Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Edible Wild plants'

Throughout history, harvesting of fruit from the wild has played a role in the livelihoods of people in South Africa. For the San, who lived in South Africa for thousands of years, wild fruits were a staple food during parts of the year (Fox & Norwood Young 1983). Among the Bantu people, who entered South Africa about two thousand years ago (Hammond-Tooke 1993), agriculture was the main way in which food was acquired, but they also collected food from the wild. Especially during times of hardship, when cattle herds were decimated or crops were destroyed, they relied on hunting and gathering of fruits and edible plants from the wild for survival (Shapera & Goodwin 1959; Stuart & Malcolm 1986; Bundy 1988). European people settling in South Africa learnt to use and appreciate wild fruits (van Dyk 1988). In the rural areas of the Southern African region, the utilization of wild fruits as a source of food has persisted, especially among black people (Walker 1989; Shackleton 1996; Rossiter, Pellegrin et al. 1997). There is increasing interest in the domestication and improvement of selected fruits, and their utilization as orchard crops, marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) being the prime example (Nerd et al.1990; Holtzhausen, Swart & van Rensburg 1990; Nerd & Mizrahi 1993; Geldenhuys 2001; Taylor 2001; Barton 2001). Research into the wild fruits of South Africa has been mainly botanical or anthropological.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 1999.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 103 p. : ill. (some col.), maps. Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 81-83).

Human subsistence within the Cape Floristic Region (Cape) dates back to our inception as a distinct species. Unique archaeological evidence found here for the defining attribute of cognitive modernity, as well as coinciding paleo-climatic challenges to survival, both highlight the Cape’s potential to support the existence of pre-historic hunter-gatherers. This habitat, with its unprecedented diversity of geophytes and other plant growth forms, has not yet revealed its potential to provide carbohydrate resources for early Homo sapiens sapiens. In order to investigate this potential, an ethnobotanical survey of the south Cape coastal area near Still Bay was conducted. Despite 17th Century colonialism marking the onset of indigenous plant knowledge decline, the 18 people of Khoe-San descent interviewed in this survey still actively used 58 indigenous edible plant species with a variety of 69 uses. Fruit showed the highest popularity of plants used (52 percent) followed by nectar, with plants having underground storage organs (USOs) ranking third (34 percent). Among growth forms, shrubs dominated (34 percent) followed by geophytes and trees (both 21 percent). With the exception of Prionium serratum, which was rare in the research area, this study failed to identify species that could have formed a staple source of carbohydrate for pre-colonial Khoe-San peoples of the Cape south coast. While eight species of USOs were identified (12 percent of total) only Cyphia species emerged as an important carbohydrate source. This study indicated the importance of Thicket Biome species as a source of edible plants. The second component of the study comprised a two year phenological survey of indigenous edible plant species in four primary vegetation types. A total of 32 USO species and 21 species with aboveground edible carbohydrates (fruiting species) were identified across all sites. Limestone Fynbos had the richest flora of edible species (21 USO species and 18 fruiting species), followed by Strandveld (15 USOs and 13 fruiting species), Renosterveld (8 and 8, respectively) and lastly Sand Fynbos (5 and 5, respectively). The season of highest apparency showed slight variation amongst the four sites over the two years, with more variation evident in the period of apparency. The first survey year had below average rainfall, while the second year received an average rainfall amount. The second year saw a dramatic increase in apparency of abundance for all sites (50 to 60 percent increase) except for the Sand Fynbos site, which showed little change. The other sites showed a one month increase in the period of apparency in the second survey year. Overall, late summer to autumn was the period of lowest apparency of USOs. The ripening of certain fruiting species during this time would have provided a source of carbohydrate when USO availability was at its lowest. Strandveld had the highest biomass in the peak of apparency (over 80 kgha-1) in the first year with a nearly 20 percent increase for the second year. The combined biomass for the four study sites in the first survey year was roughly 150 kgha-1 and 185 kgha-1 for the second year. The apparency of abundance (ripe and edible phase) of fruiting species did not increase much for Renosterveld and Strandveld in the second survey year, except for Limestone Fynbos (49 percent increase) and Sand Fynbos (53 percent). A multivariate analysis showed seven phenophases for high apparency of edible USOs and ripe fruit across the four vegetation types. Given the contribution of evergreen USOs and fruiting species, there would always have been carbohydrates available for foragers to collect in the major vegetation types of the south Cape coast. However, harvesting and processing this carbohydrate resource would have posed cognitive challenges for MSA hunter-gatherers, given the interwoven taxonomic complexity of numerous toxic plant species, and the diverse phenology of edible plant species within the varied vegetation types. These challenges were undoubtedly mastered, highlighting the Cape environment as a possible catalyst to improved human cognitive maturity.

OPTIMIZING MICRONUTRIENT INTAKE OF LACTATING WOMEN IN KWAZULU-NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA, THROUGH INCREASED WILD EDIBLE PLANT CONSUMPTION Kerry Pearson Micronutrient consumption in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is insufficient to meet the needs of lactating women. Inadequate intake negatively impacts the health of both the mother and infant. Increasing consumption of wild edible plants has been recommended to combat these deficiencies, but information has not yet been provided on which types of wild plants should be eaten or in what quantity. The objective of this study was to determine the optimal mixture of wild edible plants that needs to be consumed to meet the micronutrient needs of lactating women in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. This was done by creating optimization models using linear programming. Components of these models included identifying gaps between current micronutrient intake and recommended intake levels and the creation of composite nutrient profiles for groups of wild edible plants available in KwaZulu-Natal. One model calculated the optimum amount of wild edible plants that would need to be consumed in addition to the current diet to meet micronutrient recommendations. A second semi-isocaloric model calculated the optimum amount of wild edible plants that would need to be consumed if half the additional calories would replace an equivalent number of calories of the main staple food, maize. A combination of 250g leafy vegetables and 349g fruit, replacing 54g of maize meal, was determined to be the best model. This mixture will meet the micronutrient needs of 50% of lactating women and would add only 192 calories to the diet. The same blend will meet the needs of 75% of women for all nutrients except calcium, zinc, thiamin, and riboflavin. It is hoped that increased use of wild plants will also increase physical activity and make the consumption of high quality animal products more economically feasible. Understanding forces that have brought about current dietary patterns in this population and working in tandem with other nutrition intervention programs will be the best way to successfully implement these goals. More complete information is needed on the nutrient profiles of wild edible plants in South Africa and on how anti-nutrients in these plants effects bioavailability of nutrients and the health of the consumer. Despite these limitations, it is clear that a reasonable increase in wild edible plant consumption can have a tremendous positive impact on micronutrient consumption of lactating women in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

Looking at the use of plants as food reflects how humankind has fashioned nature. There has been a significant change in production patterns from hunter-gathering through subsistence agriculture to technologically advanced commercial agriculture with a subsequent reduction in the diversity of plants used as food. A parallel trend in consumption patterns has occurred, from home-based food processing for subsistence through small- scale production to large-scale industrial processing and the commodification of food. The overall result of such trends is a narrowing of the food resource base and an increasing reliance on processed foods at the expense of traditional diets, accompanied by increasing diet-related health risks. This research is an ethnographic case study on the use of indigenous food plants by the community of Tuku A village in the Eastern Cape using interviews and observations as the main data collecting strategies. A nutritional analysis of some wild food plants was also carried out. An inventory of more than 70 food plant species was compiled, with the knowledge of such plants found among both the elderly and the youth. The incorporation of this knowledge into education systems is recommended. Of the wild food plants documented, some were non-indigenous indicating the dynamic nature of indigenous knowledge. Some wild spinach were left to grow amongst cultivated food plants, hinting at some form of ‘domestication’ in process. This observation together with the observation that wild fruit trees were selectively conserved highlights the possibility of the continued use of wild food contributing to conservation of botanical diversity. Community use of indigenous food was found to be diminishing. Stigmatisation of indigenous food plants, urbanisation, formal education, changes in lifestyle, and media were some of the factors possibly influencing this dietary shift. The community made links between diet and health, which correspond to modern scientific knowledge, with modern diet being lamented for ill health. The nutritional analysis revealed that wild food plants do contain essential dietary nutrients, an area recommended for further research.

La Flora alimurgica rappresenta, per l’Italia, una risorsa strategica alla quale è possibile associare numerosi valori positivi: ecologici, nutrizionali, socio-culturali, agroalimentari. Tuttavia, tale patrimonio “immateriale”, di inestimabile valore per l’Italia, è fortemente a rischio di scomparsa, sia per via degli stili di vita imposti dal progresso e dalla globalizzazione, che per la scarsa presenza di studi organici che quantifichino e documentino l’uso alimentare di queste specie. Le informazioni, infatti, talvolta corpose e ben strutturate, rimandano a territori ristretti che, al massimo, riguardano una scala regionale. Sebbene, siano stati pubblicati in Italia diversi studi sulle WEP, non si ha una visione completa della loro conoscenza. Pertanto, la presente Tesi, è stata incentrata su due filoni di ricerca. Il Primo ha riguardato la progettazione di un Databasedella flora alimurgica italiana, con lo scopo di sistematizzare il bagaglio della vasta conoscenza delle WEP acquisita in Italia negli ultimi 100 anni, creando uno strumento di facile lettura non solo per finalità puramente speculative ma anche pratiche (ad esempio valutare i composti bioattivi). La progettazione e la popolazione della banca dati sono state eseguite mediante la scoperta e l'analisi delle risorse bibliografiche di 358 opere (libri e articoli scientifici) dal 1918 ad oggi. Dall’analisi dei testi, sono state considerate solo le specie alimurgiche, escludendo quelle aliene occasionali e coltivate. Le analisi relative al numero di entità hanno valutato la parte di pianta utilizzata, la modalità di utilizzo,la distribuzione regionale in Italia, il corotipo, determinando che la maggior parte delle specie è a carattere Mediterraneo in quanto l’uso delle specie alimurgiche risulta essere sbilanciato a favore delle regioni meridionali del nostro Paese, a testimonianza di un uso ancora ben presente.Dall’analisi delle forme biologiche, si è riscontrato che le specie alimurgiche maggiormente frequenti, sono le Emicriptofite (39%) e le Terofite (25%). Tale risultato, considerando l’habitus generale di tali forme biologiche, è prevedibile in quanto le parti maggiormente consumate sono le foglie, le rosette basali ed i giovani getti. Le conoscenze sull’utilizzo delle specie spontanee eduli in Italia, si attesta a 1103 entità, pari al 13,9% dell’intero patrimonio floristico Italiano. La famiglia più diffusa è quella delle Asteraceae (20,22%); le specie più utilizzate sono Cichorium intybus e Borago officinalis. È stata interpretata la distribuzione regionale non omogenea dei WEP (massimo al sud e minimo al nord). I testi pubblicati hanno raggiunto un picco esponenziale nel decennio 2001-2010. In sintesi, è importante per le piante alimurgiche italiane avere un database, da utilizzare con l’obiettivo di descrivere la ricchezza di questa conoscenza, per tale motivo potrebbe essere anche un veicolo di sviluppo in campo agricolo. La seconda area di ricerca trattata riguarda lo studio di cinque specie Crepis vesicaria L., Sonchus asper L., Sonchus oleraceus L., Tragopogon porrifolius L., (Asteraceae), Blitum bonus-henricus (Chenopodiaceae). Comunemente consumate nella dieta mediterranea, sono state esaminate per la loro composizione nutrizionale e il contenuto di carotenoidi, tocoli, tiamina e riboflavina. Dall’analisi dei dati si può dichiarare che tutte le specie sono risultate fonti di xantofille (violaxantina, neoxantina, luteina, zeaxantina e β-criptoxantina) e caroteni (α-carotene, β-carotene, 9-cis-βcarotene e 13-cis-β-carotene). La luteina rappresentava il contenuto più elevato (circa 4 mg / 100 g). Inoltre, possedevano buone quantità di tocoli, in particolare α-tocoferolo (circa 2-3 mg / 100 g). Quindi le piante analizzate possono essere dichiarate come fonte di fibra, vitamina A ed E, considerando la dose giornaliera raccomandata (RDA) stabilita dal Regolamento UE. Tutte le piante hanno mostrato una buona quantità di tiamina, in particolare Crepis vesicaria. Possono essere considerati una fonte di tiamina, mentre sono secondari per il contenuto di riboflavina. È stata condotta per Sonchus oleraceus e Sonchus asper un’indagine preliminare mirata a valutare l'effetto della cucina domestica (bollitura, cottura a vapore) sui principali carotenoidi (luteina e β-carotene) e sui tocoli. È stato rilevato che la lisciviazione di solidi solubili definita dalla cottura domestica causa un ricavo nei composti bioattivi studiati nelle verdure cotte, in modo da causare un apparente aumento del contenuto in entrambe le specie. Questi dati possono essere utili nel promuovere le WEP come prodotti di un mercato di nicchia per lo sviluppo di alimenti funzionali.
The alimurgic flora represents, for Italy, a strategic resource to which it is possible to associate numerous positive values: ecological, nutritional, socio-cultural, agri-food.However, this "intangible" patrimony, of inestimable value for Italy, is at great risk of disappearance, both because of the lifestyles imposed by progress and globalization, This is due to the lack of biological studies which quantify and document the alimentary use of these species.The information, in fact, sometimes substantial and well structured, refers to restricted territories that, at most, concern a regional scale.Although several studies on WEP have been published in Italy, one does not have a complete view of their knowledge.Therefore, this Thesis has been focused on two strands of research.The first concerned the design of a Database of the Italian alimurgic flora, with the aim of systematizing the wealth of the vast knowledge of WEP acquired in Italy over the last 100 years, creating an easy-to-read tool not only for purely speculative but also practical purposes (e.g. evaluate bioactive compounds).The design and population of the database were carried out through the discovery and analysis of the bibliographical resources of 358 works (books and scientific articles) from 1918 to the present day. From the analysis of the texts, only alimurgic species were considered, excluding occasional and cultivated alien ones. The analyzes relating to the number of entities have evaluated the part of the plant used, the method of use, the regional distribution in Italy, the chorotype, determining that most of the species are Mediterranean in character as the use of alimurgic species appears to be unbalanced in favor of the southern regions of our country, testifying to a use that is still well present.From the analysis of the biological forms, it has been found that the most frequent alimurgic species are the Emicriptofite (39%) and the Terophytes (25%).This result, considering the general habitus of these biological forms, is predictable as the most consumed parts are the leaves, the basal rosettes and the young shoots.The knowledge on the use of spontaneous edible species in Italy, amounted to 1103 entities, equal to 13.9% of the entire Italian floristic heritage.The most common family is that of the Asteraceae (20,22%); the most utilized species are Cichorium intybus and Borago officinalis.The non-homogeneous regional distribution of Weps has been interpreted (maximum in the south and minimum in the north).The published texts reached an exponential peak in the decade 2001-2010.In summary, it is important for Italian alimurgic plants to have a database, to be used with the aim of describing the richness of this knowledge, so it could also be a vehicle for development in the agricultural field.The second research area dealt with concerns the study of five species Crepis vesicaria L., Sonchus asper L., Sonchus oleraceus L., Tragopogon porrifolius L., (Asteraceae), Blitum bonus-henricus (Chenopodiaceae).Commonly consumed in the Mediterranean diet, they have been examined for their nutritional composition and the content of carotenoids, tocols, thiamine and riboflavin.Analysis of the data shows that all species were found to be sources of xanthophylls (violaxanthine, neoxanthine, lutein, zeaxanthine and β-cryptoxanthine) and carotenes (α-carotene, β-carotene, 9-cis-βcarotene and 13-cis-β -carotene).Lutein accounted for the highest content (approximately 4 mg / 100 g).Furthermore, they possessed good amounts of tocols, in particular α-tocopherol (about 2-3 mg / 100 g).Therefore the analyzed plants can be declared as a source of fiber, vitamin A and E, considering the recommended daily allowance (RDA) established by the EU Regulation.All plants showed a good amount of thiamin, especially Crepis vesicaria.They can be considered a source of thiamine, while they are secondary to the riboflavin content.A preliminary survey was conducted for Sonchus oleraceus and Sonchus asper to assess the effect of domestic cooking (boiling, steaming) on the main carotenoids (lutein and β-carotene) and tocols.It has been found that leaching of soluble solids defined by domestic cooking causes a revenue in bioactive compounds studied in cooked vegetables, so as to cause an apparent increase in content in both specieThese data can be useful in promoting WEP as a niche market product for functional food development.

Cyclopia intermedia E. Mey is harvested from the wild to produce honeybush tea. The presence of a lignotuber and its slow growth seems to hinder the cultivation of this species and wild harvesting is likely to continue. Species distribution modelling indicated that C. intermedia has a climate envelope that spans from the Eastern Cape to the Western Cape along the Cape Fold mountains. This regional distribution is threatened under future climate change scenarios with a range loss and shift identified for climate conditions predicted for 2050. More specifically, its niche was identified as south-facing slopes with sandy to loamy sand soils and water holding capacity that is higher than the surrounding areas. Some keystone Fynbos species were found to share this niche: Leucadendron salignum, Leucospermum cuneiforme, Protea neriifolia, Protea repens, Elegia filacea and Rhodocoma fruticosa. Cyclopia intermedia grows throughout the summer with flowering buds developing in autumn. These enlarge during winter with the flowers opening in early spring. Pods develop in November and seed set occurs during December. Harvesting plants increases their fecundity with cut plants producing more than twice the number of pods and seeds compared to their non-harvested counterparts. This is because resprouting plants produce more flowering stems than uncut plants. Controlled harvesting or localised short-cycle burning could be considered as a management option to improve fecundity of declining Cyclopia intermedia populations in protected areas. C. intermedia harvesting could occur every third year and stem colour was identified as a measure of harvest maturity. Where at least 30 percent of the population has orange (RHS colour 163A) stems the population is suitable for harvesting.

Confessions of a Forager is a chronicle of Lauren Hudgins's adventures and mistakes while searching and eating wild food, and a questioning her vegetarian morals. Readers visit organized foraging projects through the Wild Food Adventures of expert John Kallas, the Mushroom Gathering at Breitenbush hot springs, and the Portland Fruit Tree Project, which turns a wasted bounty into an opportunity for public nourishment. Memoir sections of the thesis examine how food-related habits are passed down from parent to child, exploring the family's foraging history through perspective of the author's father. It is also a consideration of the community and personal relationships formed over noncommercial, hand-harvested food.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Qualidade e Segurança Alimentar - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The Regulation (EC) No 258/97, concerning novel foods and novel food ingredients, defines these as foods/food ingredients not significantly used for human consumption, in the Community, before 15 May 1997 and establishes the trading rules. To prove the statuts of not novel food/ not novel food ingredient is necessary to demonstrate evidences to support the significant human consumption in the Community before 15 May 1997 and continuously after this date. This work has as objective to perform a survey of the national legislation and the indicative lists of plants of the Member States, in the context of Regulation (EC) No 258/97. To gather evidences that support the significant food use of national edible wild plants, in order to prove the status of not novel food and verify that they aren’t in the context of the Regulation mentioned above. And yet, to contribute to the update of the Novel Food Catalogue, of the Commission, with the elaboration of a significant human consumption dossier for each national edible wild plant selected. Was identified the existence of indicative lists of plants in Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France and Italy. From the 70 national edible wild plants researched, to potencially join the Novel Food Catalogue, 50 plants aren’t referenced as food in any of the indicative lists previously mentioned. The evidence of significant food use were surveyed of 5 selected plants, due to their culinary and commercial value in Portugal, among the 50 identified (Asparagus aphyllus L., Asparagus acutifolius L., Rumex crispus L., Quercus rotundifolia Lam. and Corema album (L.) D.Don). It was also elaborate a significant human consumption dossier for the first 4 referred species. The specie Corema album (L.) D. Don doens’t have enough evidence to prove the status of food. In the future, it will be important to complete them interviewing elderly in country's coastline.

Food insecurity and malnutrition are issues that affect approximately one in seven people worldwide and climate change threatens to increase those risks in the future. Many of the policies that address future food systems emphasize resilience - a combination of flexibility in the face of disturbance and the capacity to adapt to change. In Sub-Saharan Africa many households employ livelihood systems that are highly sensitive to change and cannot adapt well to changing environmental conditions, leaving them vulnerable and reliant on coping strategies. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are a particularly common and effective strategy for coping with food insecurity. This research, conducted in rural Eastern Province, Kenya, suggests that certain demographic characteristics and access conditions are correlated with greater use of WEPs. Food insecure households, and those families lacking off-farm income or with lower levels of assets were found to consume WEPs with greater frequency. Access to WEPs was also a major factor, with smaller farm sizes and increased distance to harvest areas correlated significantly to lower levels of WEP use. After reviewing the existing laws pertaining to State forests, privatization trends of communal land and an increasingly formalized management regime for private land tenure, I find that access to WEPs is declining. Development practitioners', governments' and donor organizations' focus on commercialization and commodity value has led extension agents and land owners to ignore the subsistence value of WEPs, especially for poorer populations. The household characteristics identified in this study are specific enough that they can be used to determine the demographic groups that rely heavily on WEPs, and the access conditions that are likely to increase the ability of those vulnerable groups to employ WEPs as a coping strategy to increase system resilience. Protecting and promoting sustainable use of WEPs could increase the current contribution of these valuable resources to household food security, especially if policies can be tailored for the groups that depend on them the most.
L'insécurité alimentaire et la malnutrition affectent environ une personne sur sept à travers le monde et le changement climatique menace d'accroître ces risques à l'avenir. La plupart des politiques qui concernent les systèmes alimentaires futures mettent en relief la résilience - une combinaison de flexibilité face à la perturbation et la capacité de s'adapter au changement. En Afrique sub-saharienne de nombreux ménages utilisent des stratégies de moyens de subsistance qui sont très sensibles aux changements et ne peuvent bien s'adapter aux conditions environnementales, ce qui les rendent vulnérables et dépendants des stratégies de survie. L'utilisation des plantes sauvages comestibles (WEPs) représente une stratégie particulièrement commune et efficace. Cette recherche réalisée dans la Province de l'Est du Kenya suggère que certaines caractéristiques démographiques et conditions d'accès sont en corrélation avec une augmentation de la consommation de WEPs. Les lois forestières dans les zones de conservation, la privatisation des terres communales, et la formalisation des régimes de gestion contribuent à la réduction d'accès aux ressources WEP, tout en mettant l'accent sur la commercialisation et la valeur de ces produits pour l'export, ce qui a provoqué les agents de vulgarisation et les propriétaires fonciers à ignorer la valeur substantielle des WEPs, en particulier pour les populations les plus pauvres. La protection et la promotion de l'utilisation durable des WEPs pourraient augmenter la contribution actuelle de ces ressources importantes à la sécurité alimentaire des ménages, et d'autant plus si les politiques peuvent être adaptées pour les groupes qui dépendent le plus sur les WEPs.

The goal of this study was to further understanding of the ecology and propagation of an important wild food resource (Vatovaea pseudolablab (Harms.) Gillett of the community of Loodokilani, Kajiado District Kenya and by extension, contribute to its sustainable use.
Vatovaea pseudolablab is found in occasional, yet distinct patches in Lookidalani and these patches may be associated with a particular soil-water regime. The associated soils are moderately developed, dark brown (7.5YR 3/2, Munsell) clayloams, with small (5.61 mm), angular blocky aggregates. The patches were moderately covered (30%) with medium-sized stones (9.5 cm).
Woody and leafy cuttings from wild stock were collected and rooted easily using a minimum of technological inputs. Roofing percentages were better under the hotter and drier conditions in Kilinito.
In conclusion, the data gathered for this study were analyzed within the framework developed by Amold et al. (1985) for evaluating sustainable use strategies for indigenous plants. The low densities of V. pseudolablab found within the patches coupled with the high grazing pressure make it unlikely that wild resources could sustain higher usage.
This study highlights some of the greatest methodological problems facing ethnobotanical, and related, research in pastoral communities. More attention should be directed towards developing research methodologies to further our understanding of wild food plants in pastoral communities.

This work is a school-based case study conducted amongst learners of a rural High School and the immediate community in Whittlesea in the Eastern Cape where I teach. The research was conducted by using different research methods such as worksheets, questionnaires, interviews, practical activities and observations as well as photographs to investigate three indigenous wild local vegetable food plants (imifino). The fundamental assumption of the research is that, imifino can be looked after and cared for, to become valuable vegetable food plants which can be used as supplements to the cultivated vegetable food plants (umfuno). The question was: How could this concept be brought into the curriculum? It had also been assumed that bringing knowledge of imifino into curriculwn contexts could be of benefit to South African learners. The study produced a variety of findings: • There is a general feeling that those who eat imifino are the poor. • There is a lack of interest among women interviewed in the preparation process, for example going to pick the food plants from the fields, washing them and preparing the leaves as food. • AmaXhosa males look upon eating imifino with contempt. • Some males among the younger generation are beginning to overlook tradition and are eating imifino. • Inclusion of indigenous agricultural knowledge in the curriculum was supported by learners and community members. Learners have interest in knowing about indigenous food plants. • Learners feel as Africans that they must learn about the indigenous food plants in school in order not to lose knowledge of these plants completely. • The study also identified that interpretation of learning outcomes with an indigenous knowledge focus, requires careful attention to socio-cultural factors, and not just technical/ practical factors. Previous knowledge of learners and community members about imifino was mobilized to develop a sample OBE learning programme unit (LPU /Lesson plan) for the Grade 10 FET of Agricultural Science curriculum. The case study illustrates that Learning outcome 3 of the Agricultural Science subject can be achieved if educators involve learners and community members in developing learning programmes.

Many potentially economically important taxa of Australia are threatened in situ and are vulnerable to erosion of genetic diversity and extinction. In this study, over one hundred rare and threatened Queensland edible plants and/or crop wild relatives were identified. Many of these species have subtropical to tropical distribution and may have non-orthodox seed storage behaviour, thus excluding standard seed banking approaches for long-term ex situ conservation. There is an urgent need to develop alternative ex situ conservation strategies to conserve this diversity. Establishment of ex-situ collections of this valuable germplasm in field collections would be prohibitive in cost and would be susceptible to environmental damage, including disease and pest attack. In vitro and cryopreservation techniques offer alternative strategies for medium and long-term storage of germplasm. However, there have been very few attempts to apply in vitro storage and cryopreservation techniques to any wild Australian tropical or subtropical species. Moreover, limitations exist for the development of alternative ex situ storage techniques due to a lack of basic research on plant ecology or biology, including seed physiology and morphology. Further restrictions to the development of ex situ conservation of these species occurs because of a lack of supporting techniques needed for cryostorage, such as in vitro culture, germination protocols, propagation and acclimation. The Australian wild species of the Citrus genus are a priority for investigation of ex situ conservation strategies because of their conservation priority, potential socioeconomic importance (e.g. novel genes and fruits), probable non-orthodox seed storage behaviour and lack of corresponding techniques for their long term ex situ conservation. This study reports on seed biology, cryopreservation and in vitro culture of three Australian wild Citrus species, C. australasica (finger lime), C. inodora (Russell River lime) and C. garrawayi (Mount White lime), to facilitate germplasm storage and as a regeneration system. Descriptors of mature seed morphology and anatomy are reported in C. australasica, C. inodora and C. garrawayi - vital to the development and application of effective seed storage protocols (i.e. seed lot quality). C. garrawayi seed shape and seed coat morphology was found to be different to C. australasica and C. inodora. In addition, seed topography, as viewed by scanning electron microscopy, was found to be a useful tool for taxa identification. In terms of both germination and seedling growth, temperatures of _20ºC were found to be sub-optimal for germination. Germination from seeds of all the three species was optimal at 30ºC and above 80%. Both C. australasica and C. inodora displayed ‘essentially’ orthodox seed storage behaviour, i.e. desiccation and cryopreservation tolerance, whilst C. garrawayi displayed more complex seed storage behaviour. Overall, it appears that seed banking of germplasm of these species could be by standard orthodox protocols (i.e. 5%MC at -20ºC). However, because of variation in seed responses and other storage constraints in these species, cryopreservation is recommended as the safest storage option to prevent seed deterioration (loss of viability). Cryobiology studies have allowed the determination of the unfrozen water content (WCu) of C .australasica (11%), C. inodora (est. 8%MC) and C. garrawayi (14%). Desiccation of seeds to well below the WCu resulted in high levels of germination (radicle emergence <1mm) after liquid nitrogen exposure, but negligible levels of germination were observed from seeds above the WCu. This data both supports other studies undertaken on cultivated citrus and provides evidence that seed of these species will tolerate cryostorage when below the WCu. In addition, this study demonstrated in vitro culture systems for the micropropagation and medium term storage of C. australasica, C. inodora and C. garrawayi, as well as shoot-tip cryopreservation in C. australasica using a vitrification- based method. In vitro embryogenic potential, using a range of culture media, was low to moderate in C inodora and low in C. australasica, whilst C. garrawayi was recalcitrant to in vitro embryogenesis. The addition of citric acid to the embryo induction medium resulted in the best quality and highest number of somatic embryos from callus proliferated through liquid culture in C. inodora. This is the first report of the promotive affect of citric acid on embryo formation in the Citrus genus. Cryopreservation of encapsulated C. inodora embryogenic callus gave high levels of recovery (69%). However, further optimisation of embryo formation and plantlet recovery is needed to improve efficiency to be suitable conservation purposes. Micropropagation provides a useful tool, for medium-term storage of rare and threatened germplasm and offers a valuable step in the implementation of horticultural and restoration programs. Establishment of an in vitro culture system for shoot-tips also provides a technique for producing virus free material for germplasm exchange or maintenance. The findings of this study facilitate the development of ex situ conservation of Australian wild Citrus, which is of significant interest to complement in situ conservation and secure sustainable access to this rich biodiversity.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences
Full Text

This study elicits and documents knowledge of the natural environment amongst two rural Black communities in Natal namely, the districts of Maphumulo and Ingwavuma.Twenty members of these communities who are older than 60 years of age were interviewed, as older people are considered by the researcher to be important repositories of environmental knowledge. This study records a variety of animals hunted in these communities and discusses various activities associated with this activity. It examines the gathering and the use of wild edible plants like fruits and spinach, and of wild plants alleged to have medicinal value. It reviews indigenous knowledge related to custom beliefs and prohibitions as well as traditional laws associated .with animals and trees. It also considers how this knowledge can contribute towards the development of Environmental Education in South Africa. The data was deduced from the responses elicited from semi-structured interviews. The data was analyzed qualitatively.

The Mediterranean diet is characterized by considerable diversity and high consumption of wild leafy greens which are excellent sources of antioxidants, including lutein and zeaxanthin. The latter are the only carotenoids present in the human lens and observational and intervention studies suggest they may be protective against age-related cataracts. To better understand the role of dietary diversity in general (and lutein and zeaxanthin in particular) in preventing age-related cataracts and the determinants of wild leafy greens' consumption, dietary and socioeconomic data were collected from one hundred cases and one hundred controls randomly selected from Hermel, a poor and fairly traditional Lebanese rural area. Results showed that dietary diversity and antioxidants (including but not limited to lutein and zeaxanthin) are inversely related to age-related cataracts and that wild leafy greens seem to contribute substantially to the protection against age-related cataracts by optimizing nutrient and antioxidant intake especially in those of low socio-economic status.
Le régime Méditerranéen est caractérisé par une diversité considérable et une consommation élevée de plantes vertes sauvages, qui constituent d'excellentes sources d'antioxydants, y compris la lutéine et zéaxanthine. Ces-derniers sont les seuls caroténoïdes présents dans la lentille humaine et des études observationnelles et interventionnelles suggèrent qu'ils pourraient protéger contre la cataracte liée à l'âge. Pour mieux comprendre le rôle de la diversité alimentaire en général (et de la lutéine et zéaxanthine en particulier) dans la prévention de la cataracte liée à l'âge et les déterminants de la consommation de plantes vertes sauvages, des données socio-économiques et alimentaires ont été collectées de cent cas et cent témoins sélectionnés arbitrairement de Hermel, une région rurale pauvre et traditionnelle libanaise. Les résultats ont montré que la diversité alimentaire et les antioxydants (y compris mais non limité à la lutéine et zéaxanthine) sont inversement reliés à la cataracte liée à l'âge et que les plantes vertes sauvages sembleraient contribuer substantiellement à la protection contre la cataracte liée à l'âge en optimisant l'apport de nutriments et d'antioxydants, particulièrement chez les personnes ayant un statut socio-économique peu élevé.

Despite increases in food production worldwide, we face a global food crisis. Yet, the literature on food vulnerability tends to emphasize cultivated foods, overlooking the importance of wild edible plants. This work explores the state of ethnobotanical knowledge on wild edible plants and changing foodways in a Mapuche community residing in the Andean temperate forests, Chile. This research contributes to an understanding of the influence of historical and contemporary eco-cultural processes on traditional ecological knowledge and food systems. I used ethnography, complemented with ethnobotanical techniques, weekly food diaries, local market surveys and oral histories. A total of 47 wild edible plants (28% exotic) belonging to 34 families were recorded. While some species were still consumed, many were no longer used. Despite a wealth of knowledge held by adults and elders, new generations were not learning what the elders had once learned. Since the Mapuche pedagogy is oral and in situ, the lack of access to forests and the formal school regime were reported as interrupting the transmission of environmental knowledge and skills. The decreasing consumption of wild edibles was mostly associated with a lack of access to gathering sites due to land grabbing, the scarcity of many species, the absence of children to go gathering and the loss of knowledge as a result of temporary migration. Wild edible plants are part of a wider Mapuche food system which, according to participants, has drastically shifted overtime. These shifts and increasing dependence on industrialized foods were associated with common chronic health conditions and lower life expectations. The decreased use of wild edibles and the changes on traditional foodways are interlinked, and land tenure regimes are a key for understanding current scenarios. While ancestral land claims remain unresolved, protected areas that surround the community may play an important role for local wellbeing by reinforcing knowledge systems and traditional practices related to food procurement and healthcare. Projects aiming to revitalize traditional foods are needed to recover the local food cultures of indigenous peoples for long-term collective health, and the reclamation of food sovereignty as a right.
Forestry, Faculty of
Graduate

Devido ao aumento da preocupação com o impacto dos agrotóxicos no meio ambiente e na saúde humana, busca-se uma agricultura sustentável. É no âmbito dessa questão que a resistência induzida torna-se uma ferramenta fundamental no manejo integrado de doenças e indispensável para uma nova agricultura, mais racional e sustentável. Dentre os diversos agentes bióticos e abióticos, utilizados em trabalhos de indução de resistência de plantas a patógenos, os cogumelos Lentinula edodes e Agaricus blazei vem sendo pesquisados. Desse modo, este trabalho teve como objetivos avaliar o efeito de diferentes isolados de L. edodes e A. blazei e do acibenzolar-S-metil (aSm) in vitro contra as bactérias e o controle de doenças de importância econômica para as culturas do tomate e da berinjela, em casa-de-vegetação. Depois de obtida a proteção, estudar os possíveis mecanismos bioquímicos ativados nas plantas através do uso dos extratos dos cogumelos e buscar a purificação parcial destes extratos, a fim de identificar o(s) princípio(s) ativo(s). No patossistema berinjela/Ralstonia, os extratos aquosos dos cogumelos não exerceram nenhum efeito direto sobre o patógeno, sendo que os isolados Abl-11 e Abl-28 de de A. blazei reduziram significativamente a ocorrência de folhas murchas das plantas em casa-devegetação, em relação aos demais tratamentos. Ocorreu um aumento na atividade da peroxidase, fenilalanina amônia-liase e polifenoloxidase nas folhas tratadas. O preciptado 60-80% obtido pela precipitação com sulfato de amônia e a fração 4 da cromatografia de troca aniônica (CTA) de Abl-28 reduziram a ocorrência de folhas murchas, sendo que a separação eletroforética revelou a presença de uma banda no gel com aproximadamente 29 kDa nesta fração. Em tomate, os extratos aquosos dos isolados dos cogumelos e o acibenzolar-S-metil não exerceram nenhum efeito inibitório in vitro no crescimento de Ralstonia solanacearum e Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. Porém, os isolados Abl-26 de A. blazei, Le-96/17 de L. edodes e aSm foram os que conferiram maior proteção das plantas de tomates contra os patógenos, diminuindo a ocorrência de folhas murchas, proporcionando um aumento na atividade da peroxidase no patossistema tomate/Ralstonia e um aumento na atividade de peroxidase, quitinase, fenilalanina amônia-liase e polifenoloxidase no patossistema tomate/Clavibacter. O preciptado 40-80% de Le-96/17 foi submetido à CTA, obtendo-se seis frações protéicas. As frações 3 e 4, junto com aSm e o extrato aquoso de Le-96/17 reduziram a ocorrência de folhas murchas. A separação eletroforética destas frações da CTA, do preciptado 40-80% e do extrato aquoso de Le-96/17 revelaram a presença de mais de uma banda no gel na fração 3 e 4 da CTA, no preciptado 40-80% e no extrato aquoso bruto de Le-96/17. Com base nos resultados, os cogumelos A. blazei e L. edodes apresentam compostos que induziram resistência em plantas berinjela e tomate, podendo auxiliar no controle de doenças.
Because the increase of the impact of chemical products in the environment and in human health, a search by sustainable agriculture is needed. It is in the scope of this problem that the induced resistance becomes a tool in the integrated management of pests and diseases and indispensable for a new agriculture, more rational and sustainable. Among the biotic and abiotic agents used to induce resistance, the mushrooms Lentinula edodes and Agaricus blazei have being studied. Thus, the objectives of the present work were evaluate the effects of different isolates of L. edodes and A. blazei and of the acibenzolar-S-methyl (aSm) on in vitro bacterial growth and the control of the diseases in tomato and eggplant under greenhouse conditions. The studies also tried to elucidate the mode of action of the extracts from the fruiting bodies and partially purify them. In eggplant plants, the aqueos extracts from the different mushroom isolates did not have any direct effect on the pathogen. The isolates Abl-11 and Abl-28 of A. blazei reduced the wilt in eggplant leaves, under greenhouse conditions, and increased peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and polyphenoloxidase activities in treated leaves. The fraction of aqueous extract of A. blazei (Abl-28) obtained with ammonium sulfhate and fraction 4 from anion exchange chromatography reduced bacterial wilt and a protein fraction exhibiting molecular mass around 29 kDa was obtained. In tomato plants, the aqueos extracts from the different mushrooms and the acibenzolar-S-methyl did not inhibit in vitro growth of Ralstonia solanacearum and Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. However, the isolates Abl-26 of A. blazei, Le-96/17 of L. edodes and aSm protected tomato plants against the bacterial pathogens, reducing the wilt and causing an increase in peroxidase activity in the tomato/Ralstonia interaction and an increase in peroxidase, chitinase, phenylalanine ammonialyase and polyphenoloxidase activities in the tomato/Clavibacter interaction. The ammonium sulphate fraction of Le-96/17 was submitted to anion exchange chromatography, and the proteins from fractions 3 and 4, aSm and the aqueous extract of Le-96/17 reduced the occurrence of wilt in the leaves. A protein fraction exhibiting proteins with molecular mass around 29, 37 and 45 kDA was obtained in fractions 3 and 4. Thus, the results showed that the mushrooms A. blazei and L. edodes edodes have substances that induce resistance in eggplant and tomato plants.

Cette thèse étudie la biodiversité dans sa dimension alimentaire. En premier lieu la compréhension de la « biodiversité alimentaire » et les différents éléments qui la constituent était nécessaire. Il est en effet confirmé que la biodiversité est l’une des solutions pour combattre la faim cachée. Disposons-nous des instruments nécessaires pour la mesurer au niveau de l’offre et de la demande ? Comment l’intégrer dans le pilotage des politiques publiques ? Quelles mesures et actions faut-il mettre en œuvre pour conserver la biodiversité alimentaire et la mettre au service de la sécurité alimentaire? Une étude de cas a été réalisée en Tunisie dans le gouvernorat de Sidi Bouzid. Des enquêtes et des outils ont été élaborés pour recenser toutes les données nécessaires à l’étude de la biodiversité alimentaire à tous les niveaux de la chaine alimentaire. Une analyse spécifique du rôle des produits sauvages comestibles a été menée. Largement connues et utilisées, les plantes sauvages sont encore sous-valorisées. Une méthodologie générique de l’étude de l’utilité nutritionnelle de la biodiversité alimentaire disponible a été proposée, avec une application aux marchés (indice de richesse spécifique, indice de Shannon et indice de Piélou, adaptés). L’utilité nutritionnelle de la biodiversité disponible est variable d’un nutriment à un autre. Une seconde partie a été consacrée à l’étude des politiques publiques. Une sélection d’options stratégiques pouvant être des leviers à la biodiversité a été faite à dires d’experts. La méthode « Multicriteria Mapping (MCM) » a été utilisée auprès de différentes parties prenantes pour l’étude de la performance des options et les hiérarchiser à des fins de propositions d’actions. L’éducation nutritionnelle a été estimée comme l’action la plus performante suivie de la conservation et la protection de la mer et de sa biodiversité et enfin des options de politiques agricoles en faveur des plantes autochtones. Le lien entre biodiversité et nutrition et le rôle des espèces sauvages n’étaient pas évident pour les participants. La conservation et l’amélioration de la biodiversité doit être orientée pour remédier au manque de trois nutriments, le calcium et les vitamines A et B12. Cependant une sensibilisation et une responsabilisation des différentes parties prenantes est indispensable surtout dans un contexte socio-économique difficile de la Tunisie post-révolution
This thesis studies biodiversity in its food dimension. First, the understanding of "food biodiversity" and its different components was necessary. It is indeed confirmed that biodiversity can be a solution to fight hidden hunger. Do we have the instruments to measure it in terms of supply and demand? How to integrate it into the management of public policies? What actions should be implemented to conserve food biodiversity and put it at the service of food security in Tunisia? A case study was carried out in Tunisia in the governorate of Sidi Bouzid. Surveys and tools have been developed to identify all the data needed to study food biodiversity at each level of the food chain A specific analysis of the role of wild edible products was conducted. Widely known and used, wild plants are still undervalued. A generic methodology for studying the nutritional utility of available food biodiversity has been proposed with an application to markets (specific richness index, adapted Shannon and Piélou indexes). The nutritional utility of available biodiversity varies from a nutrient to another. A second part was devoted to the study of public policies. A selection of strategic options that can be levers to biodiversity has been made by experts. The Multicriteria Mapping (MCM) method was used with stakeholders for the study of option’s performance and to rank them in order to make action’s proposal. As far as policies are concerned, nutrition education has been regarded as the most effective action followed by the conservation and protection of the sea and its biodiversity, and finally, agricultural policy options for indigenous plants. The link between biodiversity and nutrition and the role of wild species was not clear for participants. Conservation and enhancement of biodiversity should be oriented to address the lack of three nutrients, calcium and vitamins A and B12. However awareness and accountability of the various stakeholders is essential especially in a difficult socio-economic context of post-revolution as in Tunisia

Résumé Cette thèse étudie la biodiversité dans sa dimension alimentaire. En premier lieu la compréhension de la « biodiversité alimentaire » et les différents éléments qui la constituent était nécessaire. Il est en effet confirmé que la biodiversité est l une des solutions pour combattre la faim cachée. Disposons-nous des instruments nécessaires pour la mesurer au niveau de l offre et de la demande ? Comment l intégrer dans le pilotage des politiques publiques ? Quelles mesures et actions faut-il mettre en uvre pour conserver la biodiversité alimentaire et la mettre au service de la sécurité alimentaire? Une étude de cas a été réalisée en Tunisie dans le gouvernorat de Sidi Bouzid. Des enquêtes et des outils ont été élaborés pour recenser toutes les données nécessaires à l étude de la biodiversité alimentaire à tous les niveaux de la chaine alimentaire. Une analyse spécifique du rôle des produits sauvages comestibles a été menée. Largement connues et utilisées, les plantes sauvages sont encore sous-valorisées. Une méthodologie générique de l étude de l utilité nutritionnelle de la biodiversité alimentaire disponible a été proposée, avec une application aux marchés (indice de richesse spécifique, indice de Shannon et indice de Piélou, adaptés). L utilité nutritionnelle de la biodiversité disponible est variable d un nutriment à un autre. Une seconde partie a été consacrée à l étude des politiques publiques. Une sélection d options stratégiques pouvant être des leviers à la biodiversité a été faite à dires d experts. La méthode « Multicriteria Mapping (MCM) » a été utilisée auprès de différentes parties prenantes pour l étude de la performance des options et les hiérarchiser à des fins de propositions d actions. L éducation nutritionnelle a été estimée comme l action la plus performante suivie de la conservation et la protection de la mer et de sa biodiversité et enfin des options de politiques agricoles en faveur des plantes autochtones. Le lien entre biodiversité et nutrition et le rôle des espèces sauvages n étaient pas évident pour les participants. La conservation et l amélioration de la biodiversité doit être orientée pour remédier au manque de trois nutriments, le calcium et les vitamines A et B12. Cependant une sensibilisation et une responsabilisation des différentes parties prenantes est indispensable surtout dans un contexte socio-économique difficile de la Tunisie post-révolution.

Submitted in fulfillment for the Degree of Master of Technology (Biotechnology) in the Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, 2009.
Information regarding the nutritional value of wild food plants in Africa and current information varies from source to source. Prior to commercialization of wild foods the nutritional, ethnobotanical, medical, chemical, anthropological and toxicity requires investigation. Plants from the Amaranthaceae family were chosen because the family is characterized by several species which are used by indigenous communities as a source of nutrition in different plants of the world. The focus of this study was to investigate the nutritional and biological activities of three plants from the Amaranthaceae family viz. Achyranthes aspera, Alternanthera sessilis and Guilleminea densa that are considered famine plants. This study aimed to determine the nutritional value (proximate, minerals and vitamins), biological activity, toxicity and potential of a tissue culture system for three species from the family Amaranthaceae. Nutritional analysis comprised of determining moisture, ash, protein, fat, carbohydrate, dietary fibre and energy. Mineral analysis of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, sodium and zinc was performed by microwave digestion and then analyzed by ICP Spectrophotometry. Vitamin A, Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2, Vitamin B3 and Vitamin C were also analyzed. For biological and safety analyses aqueous and methanolic extracts were prepared. Anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of the extracts were tested; antimicrobial activity was tested by evaluating the bactericidal, fungal effect and minimum inhibitory concentration on selected bacteria and fungi using the agar disk diffusion method. Anti mosquito potential was determined by setting up repellency, larvacidal assay and insecticidal assay. The safety and toxicity analysis was carried out by measuring cytotoxicity, toxicity and mutagenicity. The potential of an in vitro tissue culture system of A. aspera, A. sessilis and G. densa was determined using micropropagation. A. aspera indicated significant amounts moisture, ash, dietary fibre, protein, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, magnesium and manganese. Plant extracts of A. aspera had antibacterial activity against the Gram negative bacteria Esherichia coli, Pseudomas aeroginosa and Salmonella typhi; Gram positive bacteria Staphylococcus epidermis and Staphylococcus aureus. The methanolic extract had antifungal activity against Sacchromyces cerevisiae and exhibited significant free radical scavenging activity as well as 85% repellency against Anopheles arabiensis. The aqueous extract stimulated the growth of the K562 (Chronic Myclogenous Leukaemia) cell line and the plant extracts showed no mutagenicity or toxicity. A. sessilis indicated significant levels of ash, dietary fibre, protein, energy, vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B3, iron, magnesium and manganese present. Plant extracts of A. sessilis had antibacterial activity against Gram negative bacteria P. aeroginosa and Gram positive bacteria S. epidermis. The plant also showed antifungal activity against the yeasts S. cerevisiae and Candida albicans. The methanolic plant extract showed excellent antioxidant activity. The aqueous plant extract stimulated the growth of the K562 cell line and the plant extracts possessed no mutagenicity or toxicity. This plant grew well in a tissue culture system where it was propagated from callus to a fully grown plant able to survive in environmental conditions. G. densa has ash and dietary fibre, vitamin B2, vitamin B3 and iron. The plant extracts had antibacterial activity against Gram negative bacteria E. coli, P. aeroginosa and Klebsiella. oxytoca; Gram positive bacteria Baccilus stereathermophilus and S. aureus. The plant also has antifungal activity against C. albicans and significant repellency activity against A. arabiensis where it showed 100% repellency. This plant was not found to be mutagenic or toxic. The results obtained from this study show promising potential for the plants to be exploited as famine food plants. The nutritional value, biological activity and ability to micropropagate A. aspera, A. sessilis and G. densa indicates a good potential for purposes of harnessing biotechnological products.

It is worth raising the question, why are wild edible plants (WEPs) which are rich in diverse nutrients and widely abundant underutilized despite the increasing rate of undernourishment in poor regions? One reason is that their culinary uses are not quantified and standardized in nutrition surveys, and therefore, they are not properly included in household diet intensification and diversification across regions and cultures. Active steps are needed to bridge this gap. This paper outlines the constraints to including WEPs in nutritional surveys as the lack of standard ways of food identification of diverse WEPs, lack of specific food categorization and therefore difficult dissemination across regions and cultures. As a way forward, a functional categorization of 11 subgroups for WEPs is introduced and discussed. In labeling these sub-food groups, the paper advocates that more WEPs food items and culinary uses should be enlisted during household nutrition surveys. Food researchers could then capitalize these enlisted species and disseminate them to promote diverse food use of WEPs in other regions where they exist but are not utilized as food.

South Africa has over 19 500 different indigenous plant species. Most of these are of ethnobotanical significance and are still used by local rural communities as medicine, food and for making beverages. The relatively little research that has been conducted on indigenous plant species has focused mainly on their medicinal potential. However, in view of the rapidly growing size of the global and local beverage industry and their constant search for new products, beverage-making indigenous plant species may have commercial development potential. To date, no detailed studies have been conducted on these plants, especially in the species-rich Limpopo province. The aim of this study was, therefore to evaluate the potential of indigenous plants for commercial beverage production. In order to achieve this, a survey was conducted in the Limpopo province to identify beverage-making plants and to document beverage preparation methods. Selected beverages were analysed and evaluated for their nutrient and sensory characteristics and a market product acceptability survey was conducted to identify those beverages with the greatest potential for development. Sixty three different beverage-plant species were identified in three study areas within the Limpopo province. These were used for the preparation of teas, fruit juices and alcoholic beverages. Plants that received further research attention were selected on the basis of their status as indigenous plants, frequency of use, nature of harvesting methods and availability. Some of the selected beverages were found to be rich in nutrients, especially with respect to vitamin C and mineral content. Furthermore, sensory analyses and market surveys indicated that four species, namely, Doyvalis caffra, Garcinia livingstonei, Grewia flavescens and Englerophytum magalismontanum have potential for further development for the beverage industry while Athrixia phylicoides has commercialisation potential as a herbal tea. However, further research is required to improve and refine preparation methods and to ensure compliance with quality standards. The availability of sufficient plant material for the industry must also be ensured. This research has indicated that South African indigenous plants have untapped market potential for the beverage industry which, if developed sustainably, could contribute to economic growth of the rural parts of South Africa.
Environmental Sciences
D. Ed. (Environmental Management)

This study focuses on the use of the Athrixia phylicoides plant in Tshwane, Gauteng, South Africa. The plant is used within the domestic domain as a beverage, for medicinal purposes, as well as for the manufacturing of domestic brooms. The aim of the study was to investigate the use and market of Athrixia phylicoides in two of the Tshwane markets, namely; Denneboom and Marabastad. Case study design, participant observation and interviews were employed to collect data. A literature review was conducted to construct a theoretical framework. The study reveals that traditional healers, broom makers and customers have a remarkable knowledge about Athrixia phylicoides, which has been untapped thus far. In addition, the study indicates that possible extinction of the Athrixia phylicoides plant, due to over-harvesting and lack of conservation, will pose a challenge to the market.
Anthropology
M.A. (Anthropology)