety of factors impact negatively on the status and well-being of women in the area. Traditional, cultural, economic, political and religious factors are either uniquely applicable to or aggravate the status and well-being of the subjects of the research, namely women suffering from VVF-HIV/AIDS in Northern Nigeria. It specifically involves the social and political context in which they live. It also shows that the existence and extent of these factors increase the vulnerability of women to contracting the HIV as well as VVF. The extent to which these factors, in combination with the latter conditions specifically promote the stigmatization of these women and the forms such stigmatization takes are also explored. Moving on to the issue of human dignity: a historical overview is given of the concept and it is defined for the purposes of the study. The extent to which the human dignity is affected in the study area is then investigated in light of their context, with particular reference to the women suffering from VVF-HIV/AIDS. It is concluded that the stigmatization to which the VVF-HIV/AIDS sufferers in Northern Nigeria are subjected, indeed constitutes a serious threat to their human dignity. In answering the question of whether the church (ECWA) has a responsibility towards these women and to address the issue of their stigmatization, two pastoral theological perspectives were used, that of the nature of the church and that of the concept of human dignity from a theological perspective. According to this perspective human beings have been created in the image of God. Having established that, on theological grounds, such a responsibility exists, a possible pastoral theological model for addressing the issue of the stigmatization of women suffering from VVF-HIV/AIDS was proposed. The church’s response to the challenge of VVF-HIV/AIDS is to come from its deepest theological convictions about the nature of creation, the unshakeable fidelity of God’s love, the nature of creation, the nature of the body of Christ and the reality of Christian hope. The creation narrative, which affirms that humanity is created in the image of God, links human beings to the love of God, which is modelled in the incarnation of Jesus. Moving on to the data analysis, the extent of the challenges of VVF-HIV/AIDS sufferers and the level of knowledge of the pastors of the subject of the stigmatization of young adult females sufferers of VVF-HIV/AIDS and their treatment of the issue were evident. Finally, recommendations were drawn up in order to provide basic understanding and awareness to ECWA on how to objectively address the problem of VVF-HIV/AIDS in Northern Nigeria.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie fokus op die probleem van VVF-HIV/AIDS, stigmatisering, die bedreiging van die menslike waardigheid van vroue en die rol van die kerk (ECWA). Om dit aan te toon, word die model van die praktiese teologie metodologie gebruik as 'n teoretiese en metodologiese basis vir die studie. Praktiese teologie handel oor die praxis van God, d.w.s. die verlossingsboodskap en eskatologiese betrokkenheid by en verbintenis met die trajekte van die menslike lewe en die lyding van die mens. Binne die konteks van teologiese refleksie, d.w.s. die menslike poging om aan 'n beeld van die teenwoordigheid en wil van God op so 'n manier uitdrukking te gee, word die betekenis daarvan in die lewe en troos kontekstueel geopenbaar en ontdek (Louw, 2008:71). Na laasgenoemde val die fokus eers op die beskrywing van die voorwaardes in die studie oor VVF-HIV/AIDS en die voorkoms daarvan in die noorde van Nigerië. ’n Gedetailleerde kontekstuele studie toon ook dat 'n verskeidenheid negatiewe faktore ‘n impak op die status en die welsyn van vroue in die area het. Tradisionele, kulturele, ekonomiese, politieke en godsdienstige faktore waarvan 'n paar óf uniek van toepassing is óf ‘n verswarende effek het op die navorsingskonteks van vroue wat in die noorde van Nigerië aan VVF-HIV/AIDS ly en spesifiek op die sosiale, politieke konteks waarin hulle leef. Daar word ook aangetoon dat die bestaan en omvang van hierdie faktore die vatbaarheid van vroue vir die kontraktering van die MIV-virus sowel as VVF, verhoog. Daar word ook gekyk na die wyse waarop hierdie faktore in kombinasie met bogenoemde voorwaardes spesifiek die bevordering van die stigmatisering van hierdie vroue teweegbring en na die vorme wat hierdie stigmatisering aanneem. Die kwessie van menslike waardigheid word ondersoek deur 'n historiese oorsig van die konsep te gee. Dit word vir die doeleindes van die studie gedefinieer. Die mate waarin menslike waardigheid in die studiearea ‘n rol speel, met spesifieke klem op die konteks van vroue wat ly aan VVF-HIV/AIDS, word ook nagegaan. Daar word tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die menswaardigheid van die VVF-HIV/AIDS lyers in die noorde van Nigerië tot 'n groot mate in die lig van die stigmatisering hulle aan onderwerp word, aangetas word. Ter beantwoording van die vraag of die kerk (ECWA) 'n verantwoordelikheid teenoor hierdie vroue het om hul stigmatisering aan te spreek, word twee pastorale teologiese perspektiewe gebruik: dié van die aard van die kerk en van die konsep van menswaardigheid vanuit 'n teologiese perspektief waarvolgens die mens na die beeld van God geskep is. Nadat vasgestel is dat, op teologiese gronde, so 'n verantwoordelikheid wel bestaan, word 'n moontlike pastorale teologiese model vir die aanspreek van die kwessie van die stigmatisering van vroue wat ly aan VVF-HIV/AIDS voorgestel. Die kerk se reaksie op die uitdaging van VVF-HIV/AIDS spruit uit sy diepste teologiese oortuigings oor die onwrikbare getrouheid van God se liefde, die aard van die skepping, die aard van die liggaam van Christus en die werklikheid van die Christelike hoop. Die skeppingsverhaal, wat bevestig dat die mensdom in die beeld van God geskep is, verbind die mens aan die liefde van God, wat in die inkarnasie van Jesus gemodelleer word. Daar word dan beweeg na die data-analise, die omvang van die uitdagings van VVF-HIV/AIDS lyers en die vlak van kennis van die pastore oor die onderwerp van die stigmatisering van die jong volwasse vroulike lyers aan VVF-HIV/AIDS en hulle behandeling van die probleem. Ten slotte word aanbevelings gemaak ten einde basiese begrip/bewustheid te verskaf oor hoe die ECWA die probleem van VVF-HIV/AIDS in die noorde van Nigerië objektief kan aanspreek.

The primary contribution of the thesis is to extend our knowledge about the channels through which these different agents -the schools, the parents and the individual himself- influence human capital investment, in particular investment in higher education. In addition to this primary contribution, I apply and develop econometric methods adapted to the special features of educational data with respect to other research areas./ La principale contribution des travaux présentés dans cette thèse est d'approfondir notre connaissance sur la manière dont différents agents - l'école, les parents et l'individu lui même- influencent l'investissement en capital humain, en particulier au niveau de l'enseignement supérieur. Le deuxième apport de la thèse est l'application et le développement de méthodes adaptées aux particularités des données en éducation par rapport à d'autres domaines de recherche.
Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In an attempt to address the seeming imbalance within studies of rural communities in Australia linked to primary industries, this study examines the broader aspects of policy changes and bio-economic imperatives in the Western Rock Lobster Fishery and the effects of the restructuring of the fishery on communities that host the rock lobster fleet. It is an innovative study in that it is one of the first comprehensive studies of industry restructuring in the fisheries sector; a study of the linkages and implications of restructuring on the social, economic and cultural facets of coastal communities in Western Australia. Globalisation in the fishery sector, aided by technological advances, has resulted in a greater exploitation of high-value fisheries for export. Intensified globalisation has also brought about environmental and social standards that ensure the survival of by-catch species and promote responsible codes of fishing practice. In Australia, the active support of the government for globalisation, led to the adoption of export-oriented policies emphasising competitiveness and efficiency. Consideration of market principles thus govern fisheries regulators when deciding on the management arrangements to adopt for a particular fishery. In considering a number of policy instruments and management measures, government regulators also consider the conservation of marine resources alongside the production of significant economic and social benefits. The Western Rock Lobster Fishery is the most valuable single species fishery in Western Australia with a sizeable financial and employment contribution to coastal communities along the Western Australian coast. Any management scheme adopted for this fishery, as such, not only has to take into account biological and environmental imperatives but also economic and social objectives. The analysis of the fishery undertaken in this thesis underlines the need for a holistic view of fishery management that takes into consideration not only biological sustainability, but also promotes an understanding of fishers' behaviours and fishing patterns and the consequent effects on specific communities. The demographic and social changes that affect rural communities further complicate the economic restructuring at the fishery level, with fishers' responses differing based on their circumstances and preferences. This thesis presents a snapshot of a fishery deliberating changes in management arrangements and its effects on coastal communities whose socio-demographic and economic development historically has depended, and to a great extent is still dependent, upon rock lobster fishing. It provides empirical evidence that lends support to the view that the pro-market policies promoting competition and entrepreneurialism have resulted in a spatially uneven development in regional Australia. Specific localities can deal with the changes brought about by globalisation and policy change. However, the manner in which these communities deal and cope with these changes depends on a number of factors, among others, the level of diversification of the local economy, demographic and social structures, and other factors such as the level of resilience and the social capital base within the community.

"The implementation of the TRIPS Agreement, within the wider context of globalisation, has brought about a conflict between the obligation of states to promote and protect health and the achievement of economic goals pursued under the WTO regime. Since trade is the driving engine of globalisation, it is imperative that, at the very least, rules governing it do not violate human rights but rather promote them. The problem of IP and the right to health therefore lies in ensuring that the integration of economic rules and institutional operations in relation to IPRs coincide with states’ obligations to promote and protect public health. ... This study centres on the specific debate about health and IPRs in the context of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the WTO rules on IP protection. In terms of a human rights approach to the TRIPS Agreement, the ICESCR has been chosen for several reasons. First, the ICESCR specifically recognises both the right to health and the right to the protection of inventions in clearer terms than any other human rights instrument. Secondly, at least 111 of the state parties to the ICESCR are also members of the WTO including a large number of developing countries. Thirdly, if one sees the ICESCR as a vehicle for the fulfilment of the obligation to promote and protect human rights under the United Nations Organisation’s (UN) Charter, it can be argued that in line with article 103, the implementation and interpretation of TRIPS by all UN members states must take into account basic human rights. However, even with primary focus being on the ICESCR, most of the discussion on practical issues will focus on the experiences in Sub-Saharan Africa because the inequalities and problems of access to health care are most dramatically played out in this part of the world. The objective of the study is to examine the relationship between the obligation of states to progressively realise and guarantee the right to health, and the IP rules under the TRIPS Agreement. The specific objective is to examine the relationship between the exceptions under the TRIPS Agreement and the obligation to protect health and the identification of a consistent way of achieving a convergence between the implementation and interpretation of the rules of the two regimes in the area of health." -- Chapter 1
Mini Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2001.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

It is evident that natural fish stocks are in rapid decline and that millions of people around the world rely on these resources for food and for securing a livelihood. This has brought many social scientists, biologists and fisheries experts to acknowledge that communities need to take more control in managing their natural resources. The paradigm shift in fisheries management from a top-down resource orientated control to a participatory people-centred control is now being advocated in many maritime nations in facilitating community-based natural resource management. At the heart of these projects is the establishment of institutions and social networks that allow for clear communication and information sharing, based on scientific data and traditional knowledge which ultimately allow empowered communities to collectively manage their resources in partnership with government, market actors and many other stakeholders. Central to the problem is the issue of access rights. In many situations where co-management of natural resources through community-government partnerships is advocated, the failure of coastal states to provide adequate legislature and regulatory frameworks has jeopardised such projects. A second issue is the failure of many states to provide adequate investments in social and human capital which will enable communities to become the primary stakeholder in the co-management of their natural resources. Whilst investments like capacity building, education, skills training and development, communications and institution building can initially require high financial investments, the regulatory costs for monitoring, controlling and surveying fish stocks along the coastline will go down as communities take ownership of their resources under sustainable awareness. The main unit of investment therefore is social capital which allows for the increase in trust, cooperativeness, assertiveness, collective action and general capabilities of natural resource governance. High levels of social capital require good social relations and interactions which ultimately create a social network of fishers, community members and leaders, government officials, market players, researchers and various other stakeholders. Co-management thus has an inherent network structure made up of social relations on a horizontal scale amongst community members as well as on a vertical scale with government and fisheries authorities. These bonding relations between people and the bridging relations with institutions provide the social capital currency that allows for a successful co-management solution to community-based natural resource governance. The South African coastline is home to thousands of people who harvest the marine resources for food security and securing a basic income. Fishing is a major cultural and historical component of the livelihoods of many people along the coastline, particularly along the Wild Coast of South Africa located on its South-eastern shoreline. Due to the geopolitical nature of South Africa’s apartheid past many people were located in former tribal lands called Bantustans. The Transkei, one of the biggest homelands, is home to some of South Africa’s poorest people, many of whom rely on the marine resources. By 1998 the government sought to acknowledge the previously unrecognised subsistence sector that lived along the South African coastline with the promulgation of the Marine Living Resources Act. The act sought to legalise access rights for fishers and provide opportunities for the development of commercial fisheries. The act and many subsequent policies largely called for co-management as a solution to the management of the subsistence sector. This thesis largely explains the administrative and legislative difficulties in transporting the participatory components of co-management to the ground level. As such co-management has largely remained in rhetoric whilst the government provides a contradictory policy regarding the management of subsistence and small-scale fishers. This thesis attempts to provide qualitative ethnographic research of the East Coast Rock Lobster fishery located in a small fishing village in the Transkei. The fishery falls somewhere on the spectrum between the small-scale and subsistence sector as there are a basket of high and low value resources being harvested. It will be argued that in order to economically and socially develop the fishery the social capital and social networks of the community and various stakeholders needs to be analysed in order to effectively create a co-management network that can create a successful collective management of natural resources thereby sustaining these communities in the future.

The aim of this qualitative study is to explore the perspectives of current members of the cooperative regarding the role of social capital in the success of the Heiveld Cooperative on the Suid Bokkeveld in the Northern Cape, South Africa (SA). This cooperative has been cited by several researchers as being successful for various reasons, including the existence of a marketable resource, a steady increase in production, and certification through Fairtrade, resulting in an export market. Social capital, as a contributing factor to the success of the cooperative, has not however previously been investigated in depth. In light of the unique success of this cooperative, it is important to obtain an in-depth understanding of the role of social capital, if any, in its success, particularly in the formation and day-to-day operation of the cooperative. With a particular focus on the members’ perspectives of the cooperative, this qualitative research adopted a case study approach to explore and to gain multiple and subjective understanding of the role played by social capital in the success of the Heiveld Cooperative. This may assist the organisation under study, as well as similar initiatives, in strategically harnessing the benefits of social capital as a resource in future. This report has three interrelated sections. The first part is an academic paper, which includes a condensed literature review, research methods, results and discussions. The second part is an expanded literature review, while the third section details the research methods. It is vital to note that these sections are separate, but interrelated. Convenience sampling was used to identify current members of the cooperative who participated in this exploratory qualitative study. Four heterogeneous focus group discussions, with a total of 44 members of the Heiveld Cooperative in the Suid Bokkeveld, were conducted. The focus groups were heterogeneous, as they included ordinary members, founding members and committee members. A guideline with questions based on the theory of social capital was developed, and used to initiate or stimulate discussion among the members of the cooperative in order to address the key research question, namely: What was the role of social capital, if any, in the success of the Heiveld Cooperative in the Northern Cape as perceived by current cooperative members? The primary source of data was collected through focus group discussions, while secondary data was obtained from documents in a form of internal reports and papers written for the Heiveld Cooperative. Data was analysed using open coding and constant comparison techniques in order to induce emerging themes from the data. Findings of this study revealed that social capital played a major and influential role during the inception and also in the successful operation of the Heiveld Cooperative, by bonding and bridging not just between individual members, but also between communities, trading partners and other collaborators. Another key finding of this study is that social capital was also critical in enhancing supportive knowledge sharing, and the promotion of pride and shared identity, which the study identifies as aspects of cognitive social capital. Interestingly, the cognitive dimension of social capital in the Heiveld Cooperative has contributed to the weakening of social capital, as evident in claims related to lack of transparency and procedural injustice. Last, but not least, leveraging the sense of community has also been useful in promoting collective efficacy, strengthening familial togetherness, and enhanced democratisation of decision-making. Diminished trust, based on perceived oligarchy and nepotism is gradually weakening relational social capital. Findings in this study are illuminated using the social capital theory described by Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) to depict the social, cognitive and relational aspect of social capital that are at work at Heiveld Cooperative. Additionally, the social network theory by Hoppe and Reinelt (2010) is used to highlight the systemic view of social capital, which embraces the structural, relational and cognitive nature not only internal to but also between networks of the cooperative. Recommendations are provided to ensure social capital is harnessed, rather than undermined. These include the need to promote the processes of learning, monitoring and discussion that have been implemented; harnessing the benefits of bonding and bridging social capital; leveraging the sense of community and applying a more systemic view of social capital; and addressing perverse aspects of social capital such as nepotism and oligarchy that have been identified.