Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Eddy flux. Jets Turbulence'

Supersonic hot jet noise causes significant hearing impairment to the military workforce and results in substantial cost for medical care and treatment. Detailed insight into the turbulence structure of high-speed jets is central to understanding and controlling jet noise. For this purpose a new instrument based on the Doppler global velocimetry technique has been developed. This instrument is capable of measuring three-component velocity vectors over ex-tended periods of time at mean data-rates of 100 kHz. As a demonstration of the applicability of the time-resolved Doppler global velocimetry (TR-DGV) measurement technique, statistics of three-component velocity measurements, full Reynolds stress tensors and spectra along the stream-wise direction in a cold, supersonic jet at exit Mach number Mj = 1.4 (design Mach number Md = 1.65) are presented. In pursuance of extending the instrument to planar op- eration, a rapid response photomultiplier tube, 64-channel camera is developed. Integrating field programmable gate array-based data acquisition with two-stage amplifiers enables high-speed flow velocimetry at up to 10 MHz. Incor- porating this camera technology into the TR-DGV instrument, an investigation of the perfectly expanded supersonic jet at two total temperature ratios (TTR = 1.6 and TTR = 2.0) was conducted. Fourth-order correlations which have direct impact on the intensity of the acoustic far-field noise as well as convective velocities on the lip line at several stream-wise locations were obtained. Comprehensive maps of the convective velocity and the acoustic Mach number were determined. The spatial and frequency scaling of the eddy convective velocities within the developing shear layer were also investigated. It was found that differences in the radial diffusion of the mean velocity field and the integral eddy convective velocity creates regions of locally high convective Mach numbers after the potential core. This, according to acoustic analogies, leads to high noise radiation efficiency. The spectral scaling of the eddy convec- tive velocity indicates intermittent presence of large-scale turbulence structures, which, coupled with the emergence of Mach wave radiation, may be one of the main driving factors of noise emission observed in heated supersonic jets.
Ph. D.

Key areas of noise sources are investigated through comparison of eddy convection velocity and turbulence measurements in three-stream nozzles. A Time-Resolved Doppler Global Velocimetry (TR-DGV) Instrument was applied to the Nozzle Acoustic Test Rig (NATR) at NASA's Aero-Acoustic Propulsion Lab (AAPL) to measure convection velocity. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements provided mean velocity and turbulence intensity. Eddy convection velocity results were obtained from the TR-DGV data for three-stream nozzle configurations using a cross-correlation approach. The three-stream cases included an axisymmetric and an asymmetric nozzle configuration. Results of the VT TR-DGV convection velocity were compared to NASA PIV mean and turbulence intensity data. For the axisymmetric case, areas of high convection velocity and turbulence intensity were found to be from 4 to 6 diameters downstream. Comparison of convection velocity between the axisymmetric and offset case show this same region as the greatest reduction in convection velocity due to the offset. These findings suggest this region along the centerline near the end of the potential core is an important area for noise generation with jets and contribute to the noise reductions seen from three stream offset nozzles. An analysis of a one-dimensional wavepacket model was completed to provide understanding of the effect of the various convection velocities seen in the flow. Comparison of a wavepacket with a convection velocity of 0.6Uj to a wavepacket with a convection velocity of 0.8Uj showed that an increase in convection velocity shifts the wavenumber spectrum to higher wavenumbers as expected. It was also observed that for the higher convection velocity wavepacket, higher frequencies are more acoustically efficient, while mid frequencies are the most efficient radiators in the lower convection velocity case. Using mean velocity, turbulence intensity, and convection velocity areas of likely to generate noise are identified and possible fundamental mechanisms responsible for the noise generation are discussed.
Master of Science

Conditional sampling techniques were used to analyze airbourne carbon dioxide and water vapour flux traces recorded during the FIFE experiment. Two analysis methods based on quadrant analysis were used to isolate and examine extreme contributions to estimates of the mean flux. The first method was a graphical analysis based on 'hyperbolic holes'. This method was used to attain the result that 80% of the flux-fraction is carried by 20% of the time-fraction. The second method, based on quadrant analysis, permitted the distinction of physical structures which are thought to represent the signatures of turbulent flux structures such as eddies or thermals. Overall results indicate that mean flux estimates over the FIFE site are dominated by a very few intermittent extreme events.

Over the past century the study of gas exchange rates between the atmosphere and the ocean has received increased attention because of concern about the fate of greenhouse gases such as CO2 released into the atmosphere. Of interest is the oceanic uptake of CO2 in shallow water coastal regions as biological productivity in these regions is on average about three times larger than in the open ocean. It is well-known that in the absence of breaking surface waves, the water side turbulence controls gas transfer of sparingly soluble gases such as CO2 from the air to the water. The dependence of gas transfer on wind-driven shear turbulence and convection turbulence generated by surface cooling has been investigated previously by others. However, the effect of Langmuir turbulence generated by wave-current interaction has not been investigated before. More specifically, Langmuir turbulence is generated by the interaction of the wind-driven shear current with the Stokes drift velocity induced by surface gravity waves. In this dissertation, large-eddy simulations (LES) of wind-driven shallow water flows with Langmuir turbulence have been conducted and scalar transport and surface scalar transfer dynamics analyzed. The scalar represents the concentration of a dissolved gas such as CO2 in the water. In flows with Langmuir turbulence, the largest scales of the turbulence consist of full-depth Langmuir circulation (LC), parallel downwind-elongated, counter-rotating vortices acting as a secondary structure to the mean flow. LES guided by the full-depth LC field measurements of Gargett & Wells (2007) shows that Langmuir turbulence plays a major role in determining scalar transport throughout the entire water column and scalar transfer at the surface. Langmuir turbulence affects scalar transport and its surface transfer through 1. the full-depth homogenizing action of the large scale LC and 2. the near-surface vertical turbulence intensity induced by the Stokes drift velocity shear. Two key parameters controlling the extent of these two mechanisms are the dominant wavelength (λ) of the surface waves generating the turbulence and the turbulent Langmuir number, Lat , which is inversely proportional to wave forcing relative to wind forcing. Furthermore, LES representative of the field measurements of Gargett et al. (2004) shows that Langmuir turbulence increases transfer velocity (a measure of mass transfer efficiency across the air-water interface) dramatically with respect to shear-dominated turbulence. Finally, direct resolution of the surface mass transfer boundary layer allows for the LES to serve as a testing ground for bulk parameterizations of transfer velocity. Several wellestablished parameterizations are tested and a new parameterization based on Stokes drift velocity shear is proposed leading to encouraging results.

The present thesis deals with a number of challenges in the field of large eddy simulation (LES). These include the performance of subgrid-scale (SGS) models at fairly high Reynolds numbers and coarse resolutions, passive scalar and stochastic modeling in LES. The fully-developed turbulent channel flow is used as the test case for these investigations. The advantage of this particular test case is that highly accurate pseudo-spectral methods can be used for the discretization of the governing equations. In the absence of discretization errors, a better understanding of the subgrid-scale model performance can be achieved. Moreover, the turbulent channel flow is a challenging test case for LES, since it shares some of the common important features of all wall-bounded turbulent flows. Most commonly used eddy-viscosity-type models are suitable for moderately to highly-resolved LES cases, where the unresolved scales are approximately isotropic. However, this makes simulations of high Reynolds number wall-bounded flows computationally expensive. In contrast, explicit algebraic (EA) model takes into account the anisotropy of SGS motions and performs well in predicting the flow statistics in coarse-grid LES cases. Therefore, LES of high Reynolds number wall-bounded flows can be performed at much lower number of grid points in comparison with other models. A demonstration of the resolution requirements for the EA model in comparison with the dynamic Smagorinsky and its high-pass filtered version for a fairly high Reynolds number is given in this thesis. One of the shortcomings of the commonly used eddy diffusivity model arises from its assumption of alignment of the SGS scalar flux vector with the resolved scalar gradients. However, better SGS scalar flux models that overcome this issue are very few. Using the same methodology that led to the EA SGS stress model, a new explicit algebraic SGS scalar flux model is developed, which allows the SGS scalar fluxes to be partially independent of the resolved scalar gradient. The model predictions are verified and found to improve the scalar statistics in comparison with the eddy diffusivity model. The intermittent nature of energy transfer between the large and small scales of turbulence is often not fully taken into account in the formulation of SGS models both for velocity and scalar. Using the Langevin stochastic differential equation, the EA models are extended to incorporate random variations in their predictions which lead to a reasonable amount of backscatter of energy from the SGS to the resolved scales. The stochastic EA models improve the predictions of the SGS dissipation by decreasing its length scale and improving the shape of its probability density function.
QC 20110615

The aim of the thesis is to develop and validate subgrid-scale models that are relevant for large eddy simulations of complex flows including scalar mixing. A stochastic Smagorinsky model with adjustable variance and time scale is developed by adding a stochastic component to the Smagorinsky constant. The stochastic model is shown to provide for backscatter of both kinetic energy and scalar variance without causing numerical instabilities. In addition, new models for the subgrid-scale stress and passive scalar flux are derived from modelled subgrid scale transport equations. These models properly account for the anisotropy of the subgrid scales and have potentials wall bounded flows. The proposed models are validated in wall bounded flows with and without rotation and show potential or significantly improve predictions for such cases.

QC 20100826

Dans les chambres de combustion des moteurs fusées cryotechniques, la pression excède la pression critique des réactifs. Les interactions moléculaires ne sont plus négligeables et le comportement du fluide n’est plus celui d’un gaz parfait. Le but de cette thèse est de développer un outil de Simulation des Grandes Echelles (SGE) pour étudier la combustion et la dynamique dans des géométries réalistes de moteur fusées. L’utilisation de l’équation d’état de Peng-Robinson, associée à une formulation thermodynamique généralisée, et des coefficients de transports appropriés permettent au code de SGE AVBP du CERFACS de simuler des systèmes réactifs à pression supercritique. Les changements thermodynamiques au sein d’AVBP nécessitent également l’adaptation des conditions limites et des schémas numériques. L’outil est validé sur une configuration mono-espèce à pression supercritique, puis sur un cas représentatif d’un injecteur coaxial de moteur-fusée. Les résultats obtenus sont en bon accord avec l’expérience et offrent des perspectives encourageantes pour des études futures, telles que des configurations multi-injecteurs ou l’analyse des instabilités de combustion haute fréquence
In cryogenic engines combustion chambers, pressure exceeds the propellants critical pressure. Molecular interactions are generally no longer negligible and fluid behavior deviates from that of a perfect gas. The objective of this thesis is to develop a Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) tool to study combustion and dynamics in realistic geometries of rocket engines. The use of the Peng-Robinson equation of state, in conjunction with a generalized treatment of thermodynamics and appropriate transport coefficients, allows the CERFACS’ LES code AVBP to handle reactive systems at supercritical pressure. Change of the thermodynamics in AVBP necessarily leads to an adaptation of boundary conditions treatment and numerical schemes. The tool is validated on a mono-species configuration at supercritical pressure, and a reactive single coaxial injector, representative of a rocket injector. Results are in good agreement with experiments and provide encouraging perspectives for future studies, such as multi-injector configurations and high-frequency combustion instabilities

Cette thèse traite des modèles thermiques algébriques explicites EAHFM pour la prévision des flux de chaleur turbulents. Moyennant une condition d’équilibre local de la turbulence, l’équation de transport de ces derniers se simplifie en une relation algébrique, s'affranchissant de l'hypothèse de nombre de Prandtl turbulent constant. Le flux de chaleur résultant est alors désaligné du gradient de température moyenne, palliant ainsi les défauts des modèles à diffusivité turbulente. L'expression du flux de chaleur turbulent dépendant des quatre échelles de la turbulence dynamique et thermique (k, ε, k[indice ϑ] et ε[indice ϑ]), la résolution de leur équation de transport est requise. Toutefois, en supposant constant le rapport r des temps caractéristiques de la turbulence, on s’exempte de la résolution des deux équations de transport thermiques. Des contraintes sur les constantes du modèle ont été développées de manière à satisfaire certains comportements physiques de base : écoulements homogènes et couche limite soumise ou non à un gradient de pression adverse. Un jeu de constantes a pu être obtenu dans chacune des deux approches (hypothèse sur r constant ou non). Un modèle de paroi a été développé de sorte que les composantes du flux de chaleur s’amortissent correctement au voisinage d’une paroi. Le modèle ainsi obtenu a été dans un premier temps appliqué aux écoulements de similitude, puis sa version simplifiée en association avec le modèle à deux équations k-kL en formulation EARSM a été implantée dans le code Navier-Stokes elsA de l'ONERA pour être validée sur les écoulements de plaque plane chauffée, de jet débouchant et de jet impactant une paroi chauffée.

Cette étude expérimentale porte sur la mesure et l'analyse du comportement d'un rideau d'air plan, vertical descendant, lorsqu'il se développe dans un flux uniforme en co-courant. Le rapport r entre la vitesse du cocourant et la vitesse du jet évolue dans la gamme [0; 0, 3] qui comprend le cas du jet plan classique sans co-courant (r = 0). La motivation de l'étude est, pour le laboratoire d'accueil de la thèse (Irstea de Rennes, équipe Aéraulique et Contrôle des Atmosphères Turbulentes), l'apport de connaissances précises sur les rideaux d'air séparateurs d'ambiance, en propreté et en température, pour la maîtrise des ambiances locales dans l'industrie agroalimentaire et plus largement dans le domaine de la sécurité sanitaire des aliments. Cette étude porte principalement sur le cas isotherme, sans différence de température entre le jet et le co-courant, les cas anisothermes étant seulement abordés en investigation réduite dans le dernier chapitre (chap. IV). L'analyse de la turbulence est au centre de cette étude. Elle est menée à partir des différentes grandeurs caractéristiques, dont les profils de tensions de Reynolds et les échelles turbulentes caractéristiques. Elle sous-tend également l'analyse des évolutions des grandeurs moyennes, en particulier l'expansion du profil de vitesse moyenne. Le principal moyen d'investigation expérimentale est l'anémométrie par fils chauds croisés à température constante (CTA). La Vélocimétrie par Images de Particules (PIV) est utilisée dans le chapitre IV comme moyen insensible à la température, pour les études de cas anisothermes. Le rideau plan en co-courant a été mis en oeuvre dans une soufflerie verticale spécifique dont la veine d'essai a une hauteur utile de deux mètres (chap. II). L'étude s'appuie sur une analyse bibliographique (chap. I) centrée sur les équations de la turbulence appliquées aux jets plans. L'analyse du comportement dans le cas isotherme (chap. III) s'intéresse principalement à l'influence du rapport de vitesse r et du nombre de Reynolds. Un raisonnement mené sur le choix des variables d'adimensionnement pour décrire le comportement du jet amène à proposer un adimensionnement global, à la fois pour l'évolution de la vitesse moyenne sur l'axe, pour l'expansion de l'épaisseur du jet et pour l'évolution des fluctuations rms de vitesse. On obtient ainsi un modèle de comportement généralisable aux différentes valeurs de r pour les jets en co-courant, avec au passage une méthode intéressante pour évaluer par ce biais des caractéristiques du cas limite du jet plan sans co-courant. Les données complètes et précises obtenues par fils croisés permettent, en fin de chapitre III, de mener une description et analyse des échelles caractéristiques de la turbulence. Il apparaît que les échelles intégrales sont cohérentes avec le modèle proposé pour l'expansion du jet et que les échelles de Kolmogorov s'en déduisent ensuite par un recours à un rapport universel, fonction du nombre de Reynolds local.

La poussière minérale atmosphérique résultant de l’érosion éolienne des sols affecte le système terrestre. La distribution en taille (PSD) de cette poussière joue un rôle clé dans le bilan radiatif et la chimie atmosphérique, la formation des nuages et la productivité des écosystèmes terrestres et marins. Néanmoins les modèles climatiques peinent à reproduire précisément la PSD de la poussière émise. Ceci vient de la représentation imparfaite des mécanismes d’émission de poussières et des vitesses de vent de surface associées. C’est particulièrement vrai en présence d’éléments de rugosité de surface comme la végétation en régions semi-arides. Cette thèse vise à améliorer la compréhension de l’émission de poussière en environnements semi-arides, caractérisé par des surfaces hétérogènes liées à la végétation saisonnière éparse. A cette fin, une combinaison d’expériences numériques et de terrain a été employée, en partant d’un sol nu érodable à des surfaces couvertes de végétation éparse.Une revue des schémas existants a montré des ambiguïtés dans la paramétrisation des processus influençant l’émission de poussières. Une analyse de sensibilité utilisant un modèle 1D de dispersion de poussière a démontré l’importance (i) de la PSD de la poussière à la surface et de la paramétrisation de la cohésion interparticules qui affectent la PSD de la poussière émise, et (ii) des processus de dépôt qui influencent la PSD du flux net de poussière dans la couche de surface atmosphérique. A partir de cette analyse, un nouveau schéma d’émission a été incorporé à un modèle 3D d’érosion, couplé à un modèle turbulent Large Eddy Simulation (LES), et évalué d’abord sur une surface nue sur la base de l’expérimentation WIND-O-V 2017 en Tunisie. Le modèle a ainsi été capable de reproduire la dissimilarité entre les transports turbulents de poussière et de quantité de mouvement dans la couche de surface, observée durant l’expérience. Cela signifie que poussière et quantité de mouvement ne sont pas toujours transportées par les mêmes tourbillons. Le modèle a démontré que la cause principale de cette dissimilarité est l’intermittence de l’émission de poussières, qui varie avec l’intensité du vent et le fetch.L’impact de la végétation éparse sur le flux net de poussière émis a ensuite été étudié sur la base de l’expérimentation WIND-O-V 2018, conduite sur le même site que celle de 2017. Les mesures ont été utilisées pour évaluer le modèle 3D d’érosion incluant les caractéristiques de la végétation. La comparaison entre les expérimentations 2017 et 2018 a confirmé que la végétation éparse réduit l’émission en augmentant la vitesse de frottement seuil de l’érosion, qui dépend des caractéristiques de la végétation et de la direction du vent. Au cours de l’expérimentation 2018, nous avons observé que la PSD du flux net de poussière émis variait, contrairement à 2017, avec un appauvrissement progressif en grosses particules (1.50 µm). Il s’est avéré que cet appauvrissement n’était pas lié à la présence de végétation, mais à l'épuisement du sol en grosses particules en raison de périodes d’émission plus longues sans modification de la surface, comparé à 2017. Cette absence d’influence de la végétation a été validée par la similarité entre la PSD du flux de poussière au début de l’expérimentation 2018, quand la végétation était à sa hauteur maximum, et celle de 2017 sans végétation. Et elle a été confirmée par nos simulations qui montrent (i) une re-déposition négligeable des grosses particules sur la végétation durant les émissions, et (ii) un effet négligeable de la turbulence induite par la végétation sur la PSD du flux net de poussière émis.Notre modèle 3D d’érosion apparaît comme un outil prometteur pour caractériser les émissions de poussière sur des surfaces hétérogènes représentatives des régions semi-arides et pour établir des schémas d’émission de poussières pour les modèles climatiques en fonction des propriétés de rugosité de la surface
Atmospheric mineral dust resulting from aeolian soil erosion affects the Earth system. Their size-distribution (PSD) plays a key role on atmospheric radiation balance, cloud formation, atmospheric chemistry, and the productivity of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. However, climate models still fail to reproduce accurately the suspended dust PSD. This is explained by the poor representation of the dust emission mechanisms and the associated surface wind speed in these large-scale models. This is particularly true in the presence of surface roughnesses such as vegetation in semiarid regions. This thesis aims at improving the understanding of dust emission in semi-arid environments, characterized by heterogeneous surfaces with sparse seasonal vegetation. To this end, a combination of numerical and field experiments was employed, with investigations progressing from a bare erodible soil to surfaces with sparse vegetation.A review of the existing dust emission schemes showed ambiguities in the parametrization of the processes influencing the emitted dust. A sensitivity analysis, using a 1D dust dispersal model, demonstrated (i) the importance of surface dust PSD and inter-particle cohesive bond parametrization on the emitted dust PSD, and (ii) the importance of the deposition process on the net dust flux PSD. Based on this analysis, a new emission scheme was incorporated into a 3D erosion model, coupled with a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) airflow model, and evaluated first on a bare surface against the WIND-O-V’s 2017 field experiment in Tunisia. The model was able to reproduce the near-surface turbulent transport dissimilarity between dust and momentum observed during the experiment. This means that momentum and dust are not always transported by the same turbulent eddies. The model demonstrated that the main cause of this dissimilarity is the dust emission intermittency, which varies as a function of wind intensity and fetch.The role of sparse vegetation on the net emitted dust flux was then explored using the WIND-O-V’s 2018 experiment, conducted at the same site as the 2017 experiment. The resulting field measurements were used to evaluate the 3D erosion model, including vegetation characteristics. A comparison between the 2017 and 2018 experiments confirmed that sparse vegetation reduces dust emission by increasing the erosion threshold friction velocity, which depends on vegetation characteristics and wind direction relative to the vegetation arrangement. During the 2018 experiment, the net emitted dust flux PSD varied continuously, unlike the 2017 experiment, with a progressive impoverishment in coarse particles (1.50 μm). This impoverishment was found independent of the vegetation, and resulted from the depletion of coarse particles at the surface due to longer emission periods in 2018 without surface tillage or precipitation. This non-influence of vegetation on the dust flux PSD was validated by the similarity of the dust flux PSD at the beginning of the 2018 experiment, when the vegetation was at its maximum height, with the one of the 2017 experiment without vegetation. It was further confirmed by the simulations that demonstrated (i) negligible re-deposition of coarse particles on to vegetation during emission events, and (ii) negligible effect of the turbulence induced by the vegetation on the PSD of the net emitted dust flux.Our 3D erosion model appears as a promising tool for characterizing dust emissions over heterogeneous surfaces typical of semi-arid regions and for deriving dust emission schemes for climate models as a function of surface roughness properties

Dans le but de réduire le bruit de jet, source principale de nuisance sonore au décollage d'un avion, une compréhension fine des mécanismes aéroacoustiques mis en jeu est nécessaire. Les structures cohérentes de grande échelle se développant dans la couche de mélange d'un jet semblent responsables d'une part importante du bruit observé en champ lointain, surtout dans les basses fréquences. Une approche permettant d'étudier ces structures turbulentes est fournie par la théorie de stabilité, notamment au moyen des équations de stabilité parabolisées (PSE). L'étude de ces ondes d'instabilité est alors complémentaire d'autres approches (LES ou expériences), puisqu'elle permet de mettre en évidence la nature et la dynamique de ces structures, également présentes dans les résultats de simulations ou de mesures. Au cours de ces travaux de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés aux structures cohérentes se développant dans des jets à double flux étudiés au cours du projet européen CoJeN (Coaxial Jet Noise). En particulier, nous avons exploité une base de données issues de mesures de fluctuations de pression réalisées en champ proche et en champ lointain de ces jets. Nous avons alors pu comparer les résultats de notre modélisation PSE à ces mesures en périphérie immédiate du jet, confirmant ainsi la pertinence d’un tel modèle, même dans des configurations aussi complexes. De plus, le calcul du rayonnement acoustique en champ lointain engendré par les fluctuations de pression modélisées nous a permis de faire des comparaisons directes avec les niveaux et les directivités mesurés. Nous avons ainsi pu mettre en évidence quantitativement la contribution de ces structures turbulentes de grande échelle au bruit total rayonné par le jet.

Lors d’un lancement spatial, le bruit des jets supersoniques chauds, générés par les moteurs-fusées au décollage et en interaction avec le pas de tir, est dommageable pour le lanceur et en particulier sa charge utile. Par conséquent, les acteurs du spatial cherchent à renforcer leur compréhension et leur maîtrise de cette ambiance acoustique, entre autres grâce à des méthodes et outils numériques. Toutefois, ils ne disposent pas d’une approche numérique globale capable de prendre en compte simultanément la génération fidèle du bruit, la propagation acoustique non-linéaire, les effets d’installation complexes et les géométries réalistes, pourtant inhérents aux applications spatiales. Dans cette optique, cette étude consiste à mettre en place et valider une méthodologie de simulation numérique par couplage fort Navier-Stokes − Euler, puis à l’appliquer à des cas réalistes de bruit de jet supersonique. L’objectif est d’affiner les capacités de prévision et de contribuer à la compréhension des mécanismes de génération de bruit dans de tels jets. Le solveur Navier-Stokes repose sur une méthode LES sur maillage non-structuré et le solveur acoustique sur une méthode de Galerkine discontinue d’ordre élevé sur maillage non-structuré. La méthodologie est tout d’abord évaluée sur des cas académiques visant à valider la simulation par couplage fort. Après des calculs préliminaires, la méthodologie est appliquée à la simulation du bruit d’un jet libre supersonique à Mach 3.1. Une méthode de déclenchement géométrique de la turbulence est implémentée sous la forme d’une marche à la paroi de la tuyère. La simulation aboutit à des estimations du bruit très proches des mesures réalisées au banc MARTEL et met en évidence des effets non-linéaires significatifs ainsi qu’un mécanisme singulier de rayonnement des ondes de Mach. Dans une démarche de progression vers des cas toujours plus réalistes, l’ensemble de l’approche numérique est finalement adaptée avec succès à la simulation du bruit d’un jet en présence d’un carneau. À terme, elle pourra être étendue à des configurations multi-jets réactifs, avec injection d’eau, voire à l’échelle 1
During a space launch, the noise from hot supersonic jets, generated by rocket engines at liftoff and interacting with the launch pad, is harmful to the launcher and in particular its payload. Consequently, space actors are seeking to strengthen their understanding and control of this acoustic environment through numerical methods and tools, among the others. However, they do not dispose of a comprehensive numerical strategy that can simultaneously take into account accurate noise generation, nonlinear acoustic propagation, complex installation effects and realistic geometries, which are inherent to space applications. For this purpose, the present study consists in setting up and validating a numerical simulation methodology using a Navier-Stokes − Euler two-way coupling approach, then applying it to realistic cases of supersonic jet noise in order to improve prediction capabilities and contribute to the understanding of the noise generation mechanisms in such jets. The Navier-Stokes solver is based on an LES method on unstructured mesh and the acoustic solver on a high-order discontinuous Galerkin method on unstructured mesh. The methodology is first assessed on academic cases to validate the use of the two-way coupling. After preliminary computations, the methodology is applied to the simulation of the noise from a supersonic free jet at Mach 3.1. A geometric turbulence tripping method is implemented via a step at the nozzle wall. The computation leads to noise predictions very close to the experimental measurements performed at the MARTEL test bench and highlights significant nonlinear effects as well as a quite particular Mach waves radiation mechanism. Targeting even more realistic cases, the entire numerical approach is finally successfully adapted to the simulation of the noise from a supersonic jet configuration including a flame trench. In the future, it may be extended to configurations with clustered reactive jets, water injection devices or even at full scale

Les observations de la circulation océanique montrent que la circulation générale coexiste avec des structures de méso-échelle transitoires se présentant sous la forme d’ondes et de tourbillons cohérents. On cherche dans cette thèse à caractériser différents aspects des mécanismes d’interactions qui couplent ces mouvements. Deux tâches sont successivement menées : la première consiste en une revue critique des différents formalismes théoriques proposés pour répondre à cet objectif ; la seconde en l’analyse d’une simulation réaliste turbulente issue du projet DRAKKAR dans un cadre original, celui du formalisme isopycnal résiduel détaillé par McDougall et Mclntosh (2001). A la différence du traditionnel formalisme eulérien, ce formalisme met explicitement en évidence les fortes contraintes qu’imposent la stratification et la quasi-adiabaticité de l’océan intérieur sur la circulation moyenne et sur les mécanismes d’interactions. L’analyse illustre ces contraintes. Elle montre d’abord que la vitesse résiduelle moyenne est quasiment alignée sur les surfaces isopycnales et que sa composante diapycnale est très faible. Elle montre ensuite que les flux turbulents résiduels de chaleur et de sel sont quasiment alignés sur les surfaces isopycnales et que leur intensité est significative dans les zones frontales. Les diffusivités turbulentes finalement estimés sont partiellement en accord avec les valeurs communément acceptées dans la littérature
Observations of the ocean circulation reveal that the large-scale general circulation coexists with transient waves and coherent vortices. This thesis aims at characterizing some aspects of the interaction mechanisms, which link these kinds of motion. This objective encompasses two tasks: the first task is a critical review of the theoretical frameworks previously published in the literature; the second task consists of the analysis of a numerical simulation provided by the DRAKKAR team. The diagnostic s performed within the Temporal Residual Mean framework, as detailed by McDougall and Mclntosh (2001). Indeed, this framework provides a valuable perspective, as the constraint of the stratification and the quasi-adiabaticity of the ocean interior on the mean circulation and the interaction mechanisms is made explicit. The analysis illustrates these constraints by showing two things. First, the residual mean velocity is nearly aligned with the isopycnal surfaces and its diapycnal component is very weak. Second, the residual eddy fluxes of heat and salt are nearly aligned with the isopycnal surfaces and their intensity are significant in frontal areas only. Eddy diffusivities evaluated from the residual eddy fluxes are in partial accordance with values commonly found in the literature

Cette thèse porte sur la simulation des jets de gouttes générés par des pulvérisateurs essence haute pression, pulvérisateurs qui sont un point clef des systèmes de combustion automobile de la présente et future génération devant diminuer les émissions de CO2 et de polluants. Dans un premier temps les jets de gouttes (" sprays ") sont simulés par simulation moyennée. Les résultats de simulation d'un jet donnant des résultats en moyenne satisfaisant, l'interaction de jets en injecteurs multi-trous est alors simulée. Les résultats sont cohérents par rapport aux mesures d'entraînement d'air. La simulation permettant d'avoir accès au champ complet 3D, le mécanisme d'interaction jet à jet et de développement instationnaire du spray est décrit en détail. La formation d'un mouvement descendant au centre du spray et celle d'un point d'arrêt central sont trouvés. Finalement, Ces résultats sont étendus au cas surchauffé, cas où la pression dans la chambre est inférieure à la pression de vapeur saturante. Un modèle simple semi-empirique est proposé pour tenir compte de la modification des conditions proches de la buse d'injection. Le modèle prédit correctement les tendances des variations de paramètres et capture la forme générale du spray qui se referme sur lui-même. La seconde grande partie est consacrée au développement d'un modèle de spray par l'approche des grandes échelles (SGE), limité ici aux cas non évaporant. Il comprend la modélisation de sous-maille de la dispersion turbulente, des collisions-coalescence et des termes d'échange de quantité de mouvement de sous-maille. L'effet du choix du modèle de sous-maille pour la viscosité turbulente de sous-maille est montré, le choix retenu étant le modèle de Smagorinski dynamique. Afin d'améliorer la représentativité cruciale des conditions d'injections, un couplage faible est réalisé à partir de résultats de simulations existantes de l'écoulement interne aux buses. Les fonctions densité de probabilité simple et jointes extraits des résultats de simulations sont validés par rapport aux mesures PDA en situation pseudo-stationnaire et la pénétration liquide et la forme du spray est comparée aux visualisations par ombroscopie. Enfin, différentes zones caractéristiques sont identifiées et des longueurs sont notées pour les cas d'injection à 100 et 200bar.

Evaluating aerodynamic noise from aircraft engines is a design stage process, so that it conform to regulations at airports. Aerodynamic noise is also a principal source of structural vibration and internal noise in short/vertical take off and landing and rocket launches. Acoustic loads may be critical for the proper functioning of electronic and mechanical components. It is imperative to have tools with capability to predict noise generation from turbulent flows. Understanding the mechanism of noise generation is essential in identifying methods for noise reduction. Lighthill (1952) and Lighthill (1954) provided the first explanation for the mechanism of aerodynamic noise generation and a procedure to estimate the radiated sound field. Many such procedures, known as acoustic analogies are used for estimating the radiated sound field in terms of the turbulent fluid flow properties. In these methods, the governing equations of the fluid flow are rearranged into two parts, the acoustic sources and the propagation terms. The noise source terms and propagation terms are different in different approaches. A good description of the turbulent flow field and the noise sources is required to understand the mechanism of noise generation. Computational aeroacoustics (CAA) tools are used to calculate the radiated far field noise. The inputs to the CAA tools are results from CFD simulations which provide details of the turbulent flow field and noise sources. Reynolds-Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) solutions can be used as inputs to CAA tools which require only time-averaged mean quantities. The output of such tools will also be mean quantities. While complete unsteady turbulent flow details can be obtained from Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS), the computation is limited to low or moderate Reynolds number flows. Large eddy simulations (LES) provide accurate description for the dynamics of a range of large scales. Most of the kinetic energy in a turbulent flow is accounted by the large-scale structures. It is also the large-scale structures which accounts for the maximum contribution towards the radiated sound field. The results from LES can be used as an input to a suitable CAA tool to calculate the sound field. Numerical prediction of turbulent flow field, the acoustic sources and the radiated sound field is at the focus of this study. LES based on explicit filtering method is used for the simulations. The method uses a low-pass compact filter to account for the sub-grid scale effects. A one-parameter fourth-order compact filter scheme from Lele (1992) is used for this purpose. LES has been carried out for four different flow situations: (i) round jet (ii) plane jet (iii) impinging round jet and (iv) impinging plane jet. LES has been used to calculate the unsteady flow evolution of these cases and the Lighthill’s acoustic sources. A compact difference scheme proposed by Hixon & Turkel (1998) which involves only bi-diagonal matrices are used for evaluating spatial derivatives. The scheme provides similar spectral resolution as standard tridiagonal compact schemes for the first spatial derivatives. The scheme is computationally less intensive as it involves only bi-diagonal matrices. Also, the scheme employs only a two-point stencil. To calculate the radiated sound field, the Helmholtz equation is solved using the Green’s function approach, in the form of the Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral. The integral is performed over a surface which is present entirely in the linear region and covers the volume where acoustic sources are present. The time series data of pressure and the normal component of the pressure gradient on the surface are obtained from the CFD results. The Fourier transforms of the time series of pressure and pressure gradient are then calculated and are used as input for the Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral. The flow evolution for free jets is characterised by the growth of the instability waves in the shear layer which then rolls up into large vortices. These large vortical structures then break down into smaller ones in a cascade which are convected downstream with the flow. The rms values of the Lighthill’s acoustic sources showed that the sources are located mainly at regions immediately downstream of jet break down. This corresponds to the large scale structures at break down. The radiated sound field from free jets contains two components of noise from the large scales and from the small scales. The large structures are the dominant source for the radiated sound field. The contribution from the large structures is directional, mainly at small angles to the downstream direction. To account for the difference in jet core length, the far field SPL are calculated at points suitably shifted based on the jet core length. The peak value for the radiated sound field occurs between 30°and 35°as reported in literature. Convection of acoustic sources causes the radiated sound field to be altered due to Doppler effect. Lighthills sources along the shear layer were examined in the form of (x, t) plots and phase velocity pattern in (ω, k) plots to analyse for their convective speeds. These revealed that there is no unique convective speeds for the acoustic sources. The median convective velocity Uc of the acoustic sources in the shear layer is proportional to the jet velocity Uj at the center of the nozzle as Uc ≈ 0.6Uj. Simulations of the round jet at Mach number 0.9 were used for validating the LES approach. Five different cases of the round jet were used to understand the effect of Reynolds number and inflow perturbation on the flow, acoustic sources and the radiated sound field. Simulations were carried out for an Euler and LES at Reynolds number 3600 and 88000 at two different inflow perturbations. The LES results for the mean flow field, turbulence profiles and SPL directivity were compared with DNS of Freund (2001) and experimental data available in literature. The LES results showed that an increase in inflow forcing and higher Reynolds number caused the jet core length to reduce. The turbulent energy spectra showed that the energy content in smaller scale is higher for higher Reynolds number. LES of plane jets were carried out for two different cases, one with a co-flow and one without co-flow. LES of plane jets were carried out to understand the effect of co-flow on the sound field. The plane jets were of Mach number 0.5 and Reynolds number of 3000 based on center-line velocity excess at the nozzle. This is similar to the DNS by Stanley et al. (2002). It was identified that the co-flow leads to a reduction in turbulence levels. This was also corroborated by the turbulent energy spectrum plots. The far field radiation for the case without co-flow is higher over all angles. The contribution from the low frequencies is directional, mainly towards the downstream direction. The range of dominant convective velocities of the acoustic sources were different along shear layers and center-line. The plane jet results were also used to bring out a qualitative comparison of flow and the radiation characteristics with round jets. For the round jet, the center-line velocity decays linearly with the stream-wise distance. In the plane jet case, it is the square of the center-line velocity excess which decays linearly with the stream-wise distance. The turbulence levels at any section scales with the center-line stream-wise velocity. The decay of turbulence level is slower for the plane jet and hence the acoustic sources are present for longer distance along the downstream direction. Subsonic impinging jets are composed of four regions, the jet core, the fully developed jet, the impingement zone and the wall jet. The presence of the second region (fully developed free jet) depends on the distance of the wall from the nozzle and the length of the jet core. In impinging jets, reflection from the wall and the wall jet are additional sources of noise compared to the free jets. The results are analysed for the contribution of the different regions of the flow towards the radiated sound field. LES simulations of impinging round jets and impinging plane jet were carried out for this purpose. In addition, the results have been compared with equivalent free jets. The directivity plots showed that the SPL levels are significantly higher for the impinging jets at all angles. For free jets, a typical time scale for the acoustic sources is the ratio of the nozzle size to the jet velocity. This is ro/Uj for round jets and h/Uj for plane jets. For impinging jets, the non-dimensionlised rms of Lighthill’s source indicates that the time scale for acoustic sources is the ratio of the height of the nozzle from the wall to the jet velocity be L/Uj. LES of impinging round jets was carried out for two cases with different inflow perturbations. The jets were at Reynolds number of 88000 and Mach number of 0.9, same as the free jet cases. The impingement wall was at a distance L = 24ro from the nozzle exit. For impinging round jets, the SPL levels are found to be higher than the equivalent free jets. From the SPL levels and radiated noise spectra it was shown that the contribution from the large scale structures and its reflection from the wall is directional and at small angles to the wall normal. The difference in the range of angles where the radiation from the large scale structures were observed shows the significance of refraction of sound waves inside the flow. The rms values of the Lighthill’s sources indicate two dominant regions for the sources, just downstream of jet breakdown and in the impingement zone. The LES of impinging plane jet was done for a jet of Mach number 0.5 and Reynolds number of 6000. The impingement wall was at a distance L = 10h from the nozzle exit. The radiated sound field appears to emanate from this impingement zone. The directivity and the spectrum plots of the far field SPL indicate that there is no preferred direction of radiation from the impingement zone. The Lighthill’s sources are concentrated mainly in the impingement zone. The rms values of the sources indicate that the peak values occur in the impingement zone. The results from the different flow situations demonstrates the capability of LES with explicit filtering method in predicting the turbulent flow and radiated noise field. The method is robust and has been successfully used for moderate Reynolds number and an Euler simulation. An important feature is that LES can be used to identify acoustic sources and its convective speeds. It has been shown that the Lighthill source calculations, the calculated sound field and the observed radiation patterns agree well. An explanation for these based on the different turbulent flow structures has also been provided.

abstract: Autonomic closure is a recently-proposed subgrid closure methodology for large eddy simulation (LES) that replaces the prescribed subgrid models used in traditional LES closure with highly generalized representations of subgrid terms and solution of a local system identification problem that allows the simulation itself to determine the local relation between each subgrid term and the resolved variables at every point and time. The present study demonstrates, for the first time, practical LES based on fully dynamic implementation of autonomic closure for the subgrid stress and the subgrid scalar flux. It leverages the inherent computational efficiency of tensorally-correct generalized representations in terms of parametric quantities, and uses the fundamental representation theory of Smith (1971) to develop complete and minimal tensorally-correct representations for the subgrid stress and scalar flux. It then assesses the accuracy of these representations via a priori tests, and compares with the corresponding accuracy from nonparametric representations and from traditional prescribed subgrid models. It then assesses the computational stability of autonomic closure with these tensorally-correct parametric representations, via forward simulations with a high-order pseudo-spectral code, including the extent to which any added stabilization is needed to ensure computational stability, and compares with the added stabilization needed in traditional closure with prescribed subgrid models. Further, it conducts a posteriori tests based on forward simulations of turbulent conserved scalar mixing with the same pseudo-spectral code, in which velocity and scalar statistics from autonomic closure with these representations are compared with corresponding statistics from traditional closure using prescribed models, and with corresponding statistics of filtered fields from direct numerical simulation (DNS). These comparisons show substantially greater accuracy from autonomic closure than from traditional closure. This study demonstrates that fully dynamic autonomic closure is a practical approach for LES that requires accuracy even at the smallest resolved scales.
Dissertation/Thesis
Doctoral Dissertation Aerospace Engineering 2020

The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations have proven formidable for nearly a century. The present difficulties are mathematical and computational in nature; the computational requirements, in particular, are exponentially exacerbated in the presence of high Reynolds number. The issues are further compounded with the introduction of markers or an immiscible fluid intended to be tracked in an ambient high Reynolds number flow; despite the overwhelming pragmatism of problems in this regime, and increasing computational efficacy, even modest problems remain outside the realm of direct approaches. Herein three approaches are presented which embody direct application to problems of this nature. An LES model based on an entropy-viscosity serves to abet the computational resolution requirements imposed by high Reynolds numbers and a one-stage compressive flux, also utilizing an entropy-viscosity, aids in accurate, efficient, conservative transport, free of low order dispersive error, of an immiscible fluid or tracer. Finally, an integral commutator and the theory of anti-dispersive spaces is introduced as a novel theoretical tool for consistency error analysis; in addition the material engenders the construction of error-correction techniques for mass lumping schemes.