Journal articles: 'Education, Higher Education, Higher Education, Higher African Americans Sex discrimination in education'

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Assari, Shervin, and Maryam Moghani Lankarani. "Workplace Racial Composition Explains High Perceived Discrimination of High Socioeconomic Status African American Men." Brain Sciences 8, no. 8 (2018): 139. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8080139.

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Background: Sociological and epidemiological literature have both shown that socioeconomic status (SES) protects populations and individuals against health problems. Recent research, however, has shown that African Americans gain less from their SES and African Americans of high SES, particularly males, may be vulnerable to perceived discrimination, as explained by the Minorities’ Diminished Returns theory. One potential mechanism for this phenomenon is that high SES African Americans have a higher tendency to work in predominantly White workplaces, which increases their perceived discrimination. It is, however, unknown if the links between SES, working in predominantly White work groups and perceived discrimination differ for male and female African Americans. Aim: To test the associations between SES, workplace racial composition and perceived discrimination in a nationally representative sample of male and female African American adults. Methods. This study included a total number of 1775 employed African American adults who were either male (n = 676) or female (n = 1099), all enrolled from the National Survey of American Life (NSAL). The study measured gender, age, SES (educational attainment and household income), workplace racial composition and perceived discrimination. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was applied in the overall sample and also by gender. Results: In the pooled sample that included both genders, high education and household income were associated with working in a predominantly White work group, which was in turn associated with more perceived discrimination. We did not find gender differences in the associations between SES, workplace racial composition and perceived discrimination. Conclusion: Although racial composition of workplace may be a mechanism by which high SES increases discriminatory experiences for African Americans, males and females may not differ in this regard. Policies are needed to reduce discrimination in racially diverse workplaces. This is particularly the case for African Americans who work in predominantly White work environments.

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Farfel, Jose M., Lisa L. Barnes, Ana Capuano, Maria Carolina de Moraes Sampaio, Robert S. Wilson, and David A. Bennett. "Informant-Reported Discrimination, Dementia, and Cognitive Impairment in Older Brazilians." Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 81, no. 3 (2021): 1273–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/jad-201436.

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Background: Self-reported discrimination is a source of psychosocial stress that has been previously associated with poor cognitive function in older African Americans without dementia. Objective: Here, we examine the association of discrimination with dementia and cognitive impairment in racially diverse older Brazilians. Methods: We included 899 participants 65 years or older (34.3% Black) from the Pathology, Alzheimer’s and Related Dementias Study (PARDoS), a community-based study of aging and dementia. A structured interview with informants of the deceased was conducted. The interview included the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) Scale for the diagnosis of dementia and cognitive impairment proximate to death and the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE) as a second measure of cognitive impairment. Informant-reported discrimination was assessed using modified items from the Major and Everyday Discrimination Scales. Results: Discrimination was reported by informants of 182 (20.2%) decedents and was more likely reported by informants of Blacks than Whites (25.3% versus 17.6%, p = 0.006). Using the CDR, a higher level of informant-reported discrimination was associated with higher odds of dementia (OR: 1.24, 95% CI 1.08 –1.42, p = 0.002) and cognitive impairment (OR: 1.21, 95% CI: 1.06 –1.39, p = 0.004). Similar results were observed using the IQCODE (estimate: 0.07, SE: 0.02, p = 0.003). The effects were independent of race, sex, education, socioeconomic status, major depression, neuroticism, or comorbidities. Conclusion: Higher level of informant-reported discrimination was associated with higher odds of dementia and cognitive impairment in racially diverse older Brazilians.

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Hall, Michael J., Paul D'Avanzo, Yana Chertock, Jesse A. Brajuha, and Sarah Bauerle Bass. "Impact of medical mistrust (MM) on perceptions of tumor genomic profiling (TGP) among African American (AA) cancer patients: Application of perceptual mapping (PM)." Journal of Clinical Oncology 39, no. 15_suppl (2021): e22527-e22527. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jco.2021.39.15_suppl.e22527.

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e22527 Background: TGP is widely used to identify targetable mutations for precision cancer treatment and clinical trials. Many patients have poor understanding of TGP and are unaware of possible secondary hereditary risks. Lack of clarity regarding the relevance of informed consent and genetic counseling further magnify risks for patients. AA patients have lower genetic knowledge and health literacy and higher MM than Caucasian patients, making them especially vulnerable in the clinical setting. Perceptions of TGP in AA cancer patients have not been well-characterized. Methods: 120 AA pts from 1 suburban and 1 urban site (Fox Chase Cancer Center[FCCC] and Temple University Hospital[TUH]) were surveyed. A k-means cluster analysis using a modified MM scale was conducted; chi-square analysis assessed demographic differences. Perceptual mapping (PM)/multidimensional scaling and vector modeling was used to create 3-dimensional maps to study how TGP barriers/facilitators differed by MM group and how message strategies for communicating about TGP may also differ. Results: Data from 112 analyzable patients from FCCC (55%) and TUH (45%) were parsed into less MM (MM-L, n = 42, 37.5%) and more MM (MM-H, n = 70, 72.5%) clusters. MM-L and MM-H clusters were demographically indistinct with no significant associations by sex (p = 0.49), education (p = 0.3), income (p = 0.65), or location (p = 0.43); only age was significant (older = higher MM, p = 0.006). Patients in the MM-H cluster reported higher concerns about TGP, including cost (p < 0.001), insurance discrimination (p < 0.001), privacy breaches (p = 0.001), test performance/accuracy (p = 0.001), secondary gain by providers (p < 0.001) and provider ability to explain results (p = 0.04). Perceptual mapping identified both shared and contrasting barriers between MM clusters (Table). Conclusions: More than 2/3 of AA patients comprised a MM-H cluster. Communication strategies should focus on concerns about family and how to discuss TGP with an oncologist. PM can identify distinct and shared information needs of vulnerable populations undergoing TGP. [Table: see text]

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Brown, Danice L., Christopher B. Rosnick, and Daniel J. Segrist. "Internalized Racial Oppression and Higher Education Values." Journal of Black Psychology 43, no. 4 (2016): 358–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0095798416641865.

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A plethora of research underscores the deleterious effects that racial discrimination can have on the higher education pursuits and experiences of African Americans. The current study investigated the relationship between internalized racial oppression, higher education values, academic locus of control, and gender among a sample of African Americans. Participants were 156 African Americans currently attending college. All participants completed measures of internalized racial oppression, perceived value of higher education, and academic locus of control. Results indicated that greater internalized racial oppression correlated with a lower valuing of higher education and a more external academic locus of control. Subsequent mediational analyses showed that academic locus of control was an intervening variable in the relationship between internalized racial oppression and the value placed on higher education for men, but not women. For African American men, greater experiences of internalized racial oppression predicted a more external locus of control, which subsequently predicted a lower valuing of higher education. Implications for mental health providers and educators were discussed herein.

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Freeman, Kassie. "Increasing African Americans' Participation in Higher Education." Journal of Higher Education 68, no. 5 (1997): 523–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1997.11778996.

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Cartledge, Gwendolyn, Ralph Gardner, and Linda Tillman. "African Americans in Higher Education Special Education: Issues in Recruitment and Retention." Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children 18, no. 3 (1995): 166–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/088840649501800305.

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Allen, Walter R., Darnell M. Hunt, and Derrick I. M. Gilbert. "Race-Conscious Academic Policy in Higher Education: The University of Maryland Banneker Scholars Program." Educational Policy 11, no. 4 (1997): 443–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/089590489701100403.

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This research was undertaken in conjunction with the efforts of the University of Maryland-College Park to respond to litigation in the case of Podberesky v. Kirwan (1993). The case challenged the constitutional right of the university to operate a scholarship program reserved exclusively for high-achieving African Americans. This study offers a broad-based assessment of the Benjamin Banneker Scholars Program. The Banneker Scholars Program is a key element in the university's plan for desegregation and increased student diversity. The research was conducted in the summer and fall of 1992 using a variety of data sources: university records, personal interviews, survey questionnaires, telephone interviews, focus group interviews, and life histories. We found that the Banneker scholarship program continues to be necessary, as a specific remedy, to eliminate the effects of past, present, and cumulative discrimination against African Americans.

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Freeman, Kassie. "Increasing African Americans' Participation in Higher Education: African American High-School Students' Perspectives." Journal of Higher Education 68, no. 5 (1997): 523. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2959945.

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Johnson, Larry, Deirdre Cobb-Roberts, and Barbara Shircliffe. "African Americans and the Struggle for Opportunity in Florida Public Higher Education, 1947-1977." History of Education Quarterly 47, no. 3 (2007): 328–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2007.00103.x.

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In the decades following World War II, access to higher education became an important vehicle for expanding opportunity in the United States. The African American-led Civil Rights Movement challenged discrimination in higher education at a time when state and federal government leaders saw strengthening public higher education as necessary for future economic growth and development. Nationally, the 1947 President's Commission on Higher Education report Higher Education for American Democracy advocated dismantling racial, geographic, and economic barriers to college by radically expanding public higher education, to be accomplished in large part through the development of community colleges. Although these goals were widely embraced across the country, in the South, white leaders rejected the idea that racial segregation stood in the way of progress. During the decades following World War II, white southern educational and political leaders resisted attempts by civil rights organizations to include desegregation as part of the expansion of public higher education.

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Lindsay, Beverly, and Tara C. Scales. "African Americans and International Cultural Observances in the Higher Education Community." Journal of Black Studies 35, no. 5 (2005): 551–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021934704268398.

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Artz, Lee. "African‐Americans and higher education: An exigence in need of applied communication." Journal of Applied Communication Research 26, no. 2 (1998): 210–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00909889809365502.

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Armstrong, Joslyn, Fiorella L. Carlos Chavez, Julia H. Jones, Shar’Dane Harris, and Gregory J. Harris. "“A Dream Deferred”: How Discrimination Impacts the American Dream Achievement for African Americans." Journal of Black Studies 50, no. 3 (2019): 227–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021934719833330.

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The American Dream (TAD) is an ideological symbol of achievement and success in American culture. Historical barriers to equal opportunities and economic attainment through racial discrimination have limited access to TAD for African Americans. Barriers of discrimination also reduce the perception of one’s life satisfaction, which can further affect the beliefs of ever obtaining TAD. The present research evaluated the effects of discrimination and life satisfaction on perceptions of achieving TAD among a sample of N = 1,081 African American adults. Results showed that higher levels of discrimination led to higher odds of African Americans believing that they would never achieve TAD. Income was also significantly associated with TAD attainment, as were age, marital status, and education level. Group differences were found for marital status, age, income, life satisfaction, education, and being worse off financially compared to one’s parents. These results support strain theory and racial threat theory by identifying the relationship between discrimination and perceptions of being able to achieve TAD. Those who reported having achieved TAD were more likely to have higher life satisfaction, more successful careers, more financial wealth compared to previous generations, and higher education levels, showing distinct group differences. The study concludes with recommendations for future research into the definition and measurement of TAD and the barriers to attainment for African American families.

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Perna, Laura W. "Retaining African Americans in Higher Education: Challenging Paradigms for Retaining Students, Faculty, and Administrators (review)." Journal of Higher Education 73, no. 5 (2002): 652–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2002.0049.

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Moss, Hilary J. "Education's Inequity: Opposition to Black Higher Education in Antebellum Connecticut." History of Education Quarterly 46, no. 1 (2006): 16–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2006.tb00168.x.

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New Haven, thou hast rashly done a deed,Which shrouds thy glory in a black eclipse;Whereof in view the hearts of good men bleed,The friend, yet, strange to tell, the foe of light!Preceptor of the age, yet dost denyTo Brethren—countrymen—the common rightTheir empty minds with knowledge to supply!Encourager of learning-science-artsYet hostile to a race who fain would learn!When from the dust a sable brother starts,Suffering thy cheeks with angry fire to burn!Would I might give the honors of Old Yale,To blot from history's page this most disgraceful tale.—William Lloyd Garrison, October 8, 1831.In the late 1820s, African Americans’ access to primary and religious instruction expanded significantly throughout the urban Northeast, yet barriers to their higher education remained firm. Segregated in public “African” schools, blacks were also barred from most private academies. Collegiate education similarly remained out of reach. In response, an alliance of black and white abolitionists launched a campaign to build a separate “African” college in 1831. Two ministers, one black, Peter Williams from New York, the other white, Simeon Jocelyn from New Haven, led the endeavor. After much consideration, they selected New Haven, Connecticut to house the new institution, believing that in “no place in the Union” is the “situation [of blacks] more comfortable, or the prejudices of a community weaker against them.” On September 5, 1831, Williams and Jocelyn announced their intentions. Their timing could not have been worse.

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Nixon, Harold L. "African-Americans in the 21st Century: The Agony and Promise of Higher Education." Journal of School Leadership 3, no. 3 (1993): 303–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/105268469300300307.

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A college education holds many promises for those who partake of it. As the 21st century approaches and as America's political and economic position in the world marketplace becomes more threatened, the intrinsic value of the college degree will become more prominent. This article discusses the future prospects of increasing the participation rate of African-American students in higher education. Institutional executive and faculty leadership dedicated to providing an environment where all students can achieve their maximum potential will be committed to finding common ground between First Amendment Rights and campus civility.

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Knight, Linda, Elizabeth Davenport, Patricia Green- Powell, and Adriel A. Hilton. "The Role of Historically Black Colleges or Universities in Today's Higher Education Landscape." International Journal of Education 4, no. 2 (2012): 223. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ije.v4i2.1650.

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Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) are effective in graduating African American students who are poised to be competitive in the corporate, research, academic, governmental and military arenas. Specifically, over half of all African American professionals are graduates of HBCUs. Nine of the top ten colleges that graduate the most African Americans who go on to earn PhDs are from HBCUs. More than 50% of the nation’s African American public school teachers and 70% of African American dentists earned degrees at HBCUs. Finally, both Spelman and Bennett Colleges produce over half of the nation’s African American female doctorates in all science fields. This article discusses the importance of HBCUs in today’s higher education landscape.

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Ritter, Zachary S. "International Students’ Perceptions of Race and Socio-Economic Status in an American Higher Education Landscape." Journal of International Students 6, no. 2 (2016): 367–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.32674/jis.v6i2.362.

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International students add a great deal of cultural and intellectual diversity to college campuses, but they also bring racial stereotypes and socio-economic status hierarchies that can affect campus climate. Forty-seven interviews with Chinese, Japanese, and South Korean international students were conducted. Results indicated that a majority of students had racial and status hierarchies and harbored prejudices toward African-Americans and Southeast Asians. Perceptions of Asian-Americans were mixed. Negative perceptions of Latinos were learned in the U.S., however positive perceptions of Latinos were held by South Korean students who had lived in the U.S. longer. This status hierarchy correlated closely with a racial hierarchy. A lack of opportunities to interact with diverse students led to stereotype proliferation. More policies and programs must be created that reduce misunderstandings between international and domestic students.

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Mouzon, Dawne M., Robert Joseph Taylor, Ann W. Nguyen, Mosi Adesina Ifatunji, and Linda M. Chatters. "Everyday Discrimination Typologies Among Older African Americans: Gender and Socioeconomic Status." Journals of Gerontology: Series B 75, no. 9 (2019): 1951–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz088.

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Abstract Objectives Discrimination is associated with several negative social, economic, and health consequences. Past research focuses on the impact of discrimination while less is known about both the type and correlates of discrimination, particularly among older adults. Methods Using the National Survey of American Life, we used latent class analysis to identify discrimination typologies (frequency and type) among African Americans aged 55 and older. We then used multinomial logistic regression to identify demographic correlates of discrimination types, including a statistical interaction between gender and educational attainment. Results We identified three discrimination typologies. Increasing age was associated with lower probability of belonging to the high discrimination and disrespect and condescension subtypes. Men and non-Southern residents were most likely to belong in the high discrimination subtype. Higher levels of education increased the probability of belonging in the high discrimination and disrespect and condescension subtypes for older men, but not women. Discussion Older African American men, particularly those with more education, are vulnerable to both high-frequency discrimination and discrimination characterized by disrespect and condescension. This finding suggests that, for men with more years of education, increased exposure to discrimination reflects efforts to maintain social hierarchies (male target hypothesis).

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Gallego-Noche, Beatriz, Cristina Goenechea, Inmaculada Antolínez‐Domínguez, and Concepción Valero‐Franco. "Towards Inclusion in Spanish Higher Education: Understanding the Relationship between Identification and Discrimination." Social Inclusion 9, no. 3 (2021): 81–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/si.v9i3.4065.

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It is more and more evident that there is diversity among university students, but this diversity encompasses a wide variety of personal characteristics that, on occasion, may be subject to rejection or discrimination. The feeling of inequality is the result of one stand‐alone characteristic or an intersection of many. To widen our knowledge of this diversity and to be able to design actions with an inclusive approach, we have set out to explore the relationship between students’ feelings of discrimination, their group identification and their intersections. Participants for the study are selected from protected groups which fall into the following criteria: ethnic minority, illness, migrant minority, disability, linguistic minority, sexual orientation, income, political ideology, gender, age and religion. We will refer to this relationship as the ‘discrimination rate.’ To fulfil our objective, we have given a questionnaire to a sample of 2,553 students from eight Spanish universities. The results indicate that the characteristics with which they most identify are religion, age, sex and political ideology. However, the highest rate of discrimination is linked to linguistic minority, ideology and migration. Regarding intersectionality, it is worth noting that 16.6% of students feel discriminated against for more than one characteristic, with the most frequent relationships being the following: (1) ethnic or migrant minorities (2) sexual orientation, sex, being under 30, leftist ideology, low income, linguistic minority and (3) Christian Catholic, right‐wing and upper‐class ideology.

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Wang, L. Ling-Chi. "Meritocracy and diversity in higher education: Discrimination against Asian Americans in the post-Bakke era." Urban Review 20, no. 3 (1988): 189–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01112009.

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Alio, Amina P., Cindi A. Lewis, Heather Elder, Wade Norwood, Kingdom Mufhandu, and Michael C. Keefer. "Self-Reported Experiences of Racial Discrimination Among African Americans in Upstate New York." Journal of Black Studies 51, no. 5 (2020): 481–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021934720925786.

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Racial discrimination in the United States continues to adversely affect health outcomes to the detriment of African Americans. To assess the experiences of residents of a metropolitan community with high rates of racial health disparities in upstate New York, we conducted a survey to measure the primary reasons for discrimination and their experiences with daily and lifetime discrimination, reactions to these experiences, and coping mechanisms. Of the 739 individuals who completed the survey in 2012, 71.5% self-reported as Black or African American. This article focuses on the experiences of Blacks or African Americans, among whom 76.2% reported having experienced racial discrimination at some point in their life. Respondents with higher levels of education and higher income were more likely to report experiencing racial discrimination at work, while for those with a high school education or less it was on the street or public spaces. The burden of these experiences affected individuals by making life more difficult and interfering with a productive life. In light of the known impact of racial discrimination on individual and population health and well-being, it is crucial that efforts to address social and health disparities take into account the high rates of experiences of racism.

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MACDONALD, VICTORIA-MARÍA, JOHN BOTTI, and LISA HOFFMAN CLARK. "From Visibility to Autonomy: Latinos and Higher Education in the U.S., 1965–2005." Harvard Educational Review 77, no. 4 (2007): 474–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.77.4.237044l2j74348l1.

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In this article, Victoria-María MacDonald, John M. Botti, and Lisa Hoffman Clark trace the evolution of higher educational opportunities for Latinos in the United States from the Higher Education Act of 1965 to the designation of Title V in the Act's 1998 reauthorization. The authors argue that this evolution moved through stages, including establishing visibility and legitimacy, self-determination, self-scrutiny, emulation, and, finally, autonomy. The journey toward improving higher educational opportunities for Latinos is juxtaposed with the journey experienced by African Americans in the United States. Because of the enormous historical, social, and political differences between the two groups, the models utilized by and for Blacks were viewed as inadequate for serving Latino needs in higher education. However, the model established by Historically Black Colleges and Universities inspired Latino educators to found Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs). The authors conclude their article by discussing contemporary issues surrounding HSIs and looking toward the future of Latino higher education.

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L. Wilkinson, Larrell, Jelani Kerr, Temple Smith, et al. "Psychological health and discrimination experience among graduate students: findings from the Stress Coping Obstruction Prevention & Education (SCOPE) Study." Ethnicity and Inequalities in Health and Social Care 7, no. 3 (2014): 122–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eihsc-11-2013-0049.

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Purpose – African-Americans historically report greater exposure to discrimination and also experience unfavorable outcomes associated with physical health, poverty concentration, residential segregation, and poorer education. The effects of discrimination are particularly harmful on mental health as discriminatory experiences contribute significantly to diminished mental health status and psychological distress. African-Americans pursuing graduate education may experience additional stressors, increasing the risk for poorer mental health. The purpose of this paper is to examine the association of psychological health and discrimination experiences among black and white graduate students at a southeastern university. Design/methodology/approach – Participants were 505 graduate students at a predominantly white southeastern institution. Researchers collected data via self-administered online and paper questionnaires during the spring 2010 semester. Graduate students were asked questions pertaining to individual demographics, discrimination, and psychosocial concerns. Findings – Approximately 15 percent of the graduate students reported psychological distress. Additionally, black graduate students reported significantly higher levels of day-to-day and lifetime discrimination when compared to white graduate students. In addition to the proportions of psychological distress differing by race, African-American graduate students reported better psychological well-being when exposed to both day-to-day and lifetime discrimination than whites with similar exposure. Practical implications – Resilience factors and coping strategies should be examined further among African-American graduate students for greater understanding. Moreover, it is important to develop applications to improve mental health outcomes for all graduate students. Originality/value – This is one of the few studies to focus on the mental health and discrimination experiences among a graduate student population. The sample is drawn from the southeastern USA where there are long vestiges of discrimination and a sizable sampling of African-Americans who live in the USA.

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Assari, Shervin. "Parental Education Attainment and Educational Upward Mobility; Role of Race and Gender." Behavioral Sciences 8, no. 11 (2018): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bs8110107.

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Background. The Minorities’ Diminished Return theory suggests that education attainment and other socioeconomic resources have smaller effects on the health and well-being of African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities compared to Whites. Racial and ethnic differences in the processes involved with educational upward mobility may contribute to the diminished returns of education attainment for African Americans compared to Whites. Aim: This study compared African Americans and non-Hispanic Whites for the effect of parental education attainment on educational upward mobility and explored gender differences in these effects. Methods. The National Survey of American Life (NSAL 2003) is a nationally representative survey of American adults. Participants included 891 non-Hispanic White and 3570 African American adults. Gender, race/ethnicity, age, highest parental education attainment, and respondents’ educational attainment were measured. Data were analyzed using linear regression models. Results. Overall, higher parental education attainment was associated with higher educational upward mobility (b = 0.34, p < 0.001), however, this boosting effect was significantly smaller for African Americans compared to Whites (b = −0.13, p = 0.003). Our further analysis showed that race by parental education attainment can be found for females (b = −0.14, p = 0.013) but not males (p > 0.05). Conclusion. African American females are at a disadvantage compared to White females regarding the effect of parental education attainment on their educational upward mobility, a phenomenon which could not be observed when comparing African American and White males. These results advocate for taking intersectionality frameworks to study the effects of race, gender, and class in the US.

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O'Brien, Wini M. "Employment Discrimination in Education Related to Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: Legal Perspectives." Journal of School Leadership 2, no. 4 (1992): 379–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/105268469200200402.

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Leaders in education must be prepared to avoid discrimination against the increasing number of employed individuals with HIV/AIDS. The purpose of this article is to provide a relevant literature review of protections for disabled employees. Statutory and case law is explored, including the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. A case study in higher education is presented as an application of the review.

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Gusa, Diane Lynn. "White Institutional Presence: The Impact of Whiteness on Campus Climate." Harvard Educational Review 80, no. 4 (2010): 464–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.80.4.p5j483825u110002.

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In this conceptual paper, Diane Gusa highlights the salience of race by scrutinizing the culture of Whiteness within predominately White institutions of higher education. Using existing research in higher education retention literature, Gusa examines embedded White cultural ideology in the cultural practices, traditions, and perceptions of knowledge that are taken for granted as the norm at institutions of higher education. Drawing on marginalization and discrimination experiences of African American undergraduates to illustrate the performance of White mainstream ideology,Gusa names this embedded ideology White institutional presence (WIP) and assigns it four attributes: White ascendancy, monoculturalism, White estrangement,and White blindness.

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Reenen, Dionne van. "Maintaining Plausible Deniability: Detecting Mechanisms of Subtle Discrimination in a South African Higher Education Institution." International Journal of Educational Sciences 13, no. 1 (2016): 18–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09751122.2016.11890437.

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Nelson, Devin S., Julia M. Gerras, Kellye C. McGlumphy, et al. "Racial Discrimination and Low Household Education Predict Higher Body Mass Index in African American Youth." Childhood Obesity 14, no. 2 (2018): 114–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/chi.2017.0218.

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Gmerek, Tomasz. "The development of South African higher education within the apartheid system (1948-1994) – selected aspects." Biuletyn Historii Wychowania, no. 38 (October 11, 2019): 97–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/bhw.2018.38.7.

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The article include the consideration of development of South African Higher Education System in Apartheid Era (1948-1994). Particular emphasis was placed on reconstructing educational practices and policy that is implemented toward different racial groups in South Africa. An attempt was made at examining the relationship between schooling, segregation processes, discrimination practices and the development of higher education institutions.

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Wilder, Lynn, David Sanon, Cecil Carter, and Michael Lancellot. "Narrative Ethnographies of Diverse Faculty in Higher Education: “Moral” Multiculturalism among Competing Worldviews." Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 4, no. 2 (2017): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/76.

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Since the Civil Right Movement in the United States, African Americans and other diverse students have forged through “integrated” educational systems to terminal graduate degrees. Some studies suggest racial integration in U. S. schools made White participants less prejudiced toward others, although the data showed that after schooling, many Whites again lived (and still do) in segregated neighborhoods with separation in places of employment, churches, and social groups (Wells, Holme, Revilla, & Atanda, 2004). One diverse participant in this study asked whether, after decades of integration, there has been any real progress, citing excellent educational experiences with all Black teachers within the all Black schools where he grew up. Is it truly progress for diverse students when they are bussed across town to be treated as minorities in mostly White schools? More diverse students do graduate from college; however, the diversity rate of professors is still abysmal. This study reports the contextual experiences of three African American (one an administrator) and one Latina faculty member with decades of experience in the public educational system and as they engaged in the culture of higher education struggling with a moral multiculturalism—whether worldviews (therefore free speech) could be morally determined and whether they as diverse faculty truly belong and are truly respected.

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Danylchuk, Karen E. "Occupational Stressors in Physical Education Faculties." Journal of Sport Management 7, no. 1 (1993): 7–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.7.1.7.

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The prevalence of occupational Stressors in physical education faculties/ departments as a function of sex, age, marital status, family status, years of work experience in higher education, and type of appointment was examined through use of the Stress Diagnostic Survey (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1988a). This multidimensional self-report inventory consists of 17 dimensions, which are further subdivided into organizational Stressors (macrostressors) and individual Stressors (microstressors). The sample reported moderate degrees of stress in comparison to the normative data with the macrostressors being greater sources of stress than the microstressors. Quantitative overload was rated the highest followed by time pressure and rewards. Qualitative overload was rated lowest followed by role ambiguity and role conflict. Sex was associated with the greatest number of Stressors—gender discrimination, quantitative overload, and time pressure. Females perceived these three Stressors to be significantly greater sources of stress than did males.

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Sakamoto, Arthur, Ernesto F. L. Amaral, Sharron Xuanren Wang, and Courtney Nelson. "The Socioeconomic Attainments of Second-Generation Nigerian and Other Black Americans: Evidence from the Current Population Survey, 2009 to 2019." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 7 (January 2021): 237802312110019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23780231211001971.

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Second-generation black Americans have been inadequately studied in prior quantitative research. The authors seek to ameliorate this research gap by using the Current Population Survey to investigate education and wages among second-generation black Americans with a focus on Nigerian Americans. The latter group has been identified in some qualitative studies as having particularly notable socioeconomic attainments. The results indicate that the educational attainment of second-generation Nigerian Americans exceeds other second-generation black Americans, third- and higher generation African Americans, third- and higher generation whites, second-generation whites, and second-generation Asian Americans. Controlling for age, education, and disability, the wages of second-generation Nigerian Americans have reached parity with those of third- and higher generation whites. The educational attainment of other second-generation black Americans exceeds that of third- and higher generation African Americans but has reached parity with that of third- and higher generation whites only among women. These results indicate significant socioeconomic variation within the African American/black category by gender, ethnicity, and generational status that merits further research.

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Gillette, Michael L., and Amilcar Shabazz. "Advancing Democracy: African Americans and the Struggle for Access and Equity in Higher Education in Texas." Journal of Southern History 71, no. 2 (2005): 494. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/27648799.

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Behnken, Brian D., and Amilcar Shabazz. "Advancing Democracy: African Americans and the Struggle for Access and Equity in Higher Education in Texas." Arkansas Historical Quarterly 64, no. 1 (2005): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40018573.

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Kaba, Amadu J. "Progress of African Americans in higher education attainment: The widening gender gap and its current and future implications." education policy analysis archives 13 (April 6, 2005): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v13n25.2005.

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This research argues that despite all of the obstacles that African Americans have confronted in the history of the United States, they have made substantial progress in higher education attainment from the 1970s to the beginning of the 21st century. It reveals that the rise in attainment of college and university degrees has resulted in a substantial increase in living standards and that African Americans are making important economic, social and political contributions to the United States. I present several reasons why black males are not performing as well as black females in higher education attainment. Analyses are also presented regarding the current and future implications of the growing gap between black males and black females.

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DOTSON, VONETTA M., MELISSA H. KITNER-TRIOLO, MICHELE K. EVANS, and ALAN B. ZONDERMAN. "Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the relative influence of education and literacy on cognitive functioning." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 15, no. 4 (2009): 580–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355617709090821.

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AbstractPrevious research has shown that reading ability is a stronger predictor of cognitive functioning than years of education, particularly for African Americans. The current study was designed to determine whether the relative influence of literacy and education on cognitive abilities varies as a function of race or socioeconomic status (SES). We examined the unique influence of education and reading scores on a range of cognitive tests in low- and higher-SES African Americans and Whites. Literacy significantly predicted scores on all but one cognitive measure in both African American groups and low-SES Whites, while education was not significantly associated with any cognitive measure. In contrast, both education and reading scores predicted performance on many cognitive measures in higher-SES Whites. These findings provide further evidence that reading ability better predicts cognitive functioning than years of education and suggest that disadvantages associated with racial minority status and low SES affect the relative influence of literacy and years of education on cognition. (JINS, 2009,15, 580–589.)

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Freeman A. Hrabowski, III. "Broadening Participation in American Higher Education—A Special Focus on the Underrepresentation of African Americans in STEM Disciplines." Journal of Negro Education 87, no. 2 (2018): 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.87.2.0099.

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Goldrick-Rab, Sara, and Kathleen M. Shaw. "Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Impact of Work-First Policies on College Access." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 27, no. 4 (2005): 291–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/01623737027004291.

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The college participation rates of African Americans and Latinos continue to lag behind those of other racial and ethnic groups in the United States, despite the efforts of financial aid and affirmative action policies. Two recent federal policies that are “work-first” in nature threaten to further exacerbate racial and ethnic disparities in college access. This article examines the complex ways in which the 1996 welfare reform and the 1998 Workforce Investment Act differentially affect opportunities for college enrollment among disadvantaged adults. Utilizing national and state-level data, the authors argue that both policies restrict access to postsecondary education through the implementation of their guiding philosophy, “work-first,” which emphasizes rapid job placement as the strategy of choice in achieving stable employment and moving out of poverty. These policies have reduced the size of the clientele receiving welfare and restricted access to education and training for those who remain on the rolls. Moreover, this reduction in access is particularly acute among African Americans and Latinos. Thus, the findings indicate that these work-first federal policies serve to limit higher education opportunities available to these already disadvantaged populations.

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Swartzman, Leora C., Clive Seligman, and Wlliam J. McClelland. "Detecting Gender Discrimination in University Salaries: A Case Study." Canadian Journal of Higher Education 22, no. 1 (1992): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.47678/cjhe.v22i1.183119.

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To assess sex discrimination in university salary allocation accurately, one must determine whether gender explains the salary difference in and of itself, or exerts its influence through other variables, such as rank and departmental affiliation, that themselves affect salary and may correlate with gender. Using members of the Faculty of Social Science (N = 133) of a large Canadian university as a case sample, we assessed gender discrimination in promotion and gender differences in departmental affiliation as related to salary before including these two variables in statistical analyses predicting salary. No evidence was found for discrimination in promotion and women were not morie under-represented in the higher-salaried departments. Several regression models recommended in the literature for assessing gender discrimination in salaries were conducted and yielded convergent findings : male and female faculty similar on salary-relevant variables were equivalently paid. While these results should be reassuring, they would not go very far toward resolving salary discrimination disputes in the university studied or in most other academic institutions. The difficulties of applying the results of statistical analyses within a politically-charged arena are discussed.

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Freeman, Kassie. "Amilcar Shabazz, Advancing Democracy: African Americans and the Struggle for Access and Equity in Higher Education in Texas." Journal of African American History 90, no. 4 (2005): 450–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/jaahv90n4p450.

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Khuc, Thi, Christian Jackson, and Daniel Chao. "Impact of telemedicine on colonoscopy education among veterans." Journal of Clinical Oncology 37, no. 27_suppl (2019): 276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jco.2019.37.27_suppl.276.

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276 Background: The VA Loma Linda Healthcare System (LLVA) offers an in-person colonoscopy education class (IPCC) and a telehealth based education class to patients living closer to outlying VA designated Community Based Outpatient Clinics (CBOCs). We noticed a significant number of cancellations and no-shows for colonoscopy from patients who sought care from CBOCS. We developed a telehealth based colonoscopy class (TBCC) to be given at CBOCs. The primary aim of the study was to determine effectiveness of TBCC compared to IPCC on class attendance rates, colonoscopy attendance and quality measures of colonoscopy. Methods: We reviewed records of 1429 LLVA and CBOC patients referred for colonoscopy class from April 2014 to April 2015. Primary end points were polyp detection rate (PDR), adenomas detection rate (ADR) and adenocarcinoma detection rate (ACDR). Secondary endpoints were attendance to TBCC and IPCC and attendance to colonoscopy. Attendance was defined as compliance with the first scheduled appointment. We examined age, BMI, sex, race, and indication for colonoscopy in the IPCC and TBCC populations. Results: TBCC attendance rate was higher than IPCC (p = 0.001). There was no difference in attendance to colonoscopy (p = 0.50). Patients receiving primary care at CBOCs more likely chose TBCC; patients receiving primary care at LLVA more likely chose IPCC (92.53% vs 24.77%, p < 0.0001). African Americans and Hispanics more likely chose IPCC; Whites more likely chose TBCC (p = .01). Patients with family history of colorectal cancer or bright red blood per rectum more likely chose IPCC (p = 0.004, p = 0.008). Sixty eight percent of colonoscopy preparations were noted to be good. There was no difference in the number of good preparations between TBCC and IPCC groups (94.3% and 96%, p = 0.025). ADR was higher in patients who received IPCC (44.55% and 52.17%, p = 0.02). There was no significant difference in PDR and ACDR between TBCC and IPCC groups. Conclusions: A TBCC program can increase patient attendance to colonoscopy preparation training without negatively affecting quality of colonoscopy preparation. Prospective, randomized studies on differences in adenoma detection and distance from home residence on class and colonoscopy attendance rates is needed.

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Oliver, M. Norman, and Carles Muntaner. "Researching Health Inequities among African Americans: The Imperative to Understand Social Class." International Journal of Health Services 35, no. 3 (2005): 485–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/ppqx-47dy-kw0x-78y8.

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Racial and ethnic inequities in health abound in many disease categories. African-American communities suffer from an increased burden of illness, with higher incidence and mortality rates and more severe morbidity in cerebrovascular disease, heart disease, several cancers, diabetes, and many other ailments. Healthy People 2010, the federal government's health plan, calls for eliminating health disparities by race, ethnicity, gender, education, income, disability, geographic location, or sexual orientation. Research aimed at increasing our understanding of these health disparities and designing and evaluating interventions to improve African-American health is hampered by a liberal, classless approach. The authors argue for a theoretical framework in this research that recognizes that class exploitation sets the stage for and interacts with racial discrimination to determine racial inequities in health.

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Jackson, Jerlando F. L. "Introduction: Engaging, Retaining, and Advancing African Americans in Executive-Level Positions: A Descriptive and Trend Analysis of Academic Administrators in Higher and Postsecondary Education." Journal of Negro Education 73, no. 1 (2004): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3211256.

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Assari, Shervin, Shanika Boyce, Golnoush Akhlaghipour, Mohsen Bazargan, and Cleopatra H. Caldwell. "Reward Responsiveness in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education." Brain Sciences 10, no. 6 (2020): 391. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10060391.

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(1) Background: Reward responsiveness (RR) is a risk factor for high-risk behaviors such as aggressive behaviors and early sexual initiation, which are all reported to be higher in African American and low socioeconomic status adolescents. At the same time, parental education is one of the main drivers of reward responsiveness among adolescents. It is still unknown if some of this racial and economic gap is attributed to weaker effects of parental education for African Americans, a pattern also called minorities’ diminished returns (MDRs). (2) Aim: We compared non-Hispanic White and African American adolescents for the effects of parent education on adolescents RR, a psychological and cognitive construct that is closely associated with high-risk behaviors such as the use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. (3) Methods: This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 7072 adolescents from the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was parent education. The main outcome as adolescents’ RR measured by the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) measure. (4) Results: In the overall sample, high parent education was associated with lower levels of RR. In the overall sample, we found a statistically significant interaction between race and parent education on adolescents’ RR. The observed statistical interaction term suggested that high parent education is associated with a weaker effect on RR for African American than non-Hispanic White adolescents. In race-stratified models, high parent education was only associated with lower RR for non-Hispanic White but not African American adolescents. (5) Conclusion: Parent education reduces RR for non-Hispanic White but not African American adolescents. To minimize the racial gap in brain development and risk-taking behaviors, we need to address societal barriers that diminish the returns of parent education and resources in African American families. We need public and social policies that target structural and societal barriers, such as the unequal distribution of opportunities and resources. To meet such an aim, we need to reduce the negative effects of social stratification, segregation, racism, and discrimination in the daily lives of African American parents and families. Through an approach like this, African American families and parents can effectively mobilize their resources and utilize their human capital to secure the best possible tangible outcomes for their adolescents.

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J, Ryan, Kreiner D, Myers-Fabian A, and Gontkovsky S. "A-123 Effects of Ethnicity, Educational Attainment, and Severity of Traumatic Brain Injury on Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Index Scores." Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 35, no. 6 (2020): 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa068.123.

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Abstract Objective This study utilized a culturally diverse sample with traumatic brain injury (TBI) to examine effects of ethnicity on the Verbal Comprehension (VCI), Perceptual Reasoning (PRI), Working Memory (WMI), and Processing Speed (PSI) indices of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition while controlling for education and injury severity. Hypotheses were that education and ethnicity would significantly influence all indices, the latter to a lesser extent, and injury severity would most strongly affect PSI scores. Method Participants were 43 trauma center admissions with documented head injury. Mean age and education were 32.16 and 13.88 years, respectively. There were 14 Euro-, 17 Hispanic-, and 12 African-Americans. Results ANCOVAs revealed significant effects for education across indices. Significant effects were found for ethnicity on the VCI and PRI and injury severity on the PSI. Post hoc comparisons indicated Euro- and Hispanic-Americans did not differ on VCI but performed significantly higher than African-Americans. Euro-Americans performed significantly better than African-Americans on the PRI, but comparable performance emerged between Euro- and Hispanic-Americans and between African- and Hispanic-Americans. Groups did not differ on the WMI or PSI. Conclusions Education and ethnicity accounted for most of the variance in VCI and PRI. Analysis of the WMI revealed education produced a significant effect, but ethnicity and injury severity did not. On the PSI, education and injury severity had significant effects. PSI was the only composite to which injury severity made a statistically significant contribution. Despite the small sample size, findings have important implications in the intellectual assessment of individuals with TBI.

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Zhang, Qian, and Stephen J. Thoma. "An Empirical Cross-Cultural Study of Moral Judgment Development in Mainland China." ETHICS IN PROGRESS 7, no. 1 (2016): 228–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/eip.2016.1.15.

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The Chinese version of Rest’s Defining Issues Test II was administered to 113 subjects in Mainland China (n=113, average age=34.7). The scores on development of moral judgment were compared with those of the online mega sample of American participants from 2011 to 2014. Results are as followings: 1. Chinese participants show the same pattern with Americans by both sex and education. 2. Chinese participants show different pattern from Americans by religious orthodoxy and humanitarian. 3. Chinese participants score higher in meaningless items than Americans. 4. Chinese participants score higher in stage 3 while Americans score higher in stage 4. The authors draw the conclusions as follows: with Chinese participants, 1. There is a significant relationship between education and moral judgment developmental index scores. 2. There is also a significant relationship between sex and moral judgment developmental index scores. 3. There shows no significant relationship between religious orthodoxy and moral judgment developmental index scores. 4. It is more difficult for them to tell the meaningless items in DIT2. 5. Since Chinese culture thinks less of laws and norms, Chinese participants favour personal interest schema more than maintaining norms schema.

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Ribeiro, César, and Carlos Santos Pinho. "The Ethics of Tax Evasion: Relevant Demographic Variables within the scope of Higher Education Students and Professors." Archives of Business Research 8, no. 10 (2020): 24–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/abr.810.9128.

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The purpose of our study is to determine the depth of various arguments that have emerged to justify tax evasion as an ethical procedure considering several demographic variables. Data collection was done using a questionnaire addressed to professors and students of higher management and non-management courses. This instrument was based on the 18 statements reflecting the three views of tax evasion ethics used by McGee and Benk [1]. Using a 5-point Likert scale, it is intended to evaluate whether the arguments contained in the statements have an effect on the perception of tax evasion as an ethical procedure and whether the previous effect varies according to age, sex, bachelor degree and income level. A universe of 406,980 individuals was determined using official information (sample: 384 individuals). Principal Component Analysis was used, as well as the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Statistics in order to measure the adequacy of the input matrix. After the extraction of the components three variables were identified: “Always Ethical”, “Waste, Corruption and Injustice” and “Discrimination and Oppressive Regimes” (Cronbach's Alpha results: 0.887, 0.85 and 0.862). “Discrimination and Oppressive Regimes” is the one that has values closest to “totally agree” that tax evasion is ethical. In general, older men with higher incomes tend to disagree about the ethics of tax evasion. The originality of the study is reflected in the controversial relationship between Ethics and Evasion and the source of the data collected. Interacting with professors and students allows the business and academic components to be combined.

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Choun, Soyoung, Sungrok Kang, Hyunyup Lee, and Carolyn M. Aldwin. "DISCRIMINATION, STRESS, AND MORTALITY AMONG BLACKS AND WHITES." Innovation in Aging 3, Supplement_1 (2019): S724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igz038.2653.

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Abstract Mortality rates have declined significantly in the past decades. However, Case and Deaton (2015) showed that middle-aged white Americans with lower education levels have increasing mortality rates. Although some have suggested that stress is an important factor in both this and in racial/ethnic disparities in mortality, relatively few studies have examined vulnerability to stress and mortality, and typically have examined only one type of stress. We examined racial/ethnic and gender differences in different types of stressors, from everyday discrimination, to lifetime trauma, as well as differential mortality risk due to stress vulnerability. Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), the sample consisted of 6,810 (Mage=68.9 years, SD=10.1) who completed the Psychosocial Questionnaire (PQ) in 2006; mortality was assessed to 2014. Blacks were higher on most stressors except for lifetime trauma. Women reported higher level of financial strain but lower levels of everyday discrimination and lifetime trauma than men. Controlling for demographics and self-rated health, Cox proportional hazard models revealed that everyday discrimination, financial strain, SLEs, lifetime trauma were significantly associated with the risk of mortality. There were no significant racial/ethnic differences in mortality risk. However, interaction effects showed that whites had higher mortality risk with lifetime trauma than Blacks, while those with lower education had higher mortality risk for SLEs. This supports the idea that lower education whites may be more susceptible to some types of stressors, providing a possible mechanism for Case and Deaton’s finding (2015) of increasing mortality risk in this group.

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Guthrie, John T., Cassandra S. Coddington, and Allan Wigfield. "Profiles of Reading Motivation among African American and Caucasian Students." Journal of Literacy Research 41, no. 3 (2009): 317–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10862960903129196.

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Previous research has investigated motivations for reading by examining positive or affirming motivations, including intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. Related to them, we examined two negative, or undermining, motivations consisting of avoidance and perceived difficulty. We proposed that the motivations of intrinsic motivation and avoidance are relatively independent and thus can be combined to form meaningful profiles consisting of avid, ambivalent, apathetic, and averse readers. With Grade 5 students we found that these motivations were relatively independent for both Caucasian and African American students. The two motivations uniquely explained a significant proportion of variance in reading comprehension and other cognitive reading variables. Although intrinsic motivation correlated higher with achievement than avoidance for Caucasians, avoidance correlated higher with achievement than intrinsic motivation for African Americans. For both groups, the profile of avid readers showed higher reading achievement than the other profiles.

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FIORI, KATHERINE L., NATHAN S. CONSEDINE, and CAROL MAGAI. "Ethnic differences in patterns of social exchange among older adults: the role of resource context." Ageing and Society 28, no. 4 (2008): 495–524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0144686x07006940.

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ABSTRACTUsing social capital and social exchange theories, this investigation examined ethnic variation in patterns of social exchange in two heterogeneous racial groups, Blacks and Whites in the United States, and the effects of education and income on these patterns. The sample was 1,043 people aged 65–86 years from four ethnic groups (US-born European-Americans, immigrant Russians/Ukrainians, US-born African-Americans, and immigrant English-speaking Caribbeans) who had provided details of their instrumental and advice exchanges with kin and non-kin. Hierarchical multinomial logistic regressions were used to predict patterns of social exchange, variations by ethnicity, income and education, and the interactions. Ethnic differences in patterns of social exchange were found, but almost all were qualified by interactions. Those with income showed within-group heterogeneity: African-Americans and Russians/Ukrainians with higher income were more likely to engage in reciprocal instrumental kin exchange, whereas among English-speaking Caribbeans and European-Americans such exchanges were not associated with income. Unlike among European-Americans and English-speaking Caribbeans, Russians/Ukrainians with higher income and education were more likely to engage in reciprocal non-kin exchange. The findings suggest that ethnic variation in social exchange reflects both aspects of ethnic group membership and the relational context, as well as the enactment of reciprocity values in varying resource contexts.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Education, Higher Education, Higher Education, Higher African Americans Sex discrimination in education'

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