Academic literature on the topic 'Economic development projects – Namibia – Citizen participation'

Perceptions and expectations are integral aspects which affect people's decision making to support community-based development programs. Few studies have explored the perceptions-behaviour relationship and more so the stakeholders' perceptions towards the sustainability of community-based agricultural projects especially aquaculture. An understanding of perceptions for different stakeholder groups in community-based projects can clear misconceptions, and identify factors that can unleash the full potential of the community-based projects, so as to achieve sustainable societal development. In Namibia, four out of six community-based fish farm projects have failed. Hence, there is a need to explore stakeholder perceptions for improvement. Adopting a qualitative research method with interview guide to collect primary data, the aim of the article is to understand the status quo, re-define stakeholders' roles, expectations, and perceptions about consultation, participation, empowerment, ownership, etc., of community-based aquaculture project improvement and sustainability in Namibia.

Community participation in rural development is no longer a new terminology in the development lexicon of developing countries. In most developing nations, there exist a great disparity between the rural and the urban centres in terms of socio-economic development. Central Ejagham, an enclaved community in Manyu Division of southwestern Cameroon has, over the years, been faced with a number of development challenges. In response to this, and inline with the government of Cameroon’s policy of supporting self-reliant development, the community engaged in a series of self-defined community development activities in a multiplicity of sectors, on the bases of locally identified abilities and resources. This paper adopts qualitative methods such as interviews, focus group discussions, detailed field observations which were complemented by secondary data sources and content analysis to examine the barriers and indigenous efforts towards enhancing community participation in Central Ejagham. We observe that the level of participation in a majority of the projects falls either within the “tokenism” or the “citizen control” rungs of Sherry Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizen Participation. In addition, although “tokenism” rung projects in Central Ejagham receive much financial and technical support, although they are saddled with commitment-related challenges. Conversely, projects at the “citizen control” rung are characterized by significant commitment but are hampered by limited (financial and technical)resources. To further enhance community participation, we recommend that projects at the “tokenism” rung which are generally viable in terms of financial and technical capacity be stepped up to the “citizen control” level, inorder to guarantee maximum participation for better results. In addition, we suggest that the legislative arm of the government should introduce a bill on the need to effectively support community developmental efforts. This. We believe, will make “citizen control” rung projects to become more effective. Finally, a platform to guarantee the sustainability of projects and to ensure the adequate dissemination of information on sourcing for external funding to support projects should be introduced.

The Tunisian Constitution of 2014 requires local authorities to adopt mechanisms of participatory democracy. This paper presents how citizen participation in development planning has been implemented by the Tunisian administration in the frame of two Tunisian-German cooperation projects funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. The first project example consists of a multi-stakeholder dialogue for integrated water resource management in Kairouan, central Tunisia, whereas the second example is about citizen participation in planning small-scale investments in local infrastructure in different parts of the country. External facilitation, inclusiveness, transparency, expectation management and commitment from all levels of the administration are described as success factors for implementing participatory processes. Similar cooperation projects supporting citizen participation should be aware of on-going power struggles at different levels, as well as the challenges of local legal implementation. Both examples illustrate areas of tension between the remnants of the authoritarian past in Tunisia, and innovative democratic approaches. Furthermore, the examples allow to observe how ambiguities regarding the distribution of decision-making power between national, regional and local level become manifest in the on-going process of decentralisation in Tunisia.

Algeria is a country known for its diversity. Indeed, each of its regions stands out for its urban landscape, heritage, customs and traditions. The urban landscape of the Souf region is exceptional. This one is known for the originality of its architecture. Its two old districts "Messaaba and Acheche" having the status of safeguarded sector since the year 2013, were endowed with a project of elaboration of the permanent plan of safeguarding. The citizen is a key element in this project because it is the element that makes this heritage live. Therefore, citizen dialogue must be at the heart of the project process. To facilitate the consultation process and win public confidence for its full support to projects, it is necessary to establish a collaborative approach and establish mechanisms connecting the project. The effectiveness of its participation depends on individual differences. These variables could be demographic (age groups, educational level, economic context ... .etc), personality, or sense of community. The purpose of this article is to examine sense of community level that influences the process of participation of citizens concerned by the elaboration of the permanent safeguarding plan project, through a survey that was initiated with the inhabitants of two old districts "Messaaba and Acheche" to the city of El Oued.

This article discusses the approach adopted by the researchers into citizen participation in urban regeneration actions and projects. It describes the concepts of sustainability and habitability in relation to the urban environment and architecture within the framework of improving the resilience of our cities through the circular economy and decarbonisation processes in architecture. The authors review the participatory dimension of different urban regeneration actions carried out in Spain and the impact of this dimension on the results obtained by environmental, economic and social urban improvements. They then define possible strategies and methodological tools for integrating this dimension into traditional urban regeneration processes. The article presents case studies and their specific characteristics, and draws conclusions about their effectiveness and relevance. It also compares citizen-led interventions with interventions led by public administrations. Lastly, the authors analyse the potential reasons for success in these processes and projects, identifying weaknesses and proposing possible strategies for future development by researchers.

Citizens who lack basic skills and knowledge end up with unemployment or low-paying jobs. This leads to existence in poverty and a lack of opportunity to even voice. Low literacy levels affect economic development, diminish citizen participation and contribution, and are burdensome on nations. To address the issue, many nations consider, adopt, and support adult literacy programmes (ALP). Namibia is no exception. Hence, in 2003, the Adult Literacy Programme was initiated and is still actively engaging the targeted community members for acquiring basic skills and knowledge, thereby reducing poverty. Thus, the objective of this study is to assess ALP's success in poverty reduction as a citizenry approach. Based on the transformational learning theory and the capability approach, the qualitative research method is adopted, and data collection is done with structured interviews using a purposive sampling technique. Findings reflect ALP has enhanced the lives of participants and, therefore forms part of the measures to inhibit several social-related evils that cause poverty.

Smart-City-Konzepte versprechen einfache Lösungen für eine Vielzahl komplexer sozioökologischer Probleme und Herausforderungen. Die vielfältigen Visionen von Smart Cities basieren auf der Vorstellung, digitale Technologien seien der Hauptantrieb für positive soziale und ökologische Veränderungen. Der Kern dieses Ansatzes ist, dass Effizienzsteigerungen aufgrund von Digitalisierung neue Möglichkeiten für Städte schaffen, wirtschaftliches Wachstum, Nachhaltigkeit und Klimaschutz miteinander zu vereinen. Zudem verspricht die Digitalisierung der Stadt auch eine zunehmende Demokratisierung durch neue, digitale Partizipationsmöglichkeiten sowie onlineunterstütze Bottom-up-Prozesse. Vorliegende empirische Studien zur Smart City kritisieren jedoch die dominierende Top-down-Implementierung, die prägende Rolle privatwirtschaftlicher Akteur_innen sowie den technokratischen Charakter vieler Projekte, obwohl diese ganz explizit als bürger_innenorientiert formuliert sind und umfangreiche Partizipationsmöglichkeiten versprechen. Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht vor diesem Hintergrund die Rolle der Bürger_innenbeteiligung in Smart-City-Konzepten anhand des Entstehungs- und Implementierungsprozesses der SmartCity Cologne (SCC). Auf der Grundlage semi-strukturierter Expert_inneninterviews sowie einer umfassenden Dokumentenanalyse legt der Beitrag dar, wie die Smartifizierung der Stadtentwicklung in Köln konzeptionell verankert ist, wie sie lokal ausgehandelt und implementiert wird und welche Rolle dabei die Bürger_innenbeteiligung spielt. Der Schwerpunkt der empirischen Untersuchung liegt auf der Diskrepanz zwischen der nach außen kommunizierten bedeutsamen Rolle der Bürger_innen bei der SCC und der tatsächlich erfolgten Bürger_innenbeteiligung bei der Konzeption der SCC sowie bei der Umsetzung einzelner Teilprojekte. Theoretisch-konzeptionell basiert der Beitrag auf Sherry Arnsteins Arbeit zu Partizipationsprozessen sowie aktuellen Erweiterungen ihres Ansatzes im Kontext von Smart City und verbindet diese mit der Debatte um die post-politische Stadt. Smart City concepts promise simple solutions to a variety of complex socio-ecological problems and challenges. The various visions of Smart Cities are based on the idea that digital technologies would be the main driver for positive social and ecological changes. At its core, the smart approach is rooted in the idea that the gains in efficiency brought about through urban digitalization create new opportunities for combining economic growth, sustainability and climate protection. In addition, the digitalization of the city promises increased democratization through new, online participation opportunities and bottom-up processes. However, available empirical studies on the Smart City criticize the dominant top-down implementation, the determining role of private sector actors, and the technocratic character of smart projects – even those which explicitly promise participation and are described as citizen-oriented. In this context, the article examines the role of citizen participation within Smart City concepts with the illustrative example of the formation and implementation of SmartCity Cologne (SCC). Based on semi-structured interviews with experts and extensive document analysis, the article explains how the smartification of urban development is conceptually anchored in Cologne, how it is negotiated and implemented locally, and what role citizen participation plays in the process. The empirical investigation focuses on the discrepancy between the important role of the citizens in SCC that is communicated to the outside world, and the actual participation of citizens in the design of SCC and the implementation of individual projects. Theoretically and conceptually, the article draws on Sherry Arnstein’s seminal work on participation processes and more recent iterations of her approach against the background of the Smart City, and connects it with debates on the post-political city.

This paper is informed by findings of a study which sought to explore citizen participation in Zambia. The paper used a phenomenological design. Qualitative data was collected and analysed using emerging themes. The results revealed that many Zambian citizens do not participate in developmental and economic activities, projects and programmes due to lack of development prevailing in most parts of the country, and in particular the high levels of economic stress that are felt at individual and household levels. The inability to implement the sound choices and policy decisions craft by central government though a number of policies, ratifications and deliberate initiatives that the country has assented to, aimed at encouraging participatory practice. This has also caused citizens to lose trust in legislatures. At local level, the majority of citizens have inadequate access to basic social and economic services to live dignified lives. Government’s inability to provide such services has made citizens not to see the need to participate in any developmental programmes. With all such situations, Zambian citizens are discouraged to participate in the governance of the country and therefore, participatory practices fail.

This research article presents the integration of participatory modeling and system dynamics as a novel methodology for the consolidation of social dynamic models for the subsequent evaluation and prioritization of green projects in Colombian post-conflict communities. First, through participatory work carried out with a community, the citizen factors were identified, evaluated, and systematized in relation to the problems and needs of the region. Second, based on the results obtained, a simulation model based on system dynamics—which facilitates decision-making with regard to the evaluation of green projects—was calibrated. The proposed methodology lead to the conclusion that, with the participation of the community, and with a model based on the dynamics of the variables—such as supply and demand—for natural water and land resources, it is possible to warn decision-makers about variables that can lead to the maximization of investments, and thus to prioritize and select the most appropriate environmental, social, or economic initiatives that meet the needs or expectations of the involved community. In the future, the model could be used to facilitate the management, administration, and control of water and land resources by creating alerts called reserve margins.

En el presente artículo se exponen los resultados obtenidos a través de una revisión documental de artículos científicos y orientaciones gubernamentales nacionales e internacionales sobre las concepciones, percepciones, perspectivas y desarrollo teórico sobre la formación en competencias ciudadanas orientado al contexto colombiano. El propósito de este análisis es determinar los mecanismos y orientaciones para la formación en ciudadanía; dentro del análisis se realiza un rastreo de las fuentes de manera que se pueda generar comparaciones especialmente en la disciplina de la educación física, por esta razón al contrastar a los diferentes enfoques y posicionamientos, donde se apunta a dar respuestas a una sociedad globalizada, diversa, plural y en constantes tensiones sociales, ideológicas, políticas, económicas y culturales entre otras; para desarrollar competencia en las nuevas generaciones, donde la capacidad de resolver conflictos se cualifique con el diálogo y aumente la participación democrática, la sana convivencia pacífica, la inclusión y el derecho a las diferencias religiosas, políticas, raciales y sociales, que son precisamente los tres grupos de competencias ciudadanas implementadas por el Ministerio de Educación Nacional (MEN), a donde dirige sus esfuerzos para la formación ciudadana de los estudiantes de educación básica, media y media vocacional. El anterior objeto de estudio se aborda desde el sesgo, de las posibles contribuciones de la educación física como herramienta en la construcción colectiva de ciudadanía. La metodología aplicada es revisión documental, teniendo en cuenta criterios de inclusión y exclusión a través de matrices categoriales y heurísticas para el respectivo análisis de la información. Los resultados arrojan que en diferentes contextos nacionales e internacionales apuntan al desarrollo de la ciudadanía, a través de diferentes mecanismos participativos en la escuela, practicas docentes, metodologías y proyectos educativos institucionales, pero es necesario acrecentar el desarrollo de la competencia ciudadana por medio de la educación física, principalmente en participación ciudadana y respeto a las diferencias.Abstract. This article presents the results obtained through a documentary review of scientific articles and national and international government guidelines on conceptions, perceptions, perspectives, and theoretical development on training in citizen competencies oriented to the Colombian context. The purpose of this analysis is to determine the mechanisms and guidelines for citizenship training; Within the analysis, the sources are tracked so that comparisons can be generated especially in the discipline of physical education by contrasting the different approaches and positions, as it aims to provide answers to a globalized, diverse society, plural and in constant social, ideological, political, economic, and cultural tensions among others; to develop competences in the new generations, where the capacity to resolve conflicts is qualified with dialogue and democratic participation, healthy peaceful coexistence, inclusion and the right to religious, political, racial, and social differences, which are in fact the three citizen competency groups implemented by the Ministry of National Education (MEN), which directs its efforts for the citizenship training of students in basic education, media, and vocational media. The previous object of study is addressed from the point of view of the possible contributions of physical education as a tool in the collective construction of citizenship. The methodology applied is documentary review, taking into account the inclusion and exclusion criteria through categorical and heuristic matrices for the respective analysis of the information. The results show that in different national and international contexts there is an effort towards the development of citizenship through different participatory mechanisms in schools, teaching practices, methodologies, and institutional educational projects; however, it is necessary to increase the development of citizen competence through physical education, mainly in citizen participation and respect for differences.

Thesis (MPhil (Sustainable Development Planning and Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
Community participation is a concept adopted to ensure participation and give opportunities to communities to determine their own destination in terms of their needs. It is a means of empowering people by developing their skills and abilities to enable them to negotiate with the development delivery system and to equip them to make their own decisions in terms of their development needs and priorities. The aim of the study is to asses community participation in the development planning and service delivery system by the Omusati Regional Council. As a government institution at the grass root level, it has a task to deliver required basic services through development programmes and projects. Interviews and participatory observation, including project visits were the methods used to collect information on the implementation of community participation in the decision making processes, and project implementation by the Omusati Regional Council. The study is structured into six chapters. Chapter 1 deals with the general introduction, background to the study, the statement of the problem, the hypothesis, objective of the study, perceptions, research methodology, significance of the study and organisation of the study. Chapter 2 discusses the theory and philosophy of community participation. It conceptualizes the key terms of community participation in development planning, such as sustainable development, integrated development planning and projects, decentralised development and the building block of development integrated rural development, basic service delivery and indigenous knowledge systems. Chapter 3 highlights the policy framework on community participation in terms of international, national and regional development planning policy documents. Chapter 4 is concerned with the local context of study (Omusati Regional Council), while Chapter 5 presents the data results, interpretation and analysis. Chapter 6 reflects the conclusion and the way forward.

Thesis (MPhil (Sociology and Social Anthropology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
Community participation is a concept that is frequently mentioned in community development. Practitioners in development believe that in order for projects to succeed, communities need to actively take part in designing, implementing and shaping the projects that affect them. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate community participation by measuring quantitative and qualitative indicators of participation. It is important to note that there are no universal indicators of participation. The thesis presents three projects as case studies. In order to measure participation in the three cases, the quantitative and qualitative indicators of participation of Oakley et al. are reviewed. The indicators are applied across all three cases and the analysis indicates whether they were high, low or absent. It is also important to note that to measure participation effectively requires one to spend lengthy periods at the project site and this proved to be a challenge, as will be shown in the thesis. The thesis also demonstrates that to a large extent community participation is contextual. Of the three projects, two were rural projects and one an urban project. The two rural projects, Mongoaneng Development Forum and TsweloPele Women‟s Co-operative, were initiated by members of the community and aimed at addressing issues of poverty. The urban project, Motherwell Youth Development Forum, was specifically targeting young people with the aim of providing them with skills. Key findings include the fact that each of the cases was highly diverse, and furthermore, when measuring these cases, a common thread was that not all participation indicators were present at any given stage. Another key finding is that co-operation amongst project members tends to yield positive results and the reverse yields negative results. Another finding relates to the sustainability of the projects, pointing to the fact that even though two of the cases were doing well, their sustainability was questionable.

In recent decades, development thinking has shifted from mainstream development strategies to more alternative development approaches incorporating various aspects of development such as equity, gender, sustainability, and participation. In South Africa, a country emerging from a past of injustice, community participation has become a central theme in social development as a way of addressing past inequalities. However, despite its popularity, there are concerns that its benefits are less visible. The literature on community participation shows that there are a number of factors why community participation in development projects has not been successful in many communities. On the other hand, literature on participatory development also shows that there are benefits of participation in development projects; community participation can be successful when the community has genuine participation in the process. However, there is evidence that even where participatory development has been successful, is not necessarily easy to replicate in other areas. This study sought to evaluate participation and how this affects the sustainability and success of the Ilitha farming project. Using the qualitative and quantitative indicators of participation by Oakley et al. (1991), which were adapted from various sources, I have shown that there was a high level of participation by members of this project who started on a small-scale basis, with minimal contributions in order to address the problem of unemployment, lack of skills and income opportunities, and growing poverty in the Ilitha community. The study has shown that success in participation is linked to the success and sustainability of the Ilitha farming project. This project is a success because it has achieved its initial objectives and has potential for expansion. In addition, the expansion of project activities has increased and sustains the project income throughout the year, benefiting not only project members but other members of the Ilitha community including the old age home, the HIV Aids awareness centre and households with patients needing assistance. Project success can be sustained on a long-term basis with a high level of participation through commitment, hard work, quality leadership, consultation, team work and respect for each project member as an equal partner irrespective of differences in age, gender and length of membership in the project. The level of internal sustainability i.e. the ability for the project to maintain its own developmental momentum is evidently high. The executive has led the project from its inception in 2003 to date with a clear vision and long-term commitment. However, there is a need for a succession plan in order to ensure continuity of the project as the current executive may not be able to continue due to old age. Secondary partnerships in the Ilitha farming project have had a significant impact on the level of success and sustainability of the project through the provision of funds, training and technical assistance.

Thesis (MPA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the past, development projects were not successful, because development was guided by top-down strategy that excluded the main beneficiaries from the process of development. The creative initiative, local knowledge, and inputs of communities were not considered as a development resource. Hence, development programmes were not participatory, and could not solve social problems, rather they contributed to poverty and dependency. This condition gave rise to new thinking that unless communities participate in development efforts, no social transformation can be achieved. Moreover, the scarcity of resources in developing countries called for the mobilization of all stakeholders' resources in the cause of development action. As a result, community participation emerged as a new paradigm of development. Development has become a humanizing process; projects are people-driven; and communities are the subjects of development projects. Nevertheless, in order for community participation to meet the challenges of development, this has to be a multidimensional approach that integrates the building blocks of development. Against this background, in the context of water supply, the experience of developing countries indicates that the effectiveness of water supply projects is improved when communities participate in all phases of water supply projects. Moreover, community owned and managed water supply projects are better constructed, cost effective, and successful than government subsidized projects. Nevertheless, the role of government in enabling and supporting is essential. The study is an evaluation research, which aims to assess whether community participation is in place, and whether the delivery of water supply is enhanced as a result of community participation. The study area is in Galanefhi, a sub-region in Eritrea. At eleven villages in the sub-region, water supply projects that were constructed in the past twelve years are assessed to evaluate if community participation is in place and its effect on the water supply system. During the course of this study, interviews were conducted with 221 respondents of both sexes from the age of 28 years using open and closed-ended questionnaires. In addition, discussions were conducted with community representatives and government officials on issues of community participation and safe water delivery. Findings of the study indicate that the level of community participation differs within the villages and from one phase of the project to another. There is more community participation in implementation and less in planning. Decision-making is dominated by the water committees and local officials. The major missing ingredient is the level of capacity building. Communities' capacity to manage and operate the water supply system is limited. The institutional and administrative frameworks of the villages regarding water supply is weak. The regional and sub-region authorities' capacity that implements and oversees water supply projects is not strong. Communication between the grassroots and central authorities is not good. This is aggravated by natural conditions like climate and environment, and by the lack of skilled human resources, financial drawbacks, and lack of coordination. Nevertheless, overall assessment shows that water supply projects that enjoy more community participation are more successful and sustainable and more capable of meeting communities' expectations. Therefore, sustainable clean and adequate water delivery can be achieved through community participation in collaboration with all stakeholders. The recommendations which are provided give some insights on how to implement community participation as a strategy on the ground.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die verlede was ontwikkelingsprojekte dikwels onsuksesvolomdat ontwikkeling oorheers is deur die bo-na-onder ("top-down") strategie wat die hoof voordeeltrekkers uitgesluit het uit die proses van ontwikkeling. Die skeppende inisiatief, plaaslike kennis en die insette van die gemeenskappe is nie as 'n hulpbron beskou nie. Dus was die ontwikkelingsprogramme nie deelhebbend van aard nie en kon hulle nie sosiale probleme oplos nie. Dit het eerder bygedra tot armoede en afhanklikheid. Hierdie toestand het gelei tot 'n nuwe denkrigting, naamlik dat, tensy gemeenskappe deelneem aan ontwikkelingspogings, geen sosiale transformasie sal plaasvind nie. Weens die skaarsheid van hulpbronne in ontwikkelende lande is die mobilisasaie van al die deelhebbers se hulpbronne nodig vir ontwikkelingsaksie. Gevolglik het gemeenskapsdeelname te vore getree as die nuwe paradigma van ontwikkeling. Ontwikkeling is meer op die mens gerig; projekte word deur die mens gedryf; en gemeenskappe IS die onderwerp van die ontwikkelingsprojekte. Nietemin, as gemeenskapsdeelname die uitdagings van ontwikkeling te bowe wil kom, moet daar 'n multidimensionele benadering wees wat die boustene van ontwikkeling integreer. Teen hierdie agtergrond, en in die konteks van watervoorsiening, het die ondervindings in ontwikkelende lande aangedui dat die effektiwiteit van watervoorsieningsprojekte verbeter as die gemeenskap deelneem aan al die fases van die projek. Ook is watervoorsieningsprojekte wat deur die gemeenskap besit en bestuur word, beter gebou, meer koste-effektief, en meer suksesvol as projekte wat deur die regering subsideer is. Nietemin is die rol van die regering onontbeerlik waar dit die projekte moontlik maak en ondersteun. Hierdie studie is evaluasie-navorsing wat ten doel het om vas te stel tot watter mate gemeenskapdeelname bestaan en of die voorsiening van water verbeter het as gevolg van die deelname. Die studiegebied is in Galanefhi, 'n substeek van Eritrea. Daar is by elf dorpies in hierdie streek tydens die laaste twaalf jaar watervoorsieningspunte opgerig. Hierdie projekte is evalueer om vas te stel hoeveel gemeenskapdeelname daar was en die effek daarvan op die watervoorsiening. Tydens die studie is onderhoude gevoer met 221 respondente, mans en vrouens, bo 28. Daar is gebruik gemaak van vraelyste. Ook is daar besprekings gevoer met verteenwoordigers van gemeenskappe en regeringsamptenare oor kwessies soos gemeenskapsdeelname en die voorsiening van veilige drinkwater. Daar is gevind dat die vlak van deelname verskil van dorpie tot dorpie en van een fase van die projek tot die volgende. Daar is meer gemeenskapsdeelname in implementasie en minder in beplanning. Besluitneming word oorheers deur waterkomitees en plaaslike amptenare. Daar is me 'n hoë vlak van vermoë-bou me. Die vermoë van die gemeenskap om die watervoorsieningsisteem te bestuur is beperk en die administratiewe raamwerk van die dorpies betreffende watervoorsiening is swak. Die vermoë van die owerhede op streek- en substreekvlak, asook die kommunikasie tussen die sentrale owerhede en die gewone inwoners is nie na wense nie. Hierdie toestande word vererger deur die klimaat en die omgewingsfaktore, die gebrek aan geskoolde werkers, finansiële probleme en die gebrek aan koërdinasie, Nietemin is daar in die algemeen vasgestel dat die watervoorsieningsprojekte waar daar meer gemeenskapsdeelname was, meer suksesvol is, en beter aan die gemeenskap se verwagtinge voldoen. Die waterpunte word ook langer in 'n goeie werkende toestand gehou. Dus kan die voorsiening van genoeg skoon water bereik word deur die deelname van die gemeenskap en die samewerking van al diegene wat belang het by die projek. Aan die einde van die studie word daar aanbeveel hoe om gemeenskapsdeelname op grondvlak te implementeer.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The fundamental purpose of this study is to establish the extent to which theory and practice relate in the context of community participation. The point of departure is to understand what participation entails and the methodologies available to the development practitioner. As illustrated by the case study, there is a meaningful relationship between theory and the practicing of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), which is the methodology of choice for the project. Although the PRA techniques were utilized in gathering data for the project, many of the key decisions were made independently of the community. This brings to light the controversy between technical expertise on the one hand and to what extent the community should be included in any decisions made at this technical level, especially since they may only end up rubber-stamping the professional's opinions anyway. The question arises whether or not the whole concept of empowerment is simply a utopian concept. This is by no means an easy question to answer. However, the case study does illustrate that participation can be harnessed to achieve a successful project. It is important to note that even in difficult circumstances where 'dependency' has taken root, there exists hope that the people can actively participate in the project. It also reinforces the urgency of the need to actively encourage social change that will inspire people towards participation. This has been viewed for too long by the local people as the domain of the educated only. It is therefore important that development agencies create awareness of participation since it cuts across all their projects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie is om vas te stel tot watter mate teorie en praktyk met mekaar verband hou binne die konteks van gemeenskapsdeelname in die bestuur van gemeenskapsprojekte. Die vertrekpunt van die studie is die verstaan van wat deelname behels, en watter metodologieë beskikbaar is vir ontwikkelingspraktisyns. Soos deur die gevallestudie geïllustreer, is daar 'n verband tussen die teorie en die praktiese gebruik van "Participatory Rural Appraisal" (PRA), die tegniek wat deur die spesifieke projek gebruik word. Alhoewel die PRA tegniek aangewend is, word baie van die belangrike besluite onafhanklik van die gemeenskap gemaak. Dit plaas 'n fokus op die kontroversiële posisie wat bestaan tussen tegniese insette aan die een kant en die mate waartoe gemeenskappe op hierdie tegniese vlak aan besluite moet deelneem, veral aangesien hierdie tipe deelname slegs op die roetine-goedkeuring van professionele sienswyses mag uitloop. Dit vra die pertinente vraag of deelname nie slegs 'n utopiese konsep is nie. Hierdie is nie 'n maklike vraag om te antwoord nie, maar, die gevallestudieondersoek ondersteun wel die idee dat deelname ingespan kan word om positiewe resultate vir 'n projek te verseker. Dit is belangrik om daarop te let dat selfs waar 'n sindroom van afhanklikheid ontwikkel het, die hoop bestaan om gemeenskappe aktief in projekte te laat deelneem. Hierdie beklemtoon die belangrikheid daarvan om sosiale verandering aan te moedig ten einde 'n positiewe ingesteldheid teenoor deelname te inspireer. Vir te lank reeds sien plaaslike gemeenskappe hierdie as die terrein slegs van opgeleide persone. Dit is dus belangrik dat ontwikkelingsagente aandag skenk daaraan om gemeenskappe te sensiteer rakende deelname, aangesien dit die suksesvolle uitvoering van al hulle projekte raak.

Thesis (MPA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study was embarked upon to evaluate the contribution which World Vision as agent and catalyst of development has made towards addressing social issues in Lesotho. Specifically, the study evaluates Taung Area Development Programme which is one of the World Vision community development programmes established to improve social conditions in the rural communities particularly, in Tsoloane, Ha-Mopoane and Qhalasi. The study seeks to investigate three important areas; 1. Participation: to assess whether the communities have been involved in the planning of the projects, identified their own priorities for the projects or used their lands and other resources to exercise control over their economic, social and cultural development. 2. Empowerment: to assess how the projects have strengthened the capacity of local communities. This includes the transfer of skills through training for the purpose of equipping people to engage in their own development. 3. Sustainability: to assess the long-term viability of the projects. Data was gathered through the use of qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. To conduct both methods a snowball technique was applied. The data gathered was tabulated in graphs and pie charts. The results were then discussed and analysed in terms of the aims of this research. Regarding participation, the findings of the study revealed that to a large extent people were able to participate in the planning of the projects. People were able to identify their objectives and make a decision to embark on Income Generating Activities (IGA) such as raising poultry and pigs, sewing, and making baskets, candles and soap. The IGA enabled project members to feed and earn income for their families. The study further revealed that while certain people were able to participate in the planning of their projects, in development activities such as the building of feeder roads, people’s participation was minimal. This blueprint and top down planning approach allowed for little public participation. The study also found that World Vision’s religious involvement was appreciated for the moral support it provided. Another important issue the study brought to light was that people had an opportunity to use their indigenous knowledge in their projects. Regarding empowerment, almost all the respondents believed that World Vision played an important role by training people to handle various activities within projects. Apart from the training given, people also acquired different skills and knowledge. Most of the respondents acquired technical and economic knowledge, while others became skilful in farming and health matters as well as in handcraft. Empowerment in the Taung Area Development Programme has also manifested itself through the improved living conditions of the local people. The study found that infrastructure such as schools and roads have been established. As regards primary health care, respondents indicated that they had access to clean water due to the presence of a community tap. HIV/AIDS awareness, disease prevention campaigns and the building of toilets have contributed to improved living conditions in the Taung Area Development Programme. Though HIV/AIDS awareness and disease prevention campaigns were essential for primary health care, few people were knowledgeable about deadly diseases such as HIV/AIDS. As a result there was still a need for World Vision to underpin the spread of HIV/AIDS awareness within the communities. Sustainability has been attributed to the long-term survival of the development projects and their future operation. The findings of this study confirmed that people in the Taung Area Development Programme were optimistic that the skills and knowledge they have acquired, and the projects themselves will generate resources and continue to operate after World Vision’s departure, especially with regard to IGA projects. The study results confirmed that people who mainly engaged in development activities such as at Qhalasi showed that they could only utilise their skills and knowledge to a small degree. The main conclusion reached by the study is that the Taung Area Development Programme as one of World Vision’s programmes has to a large extent transformed the lives of the local people. As a result of World Vision involvement in the Taung Area Development Programme, people-centred development is manifestly seen to promote the participation and empowerment of the people as well as the sustainability of the development projects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die bydrae wat World Vision as agent en katalisator van ontwikkeling gemaak het om sosiale kwessies in Lesotho aan te spreek te bepaal. Die studie, meer spesifiek evalueer die Taung Area Develoment Programme, wat een van World Vision se gemeenskapontwikkelingprogramme is wat gevestig is om maatskaplike toestande in landelike gebiede te bevorder veral in Tsoloane, Ha-Mopoane en Qhalasi. Die studie poog om drie belangrike areas te ondersoek; 1. Deelname: om te bepaal of gemeenskappe betrek was by die beplanning van die projekte, deur die identifikasie van hulle eie prioriteite vir die projekte, of die gebruik van hul grond en ander hulpmiddels om beheer oor hul eie ekonomiese, sosiale en kulturele ontwikkeling uit te oefen. 2. Bemagtiging: om vas te stel in watter mate die programme die kapasiteit van plaaslike gemeenskappe versterk het. Dit sluit in die oordrag van vaardighede deur opleiding, om mense toe te rus om in hulle eie ontwikkeling betrokke te raak. 3. Volhoubaarheid: om die langtermyn lewensvatbaarheid van die projekte te bepaal. Data is versamel deur die gebruik van kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe data-insamelingstegnieke. Om albei tegnieke uit te voer was die sneeubal steekproeftegniek toegepas. Die data wat versamel was, is in grafieke aangebied. Die resultate was daarna geanaliseer en bespreek in terme van hierdie studie se doelstellings. Met betrekking tot deelname, het die bevindings van die studie bewys dat die betrokke mense in ’n groot mate bevoeg was om deel te neem aan die beplanning van die projekte. Mense was bevoeg om doelwitte te identifiseer en besluite te neem om inkomste-genererende aktiwiteite (IGA) aan te pak. Die aktiwiteite het pluimvee en varkboerdery, naaldwerk, en die maak van mandjies, kerse en seep ingesluit. Die IGA het dit vir projeklede moontlik gemaak om kos en ’n inkomste vir hulle families te verdien. Die studie het verder vasgestel dat, afgesien van die feit dat sommige mense bevoeg was om aan die beplanning van hul projekte deel te neem, die deelname in ontwikkelingsprojekte soos die bou van toeganspaaie, minimaal was. Die tipiese “van bo na onder’’ voorskriftelike benadering tot beplanning het min geleentheid vir publieke deelname toegelaat. Die studie het ook bevesting dat die godsdienstige betrokkenheid van World Vision, weens die morele ondersteuning wat dit bied, hoog gewaardeer was. Nog ’n belangrike aspek wat die studie aan die lig gebring het, was dat die mense die kans gebied was om hul inheemse kennis in hul projeke aan te wend. Met betrekking tot bemagtiging, het feitlik al die respondente geglo dat World Vision ’n belangrike rol gespeel het om mense op te lei om veskeie aktiwiteite binne hul projekte uit te voer. Benewens die opleiding wat ontvang was, het die mense ook verskeie vaardighede en kennis opgedoen. Die meerderheid van die respondente het tegniese en ekonomiese kennis opgedoen, terwyl andere in landbou en gesondheidsaangeleenthede en ook handwerk vaardig geword het. Bemagtiging in die Taung Area Development Programme is ook deur die verbetering in die lewensomstandinghede van die plaaslike bevolking geopenbaar. Die studie het ook gevind dat die infrastruktuur met die bou van skole en paaie verbeter was. Met betrekking tot primêre gesondheid, het die respondente bevesting dat hulle toegang tot skoon water gekry het deur middel van ’n gemeenskaplike kraan. Veldtogte soos MIV/VIGS bewusmaking, voorkoming van siektes en die bou van toilette het tot verbeterde lewensomstandinghede in die Taung Area Development Programme bygedra. Afgesien van veldtogte soos MIV/VIGS en siektevoorkoming wat vir primêre gesondheidsorg belangrik is, beskik min mense kennis van dodelike siektes soos MIV/VIGS. Dit blyk dus dat World Vision meer klem sal moet lê op die verspreiding van kennis van MIV/VIGS binne die gemeenskappe. Die langtermyn oorlewing van die ontwikkelingsprojekte sal aan volhoubaarheid gekoppel moet word. Die bevindings van hierdie studie bevestig dat mense in die Taung Area Development Programme optimisties was dat die vaardighede en kennis wat hulle verkry het, en die projekte, selfhulpmiddels sal genereer wat nog in werking sal wees lank na die vertrek van World Vision, veral met betrekking tot die IGA projekte. Hierdie studie bevestig dat persone wat hoofsaaklik betrokke was by ontwikkelingsprojekte soos by Qhalasi, net tot ’n geringe mate hulle vaardighede en kennis kon gebruik. Die belangriskte slotsom wat hierdie studie bereik het was dat die Taung Area Development Programme, as een van die World Vision programme, in ’n groot mate die lewens van die plaaslike mense getransformeer het. As gevolg van World Vision se betrokkenheid in die Taung Area Development Programme, word mensgesentreerde ontwikkeling nou gesien as bevordelik vir die betrokkenheid en bemagtiging van die bevolking sowel as die volhoubaarheid van die ontwikkelingsprojekte.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) maintains that its people-centred Participatory Forest Management (PFM) program contributes to rural poverty eradication through provision of employment, skills training and sharing of benefits of sustainable forest management. It also asserts that local people in the forested parts of South Africa interactively participate in designing systems and institutions that shape forest resources use and management and hence influence their livelihood strategies. Furthermore, the department asserts that the PFM program has taken off exceptionally well in the Southern Cape Forests than anywhere else in South Africa. This means that local people that inhabit the margins of the Southern Cape Forests benefit from the management of these forests. Consequently, this study set out to investigate the socio-economic contribution of the PFM intervention to the two forest-dwelling communities of Diepwalle and Covie within the Southern Cape Forests. The investigation employed an outcome based evaluation approach and was summative in nature. Data were gathered by conducting a 100% survey of the two communities and also through a workshop. Informal interactions and discussions as well as visual observations were used to verify data as the purpose of the study was to present an unbiased, multi-voiced account of the socio-economic contributions of the PFM intervention to the Diepwalle and Covie communities. The results of this research show that the outcomes of the PFM intervention have not been met in the two communities. It was found that the vast majority of the households in the two communities were not aware at the time of this study of the PFM program. There were at the time of the study no PFM-based incentives for local communities to actively participate in the sustainable use and management of the indigenous forests in the vicinity of Diepwalle and Covie. Almost all the householders in the two communities stressed that they do not benefit from the management of the indigenous forests. The existing management approach followed in the Southern Cape Forests does not appear to have more socio-economic and environmental gains than the conventional approach which excludes local people from the planning, designing, implementation and evaluation of institutions and systems which affect their physical environment. The study recommends, among others, regular evaluation of the PFM program to fast track its successful implementation and to ensure that the National Forests Act of 1998 that establishes PFM is fully implemented to realize the socio-economic benefits of forest conservation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Volgens die Departement Waterwese en Bosbou (DWB) dra die Mensgesentreerde Deelnemende Bosbestuursprogram (Participatory Forest Management of PFM) by tot die uitwissing van armoede op die platteland deur werkverskaffing, vaardigheidsopleiding en die deel in voordele van volhoubare bosbestuur. Die DWB beweer dat inwoners van die woudgebiede van Suid-Afrika deelneem aan die ontwerp van stelsels en instellings wat die gebruik en bestuur van woudhulpbronne vorm en daarom hulle broodwinningstrategieë beïnvloed. Verder voer die DWB aan dat die PFM-program aansienlik beter in die Suid-Kaapse Woude weggespring het as op enige ander plek in Suid-Afrika. Dit beteken dat plaaslike mense wat in buitewyke van die Suid-Kaapse Woude woon, voordeel trek uit die bestuur van die woude. Hierdie studie is onderneem om die sosio-ekonomiese bydrae van die PFM-intervensie tot twee woudgemeenskappe, Diepwalle en Covie, in die Suid-Kaapse Woude te ondersoek. Die ondersoek het 'n uitkomsgebaseerde evaluasiebenadering gevolg en was summatief van aard. Gegewens is deur 'n 100%-opname van die gemeenskappe en tydens 'n werkswinkel versamel. Informele interaksies en besprekings asook visuele waarnemings is gebruik om gegewens te verifieer, omdat die doel van die studie was om 'n onbevooroordeelde, veelstemmige verslag van die sosio-ekonomiese bydraes van die PFM-intervensie tot bogenoemde gemeenskappe daar te stel. Die navorsingsresultate toon dat die uitkomste van die PFM-intervensie nie in die twee gemeenskappe bereik is nie. Die oorgrote meerderheid huishoudings was ten tye van die studie onbewus van die program en daar was geen PFM-gebaseerde aansporings vir plaaslike gemeenskappe om aktief aan die volhoubare gebruik en bestuur van die inheemse woude in die Diepwalle- en Covie-omgewing deel te neem nie. Bykans al die huishouers het benadruk dat hulle geen voordeel uit die bestuur van die inheemse woude trek nie. Geen getuienis is gevind wat bevestig dat bekwaamhede bevorder is as gevolg van die PFM-program nie. Alle deelnemers ontken vaardigheidsontwikkeling wat deur die PFM geinisieer is. Dit blyk dat die bestaande bestuursbenadering wat in die Suid-Kaapse Woude gevolg word, nie meer sosio-ekonomiese en omgewingsvoordele lewer nie as die konvensionele benadering wat plaaslike mense uitsluit van die beplanning, ontwerp, implementering en evaluasie van instellings en stelsels wat hulle fisiese omgewing beïnvloed. Die studie beveel onder andere gereelde evaluasie van die PFM-program aan om die suksesvolle implementering daarvan te bespoedig en te verseker dat die Wet op Nasionale Woude van 1998 volledig geïmplementeer word sodat die sosio-ekonomiese voordele van woudbewaring kan realiseer.

This thesis relates the work of a non-governmental organisation, The Spirals Trust, to discussions on human and participatory development. The focus of the study is one of The Spirals Trust’s projects, the 2006/7 Tantyi Youth Empowerment Project, which is discussed in relation to theoretical material on human development and participatory development. Collectively these perspectives are defined in this thesis as ‘participatory human development’. The 2006/7 Tantyi Youth Empowerment Project illustrates some of the challenges that face the practice of participatory human development. Workshops and focus group interviews were conducted with participants who were part of the 2006/7 Tantyi Youth Empowerment Project in order to draw out their experiences of the project. Questions were created from themes that emerged from the participants’ discussion of their experiences and these questions were then posed to members of staff of The Spirals Trust. The experiences of both the participants and the staff members are discussed in order to explore issues that emerge in the practice of participatory human development in the 2006/7 Tantyi Youth Empowerment Project. The results highlight the challenges of putting into action the tenets of participatory human development. Feedback showed that a focus on personal development can help cultivate the ethic of participation. The effort that this entailed on the part of facilitators is discussed. The importance of exposing and continually working with power dynamics that may emerge in projects of this nature is revealed and the eroding influence of bureaucratic compliance in projects like this one is explored. The study also suggests that there is a need to promote development initiatives that challenge the political status quo rather than just finding ways to incorporate the marginalised more effectively into current systems. New questions that the research poses to the practice of participatory human development are considered in conjunction with suggestions for further research.

This study analyses the effectiveness of community participation in service delivery. The area of study, the Chris Ham District Municipality (CHDM), is a Water Services Authority, responsible for ensuring access to water services (water and sanitation) by all communities within its jurisdiction. There are eight local municipalities within the CHDM. The objective of this study is to determine whether systems are in place in local government to promote participation by communities in service delivery projects and whether these systems are being utilised efficiently by the role-players concerned. The role-players in this research are people who are involved in community development programmes of the municipality (municipal staff in the relevant departments of the municipalities under study, the social facilitators, civil society organisations, ward committees, ward councillors, traditional authorities as well as the representatives of communities (Project Steering Committees) who are beneficiaries of the projects under study). The projects that are under study were selected from a readily available list of CHDM capital projects that appear in the 2003/2004 financial year funding plan and are running. The findings of the study at both levels (local and district) show that the municipal environment is not conducive to promoting community participation. This is linked to factors such as the structural arrangements, whereby the offices relevant for promoting community participation are not fully occupied, which provided evidence that community participation is not prioritised. There is lack of coordination of programmes within the local government spheres as well within departments of the DM and strategies for community participation have been found to be non-effective. At project level lack of community participation is linked to the utilisation of ward committees as the only mechanism for community participation regardless of its un-equal and party biased representation. This study therefore concludes that although the systems to promote community participation are in place, they are not effective.

This study addresses the question of people-centred development as a transformative aspect of the new South African development arena. The concept is defined as the involvement and active participation of people in the decision-making, evaluation and implementation of the development processes, It is one of the forms of democratisation which involves the decentralisaton of authority to the lower tiers of government. This study provides an analysis of the efficacy, relevance, advantages and disadvantages of people-centred development in the South African context. The Zikhoya-Ngqinisa Woodlot Trust Project was chosen as a case study, The reason was that through the process of devolution of the Department of Forestry and Water Affairs (DWAF), which involved the handing over of the management and financial resources of the small woodlots to the communities for their own benefit, the two villages, Zikhova and Ngqinisa, were given the Zikhova woodlot. The devolution of DWAF is one of the various forms of decentralisation that has given more autonomy to the lower tiers of government in the sense that the communities now have to satisfy their own needs. The main focus of the study was to identify and analyse constraints on the implementation of people-centred development specific to the Zikhova-Ngqinisa Woodlot Trust Project. Other interrelated aspects of people-centred development such as sustainability, community involvement and benefits of the project were also investigated and analysed.
KMBT_363

AbstractIn recent decades, problems related to the accessibility and sustainability of science have increased, both in terms of the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge and its generation. Policymakers, academics, and, increasingly, citizens themselves have developed various approaches to this issue. Among them, citizen science is distinguished by making possible the generation of scientific knowledge by anyone with an interest in doing so. However, participation alone does not guarantee knowledge generation, which represents an epistemological challenge for citizen science. Simultaneously, economic and socio-institutional difficulties in science governance and maintenance have grown. To solve those problems, several market elements have been introduced, a solution rejected by those who consider science as a public good that states must guarantee. Alternatively, research and work on the commons are growing worldwide, the concept being extended from natural resources to knowledge resources. In this chapter, we propose science as a commons, underlining the essential role of citizen science. Difficulties also apply to citizen science itself, but the increasing development of a multitude of projects based on cooperation favours the conditions required for its sustainability and quality.Our philosophical proposal is based on empirical knowledge about citizen science coupled with socio-economic concepts, according to a sociopolitical epistemology.

Few studies have explored the perceptions-behavior relationship and outlook towards the sustainability of community-based agricultural projects, especially the aquaculture. Understandings the outlook and perceptions for different stakeholder groups in community-based projects can clear misconceptions, identify factors that can unleash the full potential of the community-based projects, so as to achieve sustainable societal development. In Namibia, four out of six community-based fish farm projects have failed. Hence, there is a need to explore stakeholder perceptions for improvement. Adopting a qualitative research method with an interview guide to collect primary data, the aim of the study is to understand the status quo, re-define stakeholders' roles, expectations, and perceptions about consultation, participation, empowerment, ownership, etc. of community-based aquaculture projects improvement and sustainability in Namibia.

Namibia was under colonizing and apartheid rule for more than a century. In 1990, the country declared its independence, and since that time, great strides have been made in linking its rural communities into a national communications Grid that was previously inaccessible to them, often leapfrogging traditional landline telephone technologies with universal cell phone service. In addition, one newspaper, The Namibian, has been innovatively using newer communications technologies to maintain its historic role of nation-building. This chapter showcases how SMS via cell phone and a traditional national newspaper has a sense of national identity that transcends geographic distances and a legacy of economic/political barriers. The cell phone messages made it possible for the rural communities who have been left out of discussion relating to issues of development to be included. Although the study unveiled 11% of their participation as opposed to 30% of the rural populace, this is a step forward bearing in mind that the rural areas have a history of being passively involved in everything that is being done. They have been, and continue to some great extent to be content to receive decisions made for them by outsiders including political leaders. Mobile phones have come as empowerment for them. Like the old slogan, “information is power,” this chapter illustrates that the lives of some rural area dwellers have improved a result of a technological gadget, the mobile phone.

Citizens who lack basic skills and knowledge end up with unemployment or low-paying jobs. This leads to existence in poverty and a lack of opportunity to even voice. Low literacy levels affect economic development, diminish citizen participation and contribution, and are burdensome on nations. To address the issue, many nations consider, adopt, and support adult literacy programmes (ALP). Namibia is no exception. Hence, in 2003, the Adult Literacy Programme was initiated and is still actively engaging the targeted community members for acquiring basic skills and knowledge, thereby reducing poverty. Thus, the objective of this study is to assess ALP's success in poverty reduction as a citizenry approach. Based on the transformational learning theory and the capability approach, the qualitative research method is adopted, and data collection is done with structured interviews using a purposive sampling technique. Findings reflect ALP has enhanced the lives of participants and, therefore forms part of the measures to inhibit several social-related evils that cause poverty.

Citizen participation is a key element in sustainably developing cities. When developmental decisions are left to governmental officials and decision-makers, political and economic factors tend to control the process. This leaves little room for humane values. As such, researchers have called for the development of a sustainable learning society, with the creative class and innovators at its lead, in order to direct the participation of citizens in the decision-making process, in issues related to the living environment. Based on the similarity between the environment of organizational creativity of both participatory sessions and design education, this research borrows an application performed in a design context. This takes place, in order to quantitatively and qualitatively test diversity's effect in a group on the creative output. As such, it was concluded that the same relationship is valid for group members working on development projects. Findings suggest tools that can be employed to select participants and to enhance creativity within groups focusing on development planning.

In the mid-1980s, the impact of three decades of uranium processing near rural Fernald, Ohio, 18 miles northwest of Cincinnati, became the centre of national public controversy. When a series of incidents at the uranium foundry brought to light the years of contamination to the environment and surrounding farmland communities, local citizens’ groups united and demanded a role in determining the plans for cleaning up the site. One citizens’ group, Fernald Residents for Environmental Safety and Health (FRESH), formed in 1984 following reports that nearly 300 pounds of enriched uranium oxide had been released from a dust-collector system, and three off-property wells south of the site were contaminated with uranium. For 22 years, FRESH monitored activities at Fernald and participated in the decision-making process with management and regulators. The job of FRESH ended on 19 January this year when the U.S. Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Stephen Johnson — flanked by local, state, and national elected officials, and citizen-led environmental watchdog groups including FRESH — officially declared the Fernald Site clean of all nuclear contamination and open to public access. It marked the end of a remarkable turnaround in public confidence and trust that had attracted critical reports from around the world: the Cincinnati Enquirer; U.S. national news programs 60 Minutes, 20/20, Nightline, and 48 Hours; worldwide media outlets from the British Broadcasting Company and Canadian Broadcasting Company; Japanese newspapers; and German reporters. When personnel from Fluor arrived in 1992, the management team thought it understood the issues and concerns of each stakeholder group, and was determined to implement the decommissioning scope of work aggressively, confident that stakeholders would agree with its plans. This approach resulted in strained relationships with opinion leaders during the early months of Fluor’s contract. To forge better relationships, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) who owns the site, and Fluor embarked on three new strategies based on engaging citizens and interested stakeholder groups in the decision-making process. The first strategy was opening communication channels with site leadership, technical staff, and regulators. This strategy combined a strong public-information program with two-way communications between management and the community, soliciting and encouraging stakeholder participation early in the decision-making process. Fluor’s public-participation strategy exceeded the “check-the-box” approach common within the nuclear-weapons complex, and set a national standard that stands alone today. The second stakeholder-engagement strategy sprang from mending fences with the regulators and the community. The approach for dispositioning low-level waste was a 25-year plan to ship it off the site. Working with stakeholders, DOE and Fluor were able to convince the community to accept a plan to safely store waste permanently on site, which would save 15 years of cleanup and millions of dollars in cost. The third strategy addressed the potentially long delays in finalizing remedial action plans due to formal public comment periods and State and Federal regulatory approvals. Working closely with the U.S. and Ohio Environmental Protection Agencies (EPA) and other stakeholders, DOE and Fluor were able to secure approvals of five Records of Decision on time – a first for the DOE complex. Developing open and honest relationships with union leaders, the workforce, regulators and community groups played a major role in DOE and Fluor cleaning up and closing the site. Using lessons learned at Fernald, DOE was able to resolve challenges at other sites, including worker transition, labour disputes, and damaged relationships with regulators and the community. It took significant time early in the project to convince the workforce that their future lay in cleanup, not in holding out hope for production to resume. It took more time to repair relationships with Ohio regulators and the local community. Developing these relationships over the years required constant, open communications between site decision makers and stakeholders to identify issues and to overcome potential barriers. Fluor’s open public-participation strategy resulted in stakeholder consensus of five remedial-action plans that directed Fernald cleanup. This strategy included establishing a public-participation program that emphasized a shared-decision making process and abandoned the government’s traditional, non-participatory “Decide, Announce, Defend” approach. Fernald’s program became a model within the DOE complex for effective public participation. Fluor led the formation of the first DOE site-specific advisory board dedicated to remediation and closure. The board was successful at building consensus on critical issues affecting long-term site remediation, such as cleanup levels, waste disposal and final land use. Fluor created innovative public outreach tools, such as “Cleanopoly,” based on the Monopoly game, to help illustrate complex concepts, including risk levels, remediation techniques, and associated costs. These innovative tools helped DOE and Fluor gain stakeholder consensus on all cleanup plans. To commemorate the outstanding commitment of Fernald stakeholders to this massive environmental-restoration project, Fluor donated $20,000 to build the Weapons to Wetlands Grove overlooking the former 136-acre production area. The grove contains 24 trees, each dedicated to “[a] leader(s) behind the Fernald cleanup.” Over the years, Fluor, through the Fluor Foundation, also invested in educational and humanitarian projects, contributing nearly $2 million to communities in southwestern Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana. Further, to help offset the economic impact of the site’s closing to the community, DOE and Fluor promoted economic development in the region by donating excess equipment and property to local schools and townships. This paper discusses the details of the public-involvement program — from inception through maturity — and presents some lessons learned that can be applied to other similar projects.

This report maps the African landscape of Open Science – with a focus on Open Data as a sub-set of Open Science. Data to inform the landscape study were collected through a variety of methods, including surveys, desk research, engagement with a community of practice, networking with stakeholders, participation in conferences, case study presentations, and workshops hosted. Although the majority of African countries (35 of 54) demonstrates commitment to science through its investment in research and development (R&D), academies of science, ministries of science and technology, policies, recognition of research, and participation in the Science Granting Councils Initiative (SGCI), the following countries demonstrate the highest commitment and political willingness to invest in science: Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda. In addition to existing policies in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI), the following countries have made progress towards Open Data policies: Botswana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, South Africa and Uganda. Only two African countries (Kenya and South Africa) at this stage contribute 0.8% of its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to R&D (Research and Development), which is the closest to the AU’s (African Union’s) suggested 1%. Countries such as Lesotho and Madagascar ranked as 0%, while the R&D expenditure for 24 African countries is unknown. In addition to this, science globally has become fully dependent on stable ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) infrastructure, which includes connectivity/bandwidth, high performance computing facilities and data services. This is especially applicable since countries globally are finding themselves in the midst of the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR), which is not only “about” data, but which “is” data. According to an article1 by Alan Marcus (2015) (Senior Director, Head of Information Technology and Telecommunications Industries, World Economic Forum), “At its core, data represents a post-industrial opportunity. Its uses have unprecedented complexity, velocity and global reach. As digital communications become ubiquitous, data will rule in a world where nearly everyone and everything is connected in real time. That will require a highly reliable, secure and available infrastructure at its core, and innovation at the edge.” Every industry is affected as part of this revolution – also science. An important component of the digital transformation is “trust” – people must be able to trust that governments and all other industries (including the science sector), adequately handle and protect their data. This requires accountability on a global level, and digital industries must embrace the change and go for a higher standard of protection. “This will reassure consumers and citizens, benefitting the whole digital economy”, says Marcus. A stable and secure information and communication technologies (ICT) infrastructure – currently provided by the National Research and Education Networks (NRENs) – is key to advance collaboration in science. The AfricaConnect2 project (AfricaConnect (2012–2014) and AfricaConnect2 (2016–2018)) through establishing connectivity between National Research and Education Networks (NRENs), is planning to roll out AfricaConnect3 by the end of 2019. The concern however is that selected African governments (with the exception of a few countries such as South Africa, Mozambique, Ethiopia and others) have low awareness of the impact the Internet has today on all societal levels, how much ICT (and the 4th Industrial Revolution) have affected research, and the added value an NREN can bring to higher education and research in addressing the respective needs, which is far more complex than simply providing connectivity. Apart from more commitment and investment in R&D, African governments – to become and remain part of the 4th Industrial Revolution – have no option other than to acknowledge and commit to the role NRENs play in advancing science towards addressing the SDG (Sustainable Development Goals). For successful collaboration and direction, it is fundamental that policies within one country are aligned with one another. Alignment on continental level is crucial for the future Pan-African African Open Science Platform to be successful. Both the HIPSSA ((Harmonization of ICT Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa)3 project and WATRA (the West Africa Telecommunications Regulators Assembly)4, have made progress towards the regulation of the telecom sector, and in particular of bottlenecks which curb the development of competition among ISPs. A study under HIPSSA identified potential bottlenecks in access at an affordable price to the international capacity of submarine cables and suggested means and tools used by regulators to remedy them. Work on the recommended measures and making them operational continues in collaboration with WATRA. In addition to sufficient bandwidth and connectivity, high-performance computing facilities and services in support of data sharing are also required. The South African National Integrated Cyberinfrastructure System5 (NICIS) has made great progress in planning and setting up a cyberinfrastructure ecosystem in support of collaborative science and data sharing. The regional Southern African Development Community6 (SADC) Cyber-infrastructure Framework provides a valuable roadmap towards high-speed Internet, developing human capacity and skills in ICT technologies, high- performance computing and more. The following countries have been identified as having high-performance computing facilities, some as a result of the Square Kilometre Array7 (SKA) partnership: Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Mauritius, Namibia, South Africa, Tunisia, and Zambia. More and more NRENs – especially the Level 6 NRENs 8 (Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, South Africa, and recently Zambia) – are exploring offering additional services; also in support of data sharing and transfer. The following NRENs already allow for running data-intensive applications and sharing of high-end computing assets, bio-modelling and computation on high-performance/ supercomputers: KENET (Kenya), TENET (South Africa), RENU (Uganda), ZAMREN (Zambia), EUN (Egypt) and ARN (Algeria). Fifteen higher education training institutions from eight African countries (Botswana, Benin, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Sudan, and Tanzania) have been identified as offering formal courses on data science. In addition to formal degrees, a number of international short courses have been developed and free international online courses are also available as an option to build capacity and integrate as part of curricula. The small number of higher education or research intensive institutions offering data science is however insufficient, and there is a desperate need for more training in data science. The CODATA-RDA Schools of Research Data Science aim at addressing the continental need for foundational data skills across all disciplines, along with training conducted by The Carpentries 9 programme (specifically Data Carpentry 10 ). Thus far, CODATA-RDA schools in collaboration with AOSP, integrating content from Data Carpentry, were presented in Rwanda (in 2018), and during17-29 June 2019, in Ethiopia. Awareness regarding Open Science (including Open Data) is evident through the 12 Open Science-related Open Access/Open Data/Open Science declarations and agreements endorsed or signed by African governments; 200 Open Access journals from Africa registered on the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ); 174 Open Access institutional research repositories registered on openDOAR (Directory of Open Access Repositories); 33 Open Access/Open Science policies registered on ROARMAP (Registry of Open Access Repository Mandates and Policies); 24 data repositories registered with the Registry of Data Repositories (re3data.org) (although the pilot project identified 66 research data repositories); and one data repository assigned the CoreTrustSeal. Although this is a start, far more needs to be done to align African data curation and research practices with global standards. Funding to conduct research remains a challenge. African researchers mostly fund their own research, and there are little incentives for them to make their research and accompanying data sets openly accessible. Funding and peer recognition, along with an enabling research environment conducive for research, are regarded as major incentives. The landscape report concludes with a number of concerns towards sharing research data openly, as well as challenges in terms of Open Data policy, ICT infrastructure supportive of data sharing, capacity building, lack of skills, and the need for incentives. Although great progress has been made in terms of Open Science and Open Data practices, more awareness needs to be created and further advocacy efforts are required for buy-in from African governments. A federated African Open Science Platform (AOSP) will not only encourage more collaboration among researchers in addressing the SDGs, but it will also benefit the many stakeholders identified as part of the pilot phase. The time is now, for governments in Africa, to acknowledge the important role of science in general, but specifically Open Science and Open Data, through developing and aligning the relevant policies, investing in an ICT infrastructure conducive for data sharing through committing funding to making NRENs financially sustainable, incentivising open research practices by scientists, and creating opportunities for more scientists and stakeholders across all disciplines to be trained in data management.