Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Egg incubation'

International Telemetering Conference Proceedings / October 29-November 02, 1990 / Riviera Hotel and Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nevada
A series of artificial eggs has been developed for the New York Zoological Society to measure conditions in the nest of the white-naped crane (Grus Vipio). Investigations undertaken at the Bronx Zoo have endeavored to improve artificial incubation of the eggs of endangered species of birds. Artificial eggs were constructed and camouflaged so that a pair of birds would accept and incubate them. Inside each counterfeit egg, a radio telemetry transmitter was hidden to report on the temperature and humidity in the nest and the orientation of the egg itself with respect to gravity.

Orientador: Nelson Luis Cappelli
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agricola
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Resumo: O aumento na demanda da produção de avicultura de corte no Brasil faz que seja necessário o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias que melhorem a operacionalidade das máquinas incubadoras. Na atualidade existem problemas no controle de variáveis físicas no espaço confinado das incubadoras que impedem maximizar a eclosão dos ovos e afetam o desempenho do pintainho pós-eclosão. Dois destas variáveis que são tema de estudo neste trabalho são a temperatura do embrião e a perda de massa do ovo, as quais são determinantes em todo o processo pois afetam as taxas de bicagem interna e de nascimentos com sucesso. Não existem dispositivos que quantifiquem estes fatores, causando o seu desconhecimento dentro das incubadoras. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvido um sistema de medição de temperatura por sensores com contato, comparando o seu funcionamento com um sensor sem contato (Infravermelho), utilizado em medições preliminares dentro das máquinas. Foi também desenvolvido um sistema de medição de peso para quantificar a perda de massa do ovo. Para a medição da temperatura com contato foi desenvolvido um dispositivo com cinco sensores tipo circuito integrado previamente calibrados, dos quais, três foram dispostos em contato com a casca do ovo, e dois foram posicionados a 10mm da casca para medir a temperatura ambiente. Como temperatura de referência foi assumida a registrada dentro de um ovo instrumentado com três sensores tipo circuito integrado. Com o fim de simular o ambiente interno da incubadora, o ovo instrumentado, o sensor com contato e o sensor sem contato foram posicionados em um duto de ar construído em madeira de média densidade (MDF). Neste local, foram simuladas duas condições do processo de incubação: no inicio quando é preciso fornecer calor por parte da máquina para aquecer o ovo e no final quando devido à máxima produção de calor do embrião, a máquina resfria o ovo; verificando-se nas duas situações a exatidão e a influência da velocidade do ar nas leituras de temperatura dos sensores. Para a medição da massa foram usados quatro sensores de força extensométricos fixados a uma subestrutura de uma prateleira que faz parte de uma máquina de incubação de estágio único. Realizou-se a calibração estática na capacidade nominal e na faixa de utilização do sistema, com cargas de ovos colocados em duas bandejas de incubação com a finalidade de obter as principais características estáticas e a equação de calibração. Verificou-se também a influência da viragem dos ovos nas leituras da massa. O dispositivo de medição de temperatura com contato registrou maior exatidão nas leituras das duas condições simuladas. A menor exatidão deste dispositivo apresentou-se no resfriamento do ovo, chegando próximo de 96% do valor de referência; sendo esta diminuição conseqüência direta da alteração da temperatura ambiente. A velocidade do ar não influenciou nas leituras de nenhum dos sistemas de medição de temperatura. O sensor sem contato devido ao menor tempo de resposta, registrou leituras menos exatas. Em condições de regime permanente o sensor sem contato registra 3ºC de erro respeito ao valor de referência. Na calibração do sistema de pesagem na capacidade nominal e na faixa útil, registraram-se baixos valores de histerese, não linearidade e repetitividade. O erro da diferença entre a massa de referência e a massa calculada diminuiu na faixa de utilização. A influência da viragem dos ovos foi desprezível e não interferiu na precisão das leituras do valor da massa.
Abstract: The increasing demand of the poultry farming production in Brazil requires the development of new technologies that improve the results of the incubator machines. At the present time, there are some problems in the control of physical variables of the confined space of the incubators that don't allow to maximize the hatching eggs and that affect the chick performance in farm. Two of these variables; subject of study in this work, are the temperature of the embryo and the loss of mass of the egg, which are determinant through all the process because they affect the pipping measures and the number of successful births. Unfortunately till now it does not exist an adequate device that quantifies these factors, causing ignorance about it. In this work, a temperature measurement system by sensors with contact was developed, comparing its performance with a sensor without contact (Infrared), which was used in preliminary measurements inside the incubators. It was also developed a weight measurement system to quantify the loss of mass of the egg. In order to apply the measurement of temperature with contact, it was developed a device with five integrated circuit type sensors previously calibrated, three of them were in contact with the eggshell, and two of them were placed to 10mm from the eggshell to measure the air temperature around the egg. As temperature of reference it was assumed the registered one inside an instrumented egg was manufactured with three integrated circuit type sensors. In order to simulate the internal atmosphere of the incubator, the instrumented egg, the sensor with contact and the sensor without contact were placed in a tunnel of air built in wood of medium density. In this place, two conditions of the incubation process were simulated: at the beginning when it is necessary that the machine supplies heat to heat up the egg and finally when the machine cool the egg due to the maximum production of heat of the embryo; being verified in the two situations the accuracy and the influence of the air speed in the sensors temperature recordings. For the measurement of the mass, four load cells were used; they were fit and set to a shelf substructure which belong to a part of a single-stage incubation machine. The static calibration of the system was made in the nominal capacity and the rank of use, with egg placed in two incubation trays with the purpose of obtaining the main static characteristics and the calibration equation. The influence of the eggs turning in the recordings of the mass was also verified. The device of temperature measurement with contact registered a highest accuracy in the recordings of the two simulated conditions. The smallest accuracy of this device appeared or was presented during the cooling of the egg, almost achieving a 96% from the reference value, being this decrease a direct consequence of the air temperature alteration. The air speed did not influence in the recordings of any of the temperature measurement systems. The sensor without contact registered less accuracy recordings, due to its smallest delay time. In conditions of equilibrium the sensor without contact registers 3°C of error in relation to the reference value. In the calibration of the weight system in the nominal capacity and the interval of use, low values of hysteresis were registered, there were nonlinearity and repeatability. The error of the dissimilarity between the mass of reference and the calculated mass diminished in the interval of use. The influence of the eggs turning was trivial and it did not interfere in the precision of the readings of the value of the mass.
Mestrado
Maquinas Agricolas
Mestre em Engenharia Agrícola

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the facilitating factors that lead towards innovation through the management of corporate incubation process. Design/methodology/approach: This research was conducted through utilising the multiple case study research design. The interviews were semi structured (Skype and in person) with multinational companies having corporate incubators. Number of interviews conducted were 13 in 6 companies out of 12 companies contacted. Theoretical framework: The theoretical framework firstly encompasses corporate incubation process literature that relates it to innovation, followed by the description of the business incubation process and corporate incubation process and comparison between both. Lastly, the facilitating factors that are identified from theory related to general business incubation process by (Patton et al. 2009) are identified for investigation on corporate incubation process. Afterwards the proposed drivers related to each facilitating factor and literature associated with themare elaborated in order to thoroughly explain the identified facilitating factors’ impact on corporate incubation process. Findings: From the findings, innovation can be considered as the outcome of corporate incubation process. The results showed that the factors: a quality ‘pipeline’, picking the winners, developing commercialisation skills in new tenant/client companies’ team, monitoring and evaluating progress, creating synergies within the internal support network, building and maintaining an effective external support network, access to appropriate funding streams and managed exit are the facilitating factors for the management of corporate incubation process. The drivers proposed in the existing study are proven to be useful in order to explain the impact of these facilitating factors on corporate incubation process. Furthermore, it is found that out of these eight facilitating factors, having a quality pipeline is the most important factor that should be developed and improved, in order to make the corporate incubation process more efficient. Managerial implications: For managers of multinational firms, it is recommended that they should utilise the corporate incubation process in order to contribute towards organisational innovation. However, the purpose of bringing innovation should be aligned with the long term objectives of the firm. Furthermore, they should concentrate on developing a quality pipeline of ideas in the initial phase of the process, since it will reduce the chances of failure of projects at a later stage of the corporate incubation process. Limitations: Small sample size without adequately diverse geographical spread. Since,the study is conducted on the basis of interviews of 6 multinational firms having corporate incubators, and out of which majority were from Northern European countries. Originality/value: This paper is one of the first to analyse the facilitating factors leading towards innovation exclusively for corporate incubation process by interviewing those multinational firms which are currently following the process.

The source of a reliable supply of seed is one of the most important factors determining the success of aquaculture. At present mud crab culture is reliant on wild caught juveniles, which limits the expansion of mud crab farming globally. This, coupled with the paucity of knowledge of the spawning and egg characteristics of mud crabs, prompted the investigation into the captive spawning, incubation and egg quality of Scylla serrata in South Africa. A total of 112 mature females were caught from three estuaries in northern KwaZulu Natal and acclimated to captive conditions. Mature females were present in the estuaries throughout the year and ranged from 90 to 200 mm carapace width. Except for 40 crabs all the females spawned in captivity. On average spawning took place 38 ± 23 days after capture but was not dependent on crab size. Fecundity was significantly correlated to crab size (p = 0.026), with larger females producing more eggs. The average fecundity per batch was 5.79 ± 2.07 million eggs. Hatch success rate for all egg batches was high averaging 84 ± 6 %. Egg dropping occurred in all egg batches during incubation. On average 6.5 % of the egg mass was dropped during incubation. At the average temperature of 27⁰C eggs in the incubation system hatched within 292 ± 12 hours after extrusion. In-vitro incubation of eggs proved to be an ineffective means of incubating Scylla serrata eggs with a hatch success rate of only 25 ± 5 %. Egg quality was assessed both directly, using variables such as hatch success rate and hatch synchronicity and retrospectively by using stress tests and comparing survival of larvae from different coloured egg batches. Lipid class composition and fatty acid methyl ester content for 28 batches of eggs and 16 batches of larvae were analyzed. The biochemical composition of the egg was correlated to survival of larvae in the stress tests to ascertain if the lipid content of the eggs determines their quality. Stress tests were used to retrospectively assess egg quality. Four stressors were administered to newly hatched larvae and the LD50 values recorded. An average LD50 of 64 hours was recorded for the starvation tests, 40% for the salinity tests, 37 ppm for the formalin tests and 39.7 mg/l NH3 for the ammonia stress tests was recorded. Egg colour ranged from pale yellow to orange-red. Egg colour was not influenced by female size or the time the females spent in captivity prior to spawning. Egg colour can therefore not be used as an indicator of quality. The lipid profiles of newly extruded eggs had no effect on hatch synchronicity or hatch success rate. However, the stress tests identified female size (p ≤ 0.02), DHA content of the egg (p ≤ 0.02), Σ omega-3 fatty acids of eggs (p ≤ 0.02) and EPA content of eggs (p ≤ 0.007) as possible determinants of egg quality. Larger crabs tended to produce poorer quality eggs. Egg quality also decreased as the amount of DHA, EPA and the Σ omega-3 fatty acids decreased in the eggs. To summarize, the results of this study indicated that the following parameters affect egg quality - crab size, DHA, EPA and Σ omega-3 fatty acid content of eggs.

The regulation of egg temperature requires the transfer of heat from the brood patch. Thus, the brood patch needs the presence of thermo receptors as well as an appropriate vasomotor response. During the incubation an exact detection of the egg’s temperature is essential. So, in this study we attempted to detect the presence and regulation of the expressionof  thermoTRP channels (thermo Transient Receptor Potential channels) (TRPV1, TRPV3, TRPV4, TRPM8 and TRPA1) during egg incubation. Six incubating Jungle fowl hens, and five non incubating jungle fowl hens and one jungle fowl cock were used as main samples and controls. Total RNA was extracted from liver, kidney, heart, blood, White Blood Cell, Dorsal Root Ganglion and skin. The samples from the skin were taken from the brood patch and inter scapular region. PCR investigation showed that different thermo TRP channels were expressed in different tissues. TRPV1, V3, V4 and M8 mRNA were detected in the skin of brood patch. However, V1 and V3 expression in the brood patch skin did not differ between broody and non broody hens. In conclusion, although considerable morphological changes in the skin of brood patch could be seen, the expression of TRPV1 and V3 channels did not change significantly, but this cannot exclude the alteration in the expression of TRP channels in different stages of broodiness or specific parts of skin like AVAs (Arteriovenous anastomosis) which will be the subject for more studies.

Tuatara (Sphenodon spp.) were once widespread over both the North and the South Islands of New Zealand approximately 1000 years ago but are now restricted to offshore islands due to introduced predators and habitat destruction. The survival of tuatara is now threatened by climate change because of isolation on islands that prevent them from migrating to cooler regions, and by their limited capacity to adapt due to their long life span and low genetic diversity. The thermal suitability of cooler regions for future translocations could be the key for tuatara conservation. The overall aim of the study was to determine the effect of cool temperature on the physiology, behaviour and egg incubation of Cook Strait tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). As well answering specific questions about tuatara and their adaptation to cool temperature this study aimed at answering general questions about the behavioural and evolutionary ecology of reptiles. I first compared the preferred body temperature, feeding responses and tolerance to cold temperature of tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) with three lizard species that inhabit the Otago region of southern New Zealand: Hoplodactylus maculatus, Naultinus gemmeus and Oligosoma maccanni. As well as testing the co-adaptation hypothesis between preferred body temperature and physiological performance of reptiles, I wanted to determine whether tuatara (which are planned to be reintroduced from a warmer site to the Otago region) have similar responses to cool temperature as do Otago lizard species. I found that tuatara show responses to cold temperatures similar to those of lizards from southern New Zealand, suggesting that if tuatara are translocated outside of their geographical range, they are likely to survive. I then tested if tuatara were capable of modifying their thermoregulatory behaviour if translocated to a cooler region. To do so, I conducted a laboratory experiment in which tuatara were provided with three thermal treatments corresponding to the thermal environments they would experience in their current habitat and the proposed reintroduction site. Contrary to the prediction of the cost-benefit model of thermoregulation, tuatara became active thermoregulators when the thermal quality of the habitat decreased. The results suggest that the model is less applicable to cold-adapted species and that if translocated to cooler regions, tuatara will be able to adjust their thermoregulatory behaviour to their thermal environment. Tuatara are temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) reptiles and their translocation to cooler regions could have an dramatic impact on the sex ratio of new populations. To determine if potentially lower incubation temperature would be a limiting factor for the reintroduction of tuatara, I translocated eggs to the proposed reintroduction site. Some tuatara embryos developed at the site (and later hatched in the laboratory), but incubation lasted longer than in natural nests and all hatchlings were female. This trend observed in biased sex ratio might change in the context of climate change as an increase of soil temperature by 3�C would allow the production of males at the proposed site. The present study demonstrates that the translocation of tuatara further south, outside of their current geographical range, is possible and recommended. Tuatara show similar responses to cool temperatures compared with lizards that live in southern New Zealand, they can also adjust their thermoregulatory behaviour if translocated to cooler habitats, and tuatara embryos could potentially develop successfully in cooler regions. The greatest chance for the future survival of tuatara and TSD species in general, lies in translocation to other locations that are thermally suitable.

The global mean temperature is predicted to increase by up to 5 °C during this century. For fish, being ectotherms, temperature is one of the most important environmental factors, influencing them in a number of different ways, including effects on physiological traits, timing of life history events and behavior. Atlantic salmon has been shown to grow faster after being incubated at warmer temperatures. One possible explanation for this could be that the increased incubation temperature causes decreased metabolic rates. The aim of this project was to examine whether this is true. Atlantic salmon eggs were incubated in three different temperature regimes: natural temperature conditions, heated water and a mixed temperature treatment, where eggs were incubated in increased temperature until the beginning of January and after that subjected to natural temperature conditions. Ventilation rate, a proxy for metabolism, was measured for fish from each treatment group, as well as fish length and weight. The results revealed significantly lower ventilation rates of the fish from the heated temperature treatment, but not of the fish from the mixed temperature treatment. This suggests that an increased incubation temperature causes lowered rates of metabolism in Atlantic salmon, and that the change occurs later than early January. Because of differences in size and life stage between fish from the different groups however, the results are uncertain and call for further investigations. A lowered metabolic rate will affect the fish’s behavior. A further development might therefore be to study fish survival in the wild in relation to a fish’s metabolic rate.
Jordens medeltemperatur beräknas öka med upp till 5 °C det här århundradet. För fiskar, som är ektotermer, är temperatur en av de viktigaste abiotiska faktorerna och påverkar dem på en mängd olika sätt, bland annat genom förändring av fysiologiska attribut, tidpunkter för steg i livscykeln och beteende. Lax har visats växa snabbare efter att ha blivit inkuberade i varmare vattentemperatur. En möjlig förklaring till det kan vara att en förhöjd inkuberingstemperatur orsakar en lägre metabolism. Det här projektet syftade till att undersöka om så är fallet. Ägg från lax inkuberades i tre olika temperaturförhållanden: naturliga temperaturförhållanden, förhöjd temperatur och en blandad temperaturbehandling, där ägg inkuberades i förhöjd temperatur till början av januari, varefter de utsattes för naturliga temperaturförhållanden. Gälslagsfrekvens, som fungerar som en indikator för metabolism, mättes på fisk från varje behandlingsgrupp, samt fiskarnas längd och vikt. Resultaten visade signifikant lägre gälslagsfrekvenser hos fiskarna från behandlingen med förhöjd temperatur, men inte hos fiskarna från behandlingen med blandad temperatur. Detta indikerar att en förhöjd inkuberingstemperatur orsakar en lägre metabolism hos lax, och att förändringen sker senare än tidiga januari. På grund av skillnader i storlek och livsstadier hos fiskarna från de olika grupperna är resultaten dock osäkra, vilket gör att ytterligare studier behövs. En lägre ämnesomsättning påverkar fiskars beteende. En uppföljning kan därför vara att studera fiskars överlevnad i det vilda i relation till deras metabolism.

L'étude porte sur l'allocation de ressources aux œufs d’oiseaux selon les caractéristiques du male partenaire ou de l’environnement. les données étudiées sont : taille de la ponte et caractéristiques des œufs (masse, masse des constituants, concentration de testostérone, lysozyme, ovotransferrin). les caractéristiques du male prises en compte sont s'il est choisi ou non par la femelle et son statut social. en plus, l’effet du bruit et d’un vaccination couple avec un surproduction des œufs sont pris en compte. Deux expériences ont été menées sur le canari domestique (Serinus canaria) en laboratoire, au sein du LECC de Paris Ouest Nanterre. Deux expériences ont eu lieu en milieu semi-naturel au DiSIT de l’Università degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale (Italie) sur la perdrix grise (Perdix perdix) et rouge (Alectoris rufa).Chez la perdrix grise, nous observons effets positifs de la préférence et du statut social sur la testostérone et sur le taux d’éclosion. cette hormone peut rendre les oisillons nidifuges plus compétitifs vis-à-vis des couvées voisines. Chez le canari, on observe un effet positif de la préférence sur le poids des œufs et sur le lysozyme, important substance antimicrobienne. en plus, on a trouvé un influence négative du bruit sur la sélection sexuelle et sur le numéro des œufs pondues.Chez la perdrix rouge, nous observons variations significatives des components de l’oeuf en relation a la surproduction des œufs (épuisement des ressources). En conclusion, la femelle n'est pas seule à déterminer les caractéristiques des œufs. le male partenaire et l’environnement ont aussi une influence sur leur composition et donc sur le développement des jeunes
The study focuses on the allocation of resources to eggs of birds according to the characteristics of the male partner or the environment. The data studied are: clutch size and egg characteristics (mass, mass constituents, testosterone, lysozyme, ovotransferrin). Male characteristics taken into account are if it is selected or not by the female and his social status. In addition, the effect of noise and a vaccination coupled with an overproduction of eggs are taken into account.Two experiments were conducted on the domestic canary (Serinus canaria) in the LECC laboratory of Paris Ouest Nanterre.Two experiments were carried out in semi-natural condition to DiSIT laboratory of the Università degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale (Italy) on grey partridge (Perdix perdix) and red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa).In the grey partridge, positives effects of preference and social status are observed on testosterone and hatchability. This hormone can make precocial chicks more competitive with neighboring broods.In canaries, there is a positive effect of preference on egg weight and lysozyme, an important antimicrobial substance. In addition, a negative influence of noise is found on sexual selection and number of eggs laid.In the red-legged partridge, significant changes in the egg components are observed in relation to the overproduction of eggs (depletion).In conclusion, the female is not only to determine the characteristics of eggs. The male partner and the environment also have an influence on their composition and therefore on the development of chicks

Foram desenvolvidos dois experimentos para avaliação do efeito da temperatura e do período de estocagem de ovos férteis sobre os resultados da incubação, qualidade do pintinho de um dia de idade, bem como sobre o desempenho e rendimento de carcaça de frangos de corte durante as fases inicial e final. Experimento I - Utilizou-se 1620 ovos férteis da linhagem Cobb 500, oriundos de matrizes de 38 semanas de idade distribuídos em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualisado em arranjo de tratamentos em fatorial 2x2 com os fatores: período (5 e 10 dias) e temperatura (17 e 20oC) na estocagem de ovos, totalizando 4 tratamentos com nove repetições de 45 ovos cada. Após a estocagem procedeu-se a incubação em máquina de estágio único por vinte e um dias. Experimento II - Utilizou-se 504 pintos machos e fêmeas de um dia de idade, distribuídos em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualisado com os mesmos 4 tratamentos do experimento I sendo eles: Tratamento 1 (5 dias e 20oC), tratamento 2 (5 dias e 17oC), tratamento 3 (10 dias e 20oC) e tratamento 4 (10 dias e 17oC) com 9 repetições de quatorze aves cada para avaliação de desempenho e características de carcaça. Todos os dados foram analisados pelo Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2008) e submetidos à análise de variância pelo procedimento MIXED ao nível de 5% de significância. Os dados que não respeitaram as premissas da análise estatística foram submetidos à análise não paramétrica de frequência pelo procedimento GLIMMIXED. No experimento I, não foi observado efeito significativo da interação entre os fatores analisados. Os melhores resultados de eclosão e eclodibilidade (77.28 e 77.86%, respectivamente) foram para ovos estocados por 5 dias. O efeito do período também foi observado no embriodiagnóstico, aumentando a ocorrência de mortalidade embrionária nas fases inicial e final em ovos estocados por 10 dias. A qualidade do pintinho foi superior em aves de ovos estocados durante os mesmos períodos. No experimento II, o desempenho não foi afetado significativamente pelos fatores, como também não houve efeito significativo da interação (p<0.05). Para as características de carcaça houve efeito significativo do fator temperatura (P<0,05) para peso vivo e rendimento de pernas. As aves de ovos estocados a 20oC foram mais pesadas aos 42 dias e apresentaram maior rendimento de pernas quando comparadas aos cortes de aves de ovos estocados a 17oC. Concluiu-se que a estocagem de ovos influencia os resultados da incubação bem como a qualidade do pintinho, principalmente no que diz respeito ao período em que permanecem estocados. Por outro lado o manejo pré-incubação não influenciou o desempenho de frangos de corte, mas sim características de carcaça, demonstrando que ambiência, sanidade, nutrição e melhoramento genético são fatores imprescindíveis na produção avícola mundial.
Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of temperature and storage time of fertile eggs on the results of incubation, chick quality day old, as well as on the performance and carcass yield of broilers during the initial phases and final. Experiment I - was used in 1620 fertile eggs from Cobb 500, from breeders 38 weeks of age distributed in completely randomized design with treatments arranged in a 2x2 factorial with the factors: time (5 and 10 days) and temperature (17 and 20 o C) in the storage of eggs, totaling 4 treatments with nine replicates of 45 eggs each. After storage incubation proceeded in single stage machine for twenty-one days. Experiment II - was used 504 male and female chicks from one day of age in completely randomized design with 4 treatments of the same experiment I being: Treatment 1 (5 days, 20 o C), treatment 2 (5 days and 17 o C), treatment 3 (10 days and 20 o C) and treatment 4 (10 days and 17 o C) with 9 repetitions of fourteen birds each for performance evaluation and carcass characteristics. All data were analyzed using Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2008) and subjected to analysis of variance by the MIXED procedure at the 5% significance level. Data that did not meet the assumptions of statistical analysis were analyzed by frequency nonparametric by procedure GLIMMIXED. In experiment I, there was no significant interaction between the factors. The best results hatching and hatchability (77.28 and 77.86%, respectively) were for eggs stored for 5 days. The effect of time was also observed in embryo diagnosis, increasing the occurrence of embryonic mortality in early and late in eggs stored for 10 days. Chick quality was higher in birds from eggs stored for long memos. In the second experiment, the performance was not affected by the factors, as there was no significant interaction (p <0,05). For carcass traits was no significant effect of temperature factor (P <0.05) on body weight and yield legs. Birds from eggs stored at 20 o C were heavier at 42 days and showed higher upside compared to cuts of poultry eggs stored at 17 o C. It was concluded that the storage of eggs influences the results of the incubation and chick quality, especially with regard to the period that remain stocked. On the other hand the management pre-incubation did not influence the performance of broilers, but carcass characteristics, demonstrating that ambience, sanitation, nutrition and genetic improvement are indispensable factors in poultry production worldwide.

Egg production in the domestic chicken, Gallus domesticus has been improved over the last 60 years to around 300 eggs per year or an egg every 28.8 hours. Response to selection for egg production by standard, however, has reached a plateau and many researchers agree that further improvement is unlikely by conventional selective breeding strategies. This thesis describes the identification and sequencing of the chicken homologue of the mouse Clock gene and its characterisation by polymorphism detection, chromosomal location, and expression in a variety of adult tissues and embryos.Several tests were conducted and results given. The study contributes substantially to the knowledge of the structure of the CLOCK gene in the chicken and its expression as a circadian rhythm gene in adults and embryos. Further, the work provides evidence for function of CLOCK outside the circadian system and has provided molecular markers with future applications in developmental biology and egg production in Gallus domesticus

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The objective of this essay was to evaluate the use of guava extract processing as an antioxidant additive on the diet of Japanese quail matrices about the parameters on the matrices fertile performance on posture phase and the newborn quail parameters in the quality and internal health resulted from the eggs of these matrices. Three experiments were done in the School of Veterinary and Animal Science in the Federal University of Goiás (EVZ/UFG) and in all three of them, it was adopted the completely randomized design (CRD). In the first experiment, 384 Japanese quail matrices were used, 288 being females and 96 males, distributed in 4 groups, following the level of guava extract inclusion on the diet of the matrices, with a recurrence of 6 times each group, in a total of 12 females and 4 males in each recurrence. The levels of guava extract inclusion were 0,0%, 0,3%, 0,6% and 0,9%. In the second experiment, it were collected 162 eggs from each group during three days and at the end of the third day they were put in the incubator, in a total of 648 eggs. In the third experiment, 432 eggs were collected and put in the incubator in a factorial arrangement that considered two periods of preincubation storage – 216 eggs with nine days and 216 eggs with 3 days – and the four levels of guava extract inclusion on the diet of the matrices. The performance data results were submitted to the variance analysis and the quality data of the eggs were submitted to the regression analysis. The newborn quails quality parameters were submitted to the regression analysis. The hatch window were submitted to the Tukey’s test, the embryo diagnosis and the score percentage were assessed by Fisher’s exact test, the villus height analysis and intestinal crypt depth were submitted to the variance analysis. It was adopted in all the analysis 5% of probability. The use of guava extract has not influenced neither the birds’ performance nor the physicochemical quality of the eggs. In the second experiment, there was no statistical difference to the percentage of total hatch and the percentage of hatch/fertile, hatch window and the quality score of the newborn quails among the four levels of extract inclusion. The birth dispersal in the group with 0,0% of guava extract inclusion was lower than the other dispersions. 0,3% level of inclusion, the guava extract promoted improvements in the newborn quails intestinal health. In the third experiment, the guava extract inclusion was able to standardize the birth dispersal in both storage periods and promote the maintenance of the newborn quails resulted from the eggs stored for nine days. This study concludes that the use of the guava extract has not affected the matrices’ fertile performance and helped to standardize the hatch window as well as promoting intestinal health of the newborn quails.
Objetivou-se avaliar o uso do extrato de resíduo de goiaba como um antioxidante zootécnico nas dietas de matrizes de codornas Japonesas sobre os parâmetros de desempenho produtivo das matrizes em fase de postura, qualidade de ovos, incubação e parâmetros de qualidade e desenvolvimento intestinal das codornas neonatas oriundas de ovos dessas matrizes. Foram realizados três experimentos no aviário experimental da Escola de Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade Federal de Goiás (EVZ/UFG) e em todos adotou-se delineamento inteiramente casualizado (DIC). No experimento 1, foram utilizadas 384 matrizes de codornas Japonesas, sendo 288 fêmeas e 96 machos, distribuídos em 4 tratamento, de acordo com o nível de inclusão do extrato de goiaba na dieta das matrizes, com 6 repetições cada tratamento, num total de 12 fêmeas e 4 machos em cada repetição. Os níveis de inclusão do extrato de goiaba foram: 0,0%, 0,3%, 0,6% e 0,9%. No experimento 2, 162 ovos por tratamento foram coletados durante três dias e incubados ao final do terceiro dia, num total de 648 ovos. No experimento 3, 432 ovos foram coletados e incubados em esquema fatorial que considerava dois períodos de armazenamento pré incubação – 216 ovos com nove dias e 216 ovos com três dias – e os quatros níveis de inclusão do extrato de goiaba na dieta das matrizes. Os resultados dos dados de desempenho foram submetidos à análise de variância e os dados de qualidade de ovos foram submetidos à análise de regressão. Os parâmetros de qualidade das codornas neonatas foram submetidos à análise de regressão. As janelas de eclosão foram submetidas ao teste de Tukey, as análises de embriodiagnóstico e percentagem de escore foram avaliadas pelo teste exato de Fisher, as análises de altura de vilosidades e profundidade de criptas intestinais foram submetidas à análise de variância. Em todas as análises adotou-se 5% de probabilidade. A utilização do extrato de goiaba não influenciou o desempenho das aves nem a qualidade físico-química dos ovos. No experimento 2 não houve diferença estatística para percentagem de eclosão total e percentagem de eclosão/férteis, janela de eclosão e escore de qualidade das codornas neonatas entre os quatro níveis de inclusão do extrato. A dispersão dos nascimentos no tratamento com 0,0% de inclusão de extrato de goiaba foi menor do que as demais dispersões. Ao nível 0,3% de inclusão, o extrato de goiaba promoveu melhorias no desenvolvimento intestinal das codornas neonatas. No experimento 3, a inclusão do extrato de goiaba foi capaz de padronizar a dispersão dos nascimentos em ambos os períodos de armazenamento e promover a manutenção do desenvolvimento intestinal das codornas neonatas oriundas de ovos armazenados por nove dias. Conclui-se que o uso do extrato de goiaba não afetou o desempenho produtivo das matrizes e auxiliou na padronização das janelas de eclosão bem como no desenvolvimento intestinal das codornas neonatas.

Global warming, a consequence of the ongoing climate change, is expected to increase the mean global temperature by up to 5°C this century. This is predicted to have various impacts on the earth's ecosystems and especially on ectotherms which cannot regulate body temperature by endogenous heat production. There is an intensified interest in investigating the outcomes of climate change and the role of developmental phenotypic plasticity in relation to environmental conditions experienced early in life. Here I compare the body shape and fin size of juvenile Atlantic salmon that had been incubated at two different temperature regimes during embryogenesis. Morphometric methods were used to compare body size through a box-truss network of Euclidean distances and the data were then analyzed using discriminant analysis. Fin size was analyzed by comparing fin area using analysis of covariance with body size as the covariate. The fish incubated in ambient (cold) temperatures differed from the fish incubated in ca. 4°C warmer temperatures by having a deeper body shape and bigger pectoral fin area. There was no significant difference for dorsal fin area. My findings support the notion that Atlantic salmon are morphologically plastic when exposed to different temperature regimes during embryogenesis, but additional studies are needed to determine the ecological consequences of these changes.
Global uppvärmning, en konsekvens av pågående klimatförändringar, förväntas öka den globala medeltemperaturen med upp till 5°C det här århundradet. Det här förväntas ha stor påverkan på jordens ekosystem och speciellt ektotermer som inte kan reglera sin kroppstemperatur genom endogen värmeproduktion. Intresset har intensifierats för att undersöka klimatförändringarnas utfall och rollen som fenotypisk plasticitet har som svar på tidiga miljöförhållanden. Kroppsform och fenstorlek jämfördes hos juvenil atlantlax som inkuberats i två olika temperaturbehandlingar under embryogenesen. Morfometri användes för att undersöka kroppsformen genom ett box-truss nätverk av euklidiska avstånd som sedan analyserades med en diskriminant funktionsanalys. Fenstorleken analyserades genom att mäta fenornas area som sedan användes i en kovariansanalys med kroppsstorlek som kovariat. Fiskarna som inkuberades i normal (kall) temperatur skiljde sig från fiskarna som inkuberats i ca 4°C varmare temperatur genom att ha en djupare kroppsform och större area på bröstfenorna. Det fanns ingen signifikant skillnad mellan ryggfenornas area. Mina resultat stödjer idén att atlantlaxen är morfologiskt plastisk när den utsätts för olika temperaturbehandlingar under embryogenesen, men ytterligare studier behövs för att identifiera de ekologiska konsekvenserna av dessa förändringar.

Birds can influence the embryonic development through incubation behaviour because avian embryos develop using parent’s body heat. Although previous studies assumed that incubation behaviour influences hatching patterns, few studies have studied the effect of incubation behaviour during egg-laying and early incubation on hatching patterns due to difficulties to determine onset of incubation during egg-laying. I investigated whether incubation behaviour during egg-laying and early incubation affects hatching patterns in gulls using measurements of mean nest attendance and daily change of nest attendance. Hatching patterns were influenced by incubation behaviour during egg-laying and early incubation behaviour. As parents spent more time in their nests, a brood hatched more synchronously and hatching success of the first-laid eggs increased when gulls laid relatively smaller first-laid eggs than other pairs. Within-clutch variation in eggshell colour related to daily change of incubation behaviour. This might relate to hormonal change during egg-laying. Increase of prolactin initiates incubation and accompanies decline of steroid hormones which relate to accumulation of eggshell pigments. Hatching patterns may also be influenced by accelerated development of last-laid eggs. When eggs were swapped to increase interval between eggs, last-laid eggs of herring gulls accelerated their development to catch up. Accelerated development may increase the survival of chicks from last-laid eggs by reducing the disadvantage of small size within a clutch. However, the costs of accelerated development seem to appear during the embryonic period. Hatching success was low in eggs with accelerated development, although there were no differences in growth rate and early nestling survival between accelerated and control last-laid eggs. Eggshell characteristics might be a factor affecting hatching patterns because they are related to embryonic metabolism. Hatching duration was not related to eggshell thickness and total functional area, but chicks which hatched from eggs with higher proportion of mammilllary cone contact area took longer to hatch. Chicks hatched from thicker eggshells showed longer “head plus bill” at hatching and grew faster in skeleton size after hatching. Diet during egg-laying and early incubation affected nest attendance. Females which consumed more marine food during egg formation had lower nest attendance during egg-laying and early incubation. This may relate to longer foraging time required to obtain marine food. In conclusion, this thesis suggests that parents can influence hatching patterns by altering incubation behaviour during egg-laying and early incubation and hatching patterns also may be affected by accelerated development of last-laid eggs, diet during egg-laying and early incubation and eggshell characteristics (proportion of mammillary cone contact area).

The weight´s effect on egg´s quality, performance characteristics and incubation of chicks were observed in two experiments. Three treatments were used, defined by the weight of the eggs, breeding Leghorn 38 weeks old: small (S) 53 to 57g, medium (M) 58 to 62g and large (L) 63 to 67g. We have evaluated: a) the eggs - strength and shell thickness, Haugh units (HU), albumen height and percentage of egg compounds b) in incubation - eggs weight loss , hatching and embryo diagnosis, c) in one day old chicks in the yolk sac: weight and length of the chick, absolute and relative weight of the yolk sac, d) dry material (DM), crude protein (CP) albumen´s energy , and the yolk sac. Eggs range of different weights produced by Leghorn breeders of the same age (38 weeks) did not show differences among them for shelll strength, relative weight of albumen and yolk, albumen and yolk in DM and gross energy in the yolk. There are differences in the shell thickness, UH, albumen height, absolute weight of egg components, the relative weight of shell, the yolk and albumen protein and gross energy albumen. In the incubation, the weight loss of eggs and the hatch decreases with increasing egg weight range. Unhatched eggs increase with the increase of initial mortality and pecked alive and dead. The chick weight, absolute and relative weight of the yolk sac are directly proportional to the weight of the egg. The proportion of protein in the yolk sac decreases with increasing egg weight and gross energy content is higher in the yolk sac of chicks hatched from medium eggs.
Os efeitos do peso do ovo sobre a qualidade dos ovos, rendimento de incubação e características dos pintos foram avaliados, em dois experimentos. Foram utilizados três tratamentos definidos pela faixa de peso dos ovos de reprodutoras Leghorn, da linhagem Dekalb White, com 38 semanas de idade: pequeno (P) de 53 a 57g, médio (M) de 58 a 62g e grande (G) 63 a 67g. Avaliou-se: a) nos ovos: resistência e espessura da casca, unidades Haugh (UH), altura de albúmen e porcentagem dos seus componentes; b) na incubação: perda de peso dos ovos, eclosão e embriodiagnóstico; c) nos pintos de um dia e no saco vitelino: peso e comprimento do pinto, peso absoluto e relativo do saco vitelino; d) matéria seca (MS), proteína bruta (PB) e energia bruta do albúmen, gema e saco vitelino. Ovos de faixa de pesos diferentes produzidos por reprodutoras Leghorn de mesma idade (38 semanas) não demonstram diferenças entre si para resistência da casca, peso relativo do albúmen e da gema, MS no albúmen e gema e energia bruta na gema. As diferenças residem na espessura da casca, UH, altura do albúmen, peso absoluto dos componentes dos ovos, peso relativo da casca, na PB da gema e albúmen e na energia bruta do albúmen. Na incubação, a perda de peso dos ovos e a eclosão diminuem com o aumento da faixa de peso dos ovos. Ovos não eclodidos aumentam em função do aumento da mortalidade inicial e bicados vivos e mortos. O peso do pinto, peso relativo e absoluto do saco vitelino são diretamente proporcionais ao peso do ovo. A percentagem de PB no saco vitelino diminui com o aumento do peso dos ovos e o teor de energia bruta é maior no saco vitelino de pintos nascidos de ovos médios.
Mestre em Ciências Veterinárias

Incubation strategies of extinct organisms are largely speculative. Most inferences of nesting behavior are based on comparison with closely related extant taxa. To date the most useful evidence for support of a particular incubation strategy includes water vapor conductance (determined from fossil eggshell) and sedimentary structures, associated with eggs or eggshell, that are interpreted as fossil nests. One such sedimentary structure (MOR 3062) from the Upper Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation of Montana, is described along with the microstructure of the associated eggs and eggshell (oospecies Continuoolithus canadensis). The green nest trace truncates red mudstone and differs in sedimentary attributes. Geochemical analysis indicates that the host substrate was highly oxidized compared to the in-filled nesting structure. This is probably due to presence of decaying vegetative debris within the structure. A Continuoolithus canadensis egg removed from MOR 3062, along with Continuoolithus canadensis eggs from the nearby site TM-006, have a water vapor conductance value of 119 mgH &#178;O/ (day Torr). This equates to a 4.1 times greater mean water vapor conductance in Continuoolithus canadensis than a bird egg of the same mass. American alligator (Alligator mississippensis) eggs have a water vapor conductance rate 4.2 times greater than a bird egg of the same mass. Strong similarities exist between relative water vapor conductance of Continuoolithus canadensis and modern alligators. In addition, characteristics of MOR 3062 suggest the eggs were buried in a mixture of sediment and vegetative debris: therefore, I conclude that Continuoolithus Canadensis eggs were incubated underground, possibly with the aid of heat produced by rotting vegetation.

How temperature affects physiological development in the chicken embryo is unknown. Embryos incubated at 38°C or 35°C showed no difference in growth or survival. The time to hatching was longer in 35°C than 38°C embryos (23.7 vs. 20.6 days), but unaffected was the relative timing of appearance of developmental landmarks (internal, external pipping). At stage 43-44, 38°C embryos maintained oxygen consumption around 1 mL/g/h despite acute temperature reduction (suggesting thermoregulatory maturation), unlike 35°C embryos. In 35°C embryos the lower oxygen-carrying capacity and temperature insensitive blood O2 affinity (P50 about 30 mmHg) may restrict O2 delivery to tissues, limiting metabolism during decreased ambient temperature. Reduced incubation temperature retards normal hematological and thermoregulatory development.

Ostriches are an important commercial species in South Africa and are becoming increasingly so in other parts of the world. Fertility and hatchability of artificially incubated ostrich eggs, however, is generally regarded as low compared to other poultry species and to ostriches in the wild. Investigation into specific farming practices at present indicated scope for an overall improvement in productivity through a sound breeding strategy. This thesis investigated factors that affect egg production, fertility, and hatchability of artificially incubated eggs in the Little Karoo region of South Africa. Specific breeding pair combinations accounted for the major variations in egg weight, hatchability, chick production and offspring weight at slaughter age. An appreciable proportion of variation in reproductive traits was attributable to the repeatable nature of breeding pair performance from year to year, even from first breeding attempts, suggesting that selection of good breeding stock can be made from an early age. Artificially incubated eggs showed improved hatchability when eggs were collected two to three hours after lay rather than the following morning. Storing position of eggs did not significantly effect hatchability when eggs were stored for a maximum of one week. The critical zero temperature for ostrich eggs, below which no embryonical development takes place, was found to be ± 25°C and cooling eggs to temperatures below 20°C for complete cessation of embryonic development during storage resulted in better hatchabilities compared to eggs stored at 25°C room temperature. Hatchability decreased when incubator temperatures were raised from 36 to 37.3°C. Large temperature fluctuations and gradients, which encompass detrimental temperatures, persist within forced draught wooden incubators of the type most commonly in use in the Little Karoo region. The highest temperatures occurred at the top of these incubators and will consequently have a negative impact on hatchability. The ontogeny of ostrich egg metabolism showed an exponential increase during the first 70% of incubation followed by a decline to 75% of the peak value between days 31 and 38 of incubation. From peak levels of embryonic development it was calculated that single stage incubators needs an airflow of 54.4 1/egg.hour to maintain oxygen levels just below 21% and carbon dioxide levels below 0.5%. Lower embryonic mortalities were observed when eggs were turned twenty-four times/day in an electronic incubator compared to hand turning twice a day. Eggs rotated through increasing angles between 60 and 90° resulted in a linear improvement in hatchability. In incubators where turning angles were fixed at 60°, lower hatchabilities were overcome by incubating eggs for 2 - 3 weeks in a horizontal position before placing them vertically. No specific farming practice could be singled out as the main cause of low fertility or hatchability but rather a combination of certain practices applied wrongly.

Energetic constraint during reproduction may limit the number or quality of young that a parent can produce per breeding attempt or the parent's longevity or future productivity, ultimately constraining lifetime reproductive success. The Eurasian dotterel Charadrius morinellus experienced energetic constraint during the Incubation period. Dotterel breed in the cold arctic-alpine zone and most breeding attempts are cared for by the male alone. The combination of a cold climate, giving high energetic costs of incubation and thermoregulation, and restricted foraging time due to uniparental Incubation, resulted in non-adaptive mass loss and constrained Investment of time and energy In incubation. If the incubation period is potentially energetically constrained, then behavioural mechanisms that reduce energetic costs could increase the production of young. When more energetically constrained, dotterel reduced the energetic cost of incubation by scheduling trips in conditions when the unattended eggs would have cooled more slowly and by making fewer, but longer trips. When suffering severe energetic constraint, some dotterel neglected their eggs for many hours: dotterel embryos' high chilling tolerance may have been necessary for successful uniparental incubation In a cold and unpredictable environment. Dotterel selected nest sites that allowed them to build larger nests with larger linings. Larger, better insulated nests probably decreased heat loss from the eggs and sitting parents, so reducing energetic costs during incubation. Sitting dotterel oriented into the wind, which probably reduced the disruption of their plumage and minimised their energetic expenditure on thermoregulation. In cooler conditions, dotterel changed their nest defence strategy and used energetically cheaper but probably riskier responses to simulated predators. Behaviours may be shaped under conflicting selective pressures and dotterel's management of their high energetic costs during the incubation period was constrained by egg-predation: dotterel's incubation scheduling appeared to be influenced by diurnal variation in the risk of predation and dotterel's nest defence behaviour traded-off energetic costs and the risk of predation. I declare that this thesis has been composed by myself and that it embodies the results of my own research. Where appropriate, I have acknowledged the nature and extent of work carried out in collaboration with others. This thesis presents data collected by myself over 2,212h spent in the alpine study areas from 288 days during my PhD field seasons in 1996,1997 and 1998. I also analyse some of Scottish Natural Heritage's dataset on dotterel biology collected between 1987 and 1999 by a team of fieldworkers, including myself (in Chapters 2,7 and 8).

The South African crocodile industry has the potential to produce Nile crocodile skins, which are in high demand by the global fashion industry. The crocodile industry is an important economic resource to South Africa and Southern Africa. The main purpose of rearing Nile crocodiles at intensive production units is to produce viable hatchlings which will be grown to produce quality skins. The production of sufficient hatchlings depends on high hatching percentage of clutches. It has been observed that the hatching percentage varies among clutches. We do not know that whether the poor hatching percentages are associated with the microbial load from the incubation boxes or not. The aims of the study were to determine whether eggs in boxes that had more aerobic bacterial colonies and more fungal colonies before they received vermiculite and eggs are more prone to become lost from the pool potentially capable of yielding conceptuses developing to term than eggs in boxes that had fewer colonies before they received vermiculite and eggs, and whether there are species of aerobic bacteria, anaerobic bacteria and fungi that are present in unhatched eggs from clutches with low hatching percentage but not in clutches with high hatching percentage without the converse being true. At the time of hatching the farm personnel classify hatchlings or unhatched eggs into different categories e.g. hatchling survived, culled, foetus died in the shell, hatchling died, unfertilised egg, banded (the foetus died long before hatching), or rotten egg (putrefaction rendering the fertilisation status unknown). We assumed that banded or rotten eggs are more likely to have lost conceptuses due to the microbial load that was present in the incubation boxes before they were loaded with vermiculite and eggs than the other classes of eggs. A response variable Perhapsloststatus was therefore created. For each egg that was either classified as Banded or Rotten Perhapsloststatus was assigned the value of one. For each egg belonging to other categories Perhapsloststatus was assigned the value of zero. Eggs classified as unfertilised were excluded from Perhapsloststatus. The microbial load of aerobic bacteria and fungi from the incubation boxes before they were loaded with vermiculite and eggs was measured as colony forming units (CFU). The independent variable of interest was Count category (a categorical variable of aerobic bacteria and fungi colony counts), which was compiled as follows: 0 = Counts zero to below the 25th percentile, 1 = Counts from the 25th percentile to below the 50th percentile, 2 = Counts ranging the 50th percentile to below the 75th percentile, 3 = Counts from the 75th percentile to the maximum that was countable and 4 = Too numerous to count. Sterile swabs were used to collect samples from unhatched eggs for isolation and identification of aerobic bacteria, anaerobic bacteria and fungi from the 10 boxes with the lowest and highest hatching percentages, respectively. We used a population-averaged mixed-effect logistic regression model to determine the effect of Count category on Perhapsloststatus. The odds for eggs being banded or rotten (Perhapsloststatus = 1) in boxes with too numerous to count aerobic bacterial colonies (Count category 4) tended to be higher than for eggs in boxes with colony counts between zero and the 25% percentile (Count category 0) (P = 0.06). The odds of eggs being banded or rotten (Perhapsloststatus = 1) in boxes with fungal colony counts falling in any count categories 1 to 4 were the same as the odds of eggs being banded or rotten in boxes with fungal colony counts falling in Count category 0. The variety and frequency of species of aerobic bacteria, anaerobic bacteria and fungi from unhatched eggs of lowest hatching boxes and highest hatching boxes was almost the same. The species isolated from unhatched eggs are more likely pertaining to contamination from the cloaca of female crocodile or from the environment i.e. nesting material, personnel handling, vermiculite, incubation box or the incubator environment, as most of the isolated species present are normally present in soil, water, dust and also opportunistic pathogens in animals. This observational study shows that there is a trend of association between the aerobic bacterial load from the incubation boxes and the eggs in them to become either banded or rotten.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015.
tm2016
Production Animal Studies
MSc

Developing chicken embryos have two ductus arteriosus (DA) that shunt blood away from the lungs and to the chorioallantoic membrane, the embryonic gas exchanger. In mammals, DA closure is stimulated by an increase in blood gas O2 that occurs as the animal begins to breathe with its lungs. The goal of this study was to determine the influence of O2 levels during incubation on the vascular reactivity and morphology of the O2-sensitive DA and to examine the effects of changing O2 levels during late incubation on the morphology of the DA from chicken embryos. In comparison to normoxia, hypoxia (15%) reduced venous O2 levels in day 16 and day 18 embryos and reduced aircell O2 values in day 16, day 18, and internally pipped (IP) embryos, whereas hyperoxia (30%) increased venous O2 levels and aircell O2 level in day 16, day 18, and IP embryos. In comparison to normoxia, hypoxia delayed closure of the DA, whereas hyperoxia accelerated DA closure. In comparison to the left DA from externally pipped (EP) normoxic embryos, the left DA from EP hypoxic embryos exhibited a significantly weaker contractile response to O2. The DA from day 18 hypoxic embryos exhibited a significantly weaker contractile response to norepinephrine and phenylephrine when compared with the DA from day 18 normoxic and hyperoxic embryos. The effect of incubation in hypoxia / hyperoxia during different developmental windows on the DA O2-induced contractile response was observed only in IP embryos that were incubated in normoxia for 16 days and were then moved to hyperoxia. Incubation in hypoxia / hyperoxia resulted in differences in embryo mass, yolk mass, and heart mass. There is an association between the decreased contractile response to O2 and delayed closure in the proximal portion of the DA from hypoxic embryos; as well as an increased contractile response to O2 and accelerated closure in the proximal portion of the DA from hyperoxic embryos.

Northern bobwhite populations have declined concurrent with global warming. The focal period of this study was the 12-d pre-incubation period, when bobwhite eggs remain in the nest without the thermal protection of the incubating parent. This study first established the storage and thermal limits of bobwhite eggs, then investigated how global warming may impact oviparous embryos and how bobwhite embryos react to acute and chronic doses of simulated drought temperatures during pre-incubation. First, the maximum storage limit of bobwhite eggs was determined by storing eggs ≤21 d and measuring hatching success and pH of egg albumen and yolk. Hatching success of stored eggs declined after 14 d, when yolk and albumen pH reached levels detrimental to embryonic development. Secondly, thermal limits were determined by exposing bobwhite eggs to hyperthermic temperatures (38-52 °C). Bobwhite embryos survived 50 °C for 1 h, 49 °C for 3 h and 46 °C for 6 h. Results indicate an adaptation to the naturally occurring temperature extremes that can occur in the bobwhite's southern range during pre-incubation. Subsequently, bobwhite eggs were exposed to either low constant (LC), low fluctuating (LF), high constant (HC), or high fluctuating (HF) temperatures during pre-incubation to determine if the nature of temperatures differentially affected development. Although eggs exposed to high heat loads (HC and HF), and low heat loads (LF and LC) had equal heating degree-hours within groups, they exhibited differential growth during pre-incubation. Oxygen consumption, hatch timing, and hatching success were also affected by the thermal regimes. Eggs in simulated drought (HF) had a 47% lower hatch rate than eggs in simulated non-drought (LF) indicating that thermal stress during pre-incubation may contribute to population declines during drought. Finally, northern bobwhite eggs were exposed to acute or chronic doses of simulated drought temperatures, which tested for critical periods of development during pre-incubation. Collectively, data indicated that the earliest stages of bobwhite development were more affected by hyperthermic temperatures. Indeed, a critical period of development exists during the first 2/3 of pre-incubation during which exposure to hyperthermic temperatures results in aberrant development, hatching plasticity, and reduced hatch rates.

Fetal programming results from stressors during fetal development and may influence the occurrence of disease later in life. Maternal nutritional status and/or environment can affect renal development by inducing limited nephron endowment at birth, which results in diseases such as hypertension and coronary heart disease in mammals. Birds are likely to be effective models for this process because, like mammals, they have high pressure cardiovascular systems, mammalian-type nephrons and are homeothermic. This project uses the chicken embryo to explore physiological responses of disrupted hydration state thereby providing insights into renal fetal programming. Under normal conditions the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and developing avian kidney work in unison to ensure a proper balance of ions and water within the egg. White leghorn chicken eggs were incubated at 37.5oC±0.5oC and either <35%, 55-60% (normal) or >85% relative humidity. Amniotic fluid serves as the drinking source for the embryo late in development; its composition is important to salt and water homeostasis. High amniotic fluid osmolality increased the blood osmolality for embryos exposed to low humidity incubation thereby indirectly influencing the renal developmental program of the embryos from this group. Indeed estimated filtering capacity was doubled in the low humidity group (6.77 ± 0.43 mm3) compared to normal (4.80 ± 0.33 mm3) and high (3.97 ± 0.30 mm3) humidity groups. The increased filtering capacity seen for those embryos from low humidity may indicate the ability for more efficient recovery of water if similarly stressed as an adult bird. All embryo populations maintained similar oxygen consumption (0.075 ml/min - 0.37 ml/min), hematocrit (15 % - 32 %) and hemoglobin values (4 g/dl - 9 g/dl), thus displaying control over these aspects of the internal environment despite the obvious environmental insult of extreme incubation humidity. These results signify the embryo's immature kidney, along with lower gastrointestinal tract, functions much like the adult form maintaining homeostasis, although the mechanisms may differ. The overall benefits of this research included better understanding of the role the kidney during embryonic development and determining whether environmental factors, such as humidity, leave an imprint on morphological and physiological aspects of the urinary system of the embryo and water compartments of the egg.

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Veterinárias, especialidade Sanidade Animal
Successful hatching of strong, healthy chicks with a potential for good productive and reproductive performance depends on the assurance of as normal and ideal as possible embryonic development. The latter, however, can be negatively affected by a series of factors intrinsic to either the egg, its handling, or the incubator. This project aimed at collecting and interpreting essential and extensive information regarding embryonal response to physical challenges (temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration) in the incubation environment, to infectious challenge with vertically transmitted Salmonella serovars Enteritidis and Typhimurium and, ultimately, to apply the knowledge obtained to a field survey of a commercial hatchery. For this purpose, eggs were incubated under different, controlled environments or after infection with a vertically transmitted pathogen, and an extensive list of parameters used to monitor subsequent changes in embryonic behavior, metabolism, growth and viability. The information gathered was then applied to a sample of non-viable eggs incubated at a major hatchery. Overall, the effects of manipulating temperature were more prominent than those of manipulating humidity and carbon dioxide. The most significantly affected parameters pertained to embryo metabolism, embryo weight, mortality and malformation rates. Changes in the development of the lymphoid follicles in the bursa of Fabricius and of the glandular epithelium of the gizzard were also found. Vertical infection with Salmonella was associated with higher embryonic mortality rates. No changes in performance or growth were observed in infected but viable embryos. The results obtained during the field survey did not directly correlate to the variables studied. However, the issues detected allowed for the designation of critical control points and opportunities for performance improvement that could have otherwise gone undetected at the hatchery and at the breeder farm, highlighting the importance of embryodiagnosis in the monitoring of hatchery and flock health.
A operação eficiente e lucrativa de uma exploração industrial produtora de espécies aviárias (Gallus gallus) depende, entre outras coisas, do acesso a pintos saudáveis e com bom potencial produtivo, obtidos por incubação artificial de ovos de um bando reprodutor. É com a incubação destes ovos, levada a cabo em grande escala por máquinas altamente especializadas, que se inicia o desenvolvimento das aves, tendo esta influência directa sobre a viabilidade e futura performance do pinto eclodido. Vários factores podem intervir negativamente no sucesso da incubação, estando estes relacionados com o ovo em si, com o seu manuseamento ou com a própria incubadora. Por essa razão, este trabalho teve por objectivo adquirir, coligir e interpretar informação essencial sobre a resposta embrionária a alterações físicas do ambiente de incubação (temperatura, humidade relativa (RH) e concentração de dióxido de carbono), assim como à infecção com agentes patogénicos com transmissão vertical conhecida (Salmonella enterica vars. Enteritidis e Typhimurium). Estes ensaios foram conduzidos em laboratório, em ambiente cuidadosamente controlado. Numa segunda fase, o conhecimento obtido através de experimentação laboratorial foi aplicado na análise de uma amostra de ovos incubados provenientes de um centro de incubação industrial, com o objectivo de verificar a compatibilidade dos dados experimentais com os dados obtidos em situação real. Com vista a estudar a influência de alterações no ambiente de incubação sobre o desenvolvimento embrionário, procedeu-se à incubação de 2300 ovos specificpathogen free, dividos em dez grupos diferentes. O primeiro grupo foi incubado sob condições controlo (temperatura - 37.8ºC; RH - 50-55% durante os primeiros 18 dias de incubação e 60-65% durante os últimos 3 dias) e os restantes cinco grupos incubados sob: A) temperatura elevada constante (38.9ºC) e RH padrão; B) temperatura inferior constante (36.7ºC) e RH padrão; C) temperatura e RH padrão com um período (3 h) de elevação da temperatura (38.9ºC) aos dias 3 e 18 de incubação; D) temperatura e RH padrão com um período (3 h) de redução da temperatura (36.7ºC) aos dias 3 e 18 de incubação; E) humidade relativa elevada constante (63%) e temperatura padrão; F) humidade relativa inferior constante (43%) e temperatura padrão; G) humidade relativa e temperatura padrão com um período (3 h) de elevação da RH (63%) aos dias 3 e 18 de incubação; H) temperatura padrão com um período (3 h) de redução da RH (43%) aos dias 3 e 18 de incubação; I) ausência de renovação de ar/concentração de CO2 elevada constante durante incubação sob temperatura e RH padrão. Para investigar a influência da infecção com microrganismos transmitidos verticalmente, foram utilizados 576 ovos specific-pathogen free, divididos por oito grupos, quatro grupos controlo e quatro grupos inoculados. O primeiro grupo tratado foi inoculado com 105 CFU/ml de uma cultura de referência de S. enterica var. Enteritidis (CECT-4300) em NaCl (0,9%) estéril. O segundo grupo foi inoculado com 102 CFU/ml (dose de inoculação semelhante à concentração destas bactérias previamente reportada em ovos naturalmente infetados) da mesma cultura de referência. O terceiro grupo foi inoculado com 105 CFU/ml de uma cultura de referência de S. enterica var. Typhimurium (CECT-443) em NaCl (0,9%) estéril. Finalmente, o quarto grupo foi inoculado com 102 CFU/ml da mesma cultura de referência. Cada grupo tratado foi incubado juntamente com um grupo controlo inoculado com NaCl (0.9%) estéril. A presença ou ausência de Salmonella em cada grupo foi confirmada através de PCR multiplex convencional. Em todos os ensaios, foi retirada uma amostra de ovos da incubadora a cada 48 horas de incubação para análise dos efeitos das diferentes manipulações sobre o desenvolvimento embrionário. Uma extensa lista de parâmetros relacionados com o comportamento, metabolismo, crescimento e viabilidade dos embriões foi depois analisada. Em relação ao estudo de campo, foi efetuada análise morfológica, histológica e microbiológica de uma amostra de 51 ovos não viáveis, obtidos após 21 dias de incubação, num centro de incubação industrial. Relativamente aos ensaios de manipulação do ambiente físico de incubação, os resultados obtidos permitiram concluir que as alterações de temperatura, em qualquer direção, exerceram efeitos mais marcados sobre o desenvolvimento embrionário do que as alterações na humidade relativa ou na concentração de CO2 no interior da incubadora, enquanto que estas duas últimas variáveis produzem efeitos na sua maior parte sobreponíveis. Dos parâmetros monitorizados, aqueles que mais consistentemente apresentaram alterações encontravam-se relacionados com o comportamento e metabolismo embrionários, nomeadamente com a diminuição do metabolismo embrionário como consequência do stress induzido pela manipulação. O crescimento embrionário, representado pelo peso do embrião e por parâmetros alométricos, foi igualmente afetado, tendo-se verificado que as alterações de temperatura resultaram em embriões mais leves, enquanto as alterações de humidade relativa e CO2 produziram embriões de tamanho semelhante mas peso superior aos dos restantes tratamentos. À análise histológica, os embriões sujeitos a alterações contínuas de temperatura apresentaram ainda atraso na formação do tecido linfoide da bolsa de Fabricius e alterações celulares com distorção da arquitetura do epitélio glandular da moela, estas últimas em embriões sujeitos a aumentos de temperatura). Os embriões sujeitos a modificações da humidade relativa produziram efeitos temporários sobre o desenvolvimento do tecido hepático. As lesões microscópicas encontradas em animais mortos durante a incubação não permitiram o diagnóstico fiável da(s) causa(s) imediata de morte. Nenhum dos tratamentos produziu elevação significativa dos níveis de mortalidade, à exceção da incubação sob temperaturas inferiores ao normal. Dos restantes tratamentos, a elevação da humidade relativa resultou num aumento da mortalidade no final do período de incubação. Ainda relativamente à viabilidade embrionária, verificou-se que apenas as manipulações da temperatura de incubação resultaram num aumento significativo na incidência de malformações espontâneas. Finalmente, é de notar que, para todas as variáveis estudadas, a alteração contínua de uma variável produziu efeitos mais pronunciados e duradouros, enquanto a alteração pontual e temporária de uma variável produziu efeitos mais limitados, tanto em amplitude como em duração. Ao contrário dos ensaios de manipulação do ambiente de incubação, a inoculação de ovos specific-pathogen free não incubados com serovars de Salmonella enterica e sua posterior incubação não produziu alterações significativas no comportamento, metabolismo ou desenvolvimento embrionários. A inoculação de S. Enteridis, tanto em inóculo alto como em inóculo baixo, resultou num aumento significativo da taxa de mortalidade, sendo que esta se encontrou limitada aos primeiros 7 dias de incubação. A inoculação com qualquer dos inóculos de S. Typhimurium produziu, igualmente, níveis de mortalidade superiores comparados com os controlos, limitados aos primeiros dias de incubação, mas inferiores aos produzidos por S. Enteritidis. As lesões microscópicas observadas em animais encontrados mortos não permitiram o diagnóstico fiável da(s) causa(s) imediata de morte, sendo que a única diferença significativa encontrada se restringiu a alteração da afinidade tintoral dos tecidos provenientes de embriões infetados, indicativa de decomposição mais acelerada provavelmente devido a maior proliferação bacteriana. Contudo, nenhum dos embriões viáveis inoculados apresentou qualquer alteração macroscópica ou histológica significativa e em nenhum destes animais se observaram agregados bacterianos à análise microscópica, apesar da presença de infeção confirmada por métodos de biologia molecular. Os resultados obtidos sugeriram, ainda, que ambos os serovars de Salmonella utilizados apresentam tropismo para o embrião, possuindo a capacidade de não só sobreviver dentro do ovo, mas também de atravessar compartimentos orgânicos em direção ao embrião. Estas observações evidenciam algumas das razões para a eficiência demonstrada por estes serovars (e particularmente S. Enteritidis) na transmissão vertical e estabelecimento de portadores assintomáticos. Em relação ao estudo de campo, a análise dos ovos não viáveis não evidenciou diminuição de performance ou viabilidade embrionária devido a qualquer das variáveis estudadas em laboratório. Contudo, o exame externo, macroscópico dos ovos, assim como a sua análise microbiológica evidenciaram problemas na seleção e calibração dos ovos para incubação, assim como na possível higiene e práticas de recolha dos ovos na exploração de reprodutores, sinalizando potenciais pontos de intervenção futura com vista ao melhoramento da performance de incubação que de outra forma não seriam detetados. Finalmente, este trabalho permitiu a aquisição de informação essencial para a compreensão da resposta embrionária aos desafios da incubação, permitindo ainda confirmar a importância do embriodiagnóstico na monitorização da saúde da incubadora e do bando.

The thermal environment exerts a strong influence on many aspectsof squamate life history. Environmental temperatures constrain daily activity time, fecundity, growth rate, and also influences hatchling phenotype. Cold nest temperatures can slow the development of eggs deposited in the soil, cause developmental abnormalities or result in mortality of embryos.

The doubly labelled water technique was validated for captive-bred, laying Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix), and used to measure the energy expenditure of free-living laying swallows (Hirundo rustica). Swallows had a slightly higher energy expenditure during laying than during incubation or nestling-rearing. Energy expenditure and the net cost of incubation increased sharply for female dippers (Cinclus cinclus) when clutches were enlarged to 6 eggs. Lipophilic dyes were used to determine the rate of ovarian follicular growth and the volume of yolk deposjted in a 24 h period by captive quail and free-living swallows. Rates of yolk deposition were related to daily energy expenditure in quail, but not in swallows. Balances placed under swallow nests recorded an increase in female mass from 5 d before the first egg was laid. Female mass peaked on the evening before the first egg and declined as eggs were laid. Mass changes during laying were equal to the mass of the oviduct and developing ova. However, body composition also changed, as a lipid reserve was built up in the final 4 d before the first egg was laid, whilst body water content declined. This substantially increased the peak energy requirement for biosynthesis in a laying swallow. The lipid reserve was catabolized during the remainder of the laying period. The lipid reserve was likely to serve as an insurance against a drop in food intake during laying. Shortage of food on the day before the first egg was laid led to a reduction in clutch size for some swallows. There was no evidence for use of a protein reserve by laying swallows. A model was developed from which it was predicted that egg production by swallows, and probably all other insectivorous birds, would be constrained by energy rather than crude lipid or protein requirements. It was concluded that laying patterns and clutch sizes were sometimes constrained by food availability during egg-laying, and that an upper limit to clutch size could be set by the capacity of an incubating bird to cover the eggs.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
Foods that reach the consumer must be safe and with quality. To obtain a safe product is important the control not only at the end of process, but all along the entire chain Production chain, it means, from “farm to fork”.The poultry industry is an example that clarifies the application of a control system of that type. This study was conducted in an industry of poultry multiplication and aims to propose a plan where process points are identified as critica and special measures must be taken to control the proliferation of a pathogenic fungus that belongs to the species Aspergillus fumigatus. Microbiological analyses were made in points identified as favouble to fungal growth, inside the exploration of breeding and hatchery, through the methods of Petri dishes exposure and surface swabs followed by plating onto a selective agar medium. The fungus was found in the hatchery and in the nests of the poultry farm multiplication. Measures most effective for control this fungus are prevention, cleaning and disinfections with a chemical product that has enilconazol as active substance, during the months of the year when temperatures are favourable.

The ductus arteriosi (DA) are two blood vessels connecting the pulmonary arteries to the descending aorta in the avian embryo. Following hatching, the DA closes, separation of the systemic and pulmonary circulation. I present the morphological changes that occur in the chicken DA during prepipping, internal pipping, external pipping, and hatching. The avian DA consists of two distinct tissue types, a proximal and a distal portion. Histological examination shows developmental differences between the proximal and distal portions of the DA with regard to lumen occlusion, endothelial cells, smooth muscle and elastin. Endothelial cell proliferation begins to occur as early as external pipping, with the lumen almost completely occluded by the 3rd day of post-hatching life. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) increases in avian endothelial cells during hatching. I provide a morphological timeline of changes in the DA as the chicken develops from embryo to hatchling.

Studies were conducted to investigate the effects of in ovo injection of selenium (Se) either as seleno-methionine (Se-Met) or sodium selenite (Na2SeO3) into the yolk of incubating eggs on tissue Se concentration, embryo livability, lipid peroxidation, immune response and growth performance. When white-shelled eggs were injected with 0.1ml of solutions providing 0, 2.5, 5, 10 or 20 μg Se/egg, no detrimental effects on embryo viability at 20 days of incubation were noted. The effects on tissue Se concentrations suggested that Se-Met and Na2SeO3 were metabolized differently by the chick embryo. In a subsequent study using injection doses up to 60 μg/egg, a greater linear response in tissue Se was obtained with Se-Met, compared with Na2SeO3 (P < 0.01). Minimal changes in heart and breast muscle Se concentrations were noted above the 40 μg dose when Na2SeO3 was used (P > 0.05). In a study with broiler eggs, injection doses of 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 40 μg Se/egg were used. Se-Met or Na2SeO3 at doses up to 40 μg Se/egg had little effect on embryo viability. Injecting Se-Met resulted in greater tissue Se accumulation than Na2SeO3 at 20 days of incubation. In another study with broiler eggs using injection doses up to 40 μg Se/egg, Se-Met injection resulted in higher hatchability, reduced lipid peroxidation in the lung and heart muscle of the embryos after 20 days incubation and higher Se concentrations in heart and breast muscle of hatched chicks through 7 days and in lung through 21 days of growth. In a feeding trial with broiler breeder hens, adding 0.3 mg/kg of Se as Se yeast or Na2SeO3 to the diet improved tissue Se status at hatching of progeny chicks. Taken together, these results indicate that injection of Se into the yolk of incubating eggs may be useful for enhancing Se status during embryonic and early post-hatch development. Therefore, the improvement in Se status using this method in conjunction with dietary Se supplementation of breeder hens would be much greater than with only using dietary supplementation.

The gravel environment of 30 brown trout (Salmo trutta) redds and adjacent nonredd sites in two western North Carolina streams were studied during the incubation period in 1979-1980 and 1980-1981. Intragravel water temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, and percent oxygen saturation were highly correlated with surface water measurements, indicating that intragravel water is of surface origin. Permeability ranged from 250 to 149,350 cm/hr and averaged 6,150 cm/hr. Apparent velocity varied from 0 to 1,000 cm/hr and averaged 30 cm/hr. Permeability in redds was significantly greater than at nonredd sites. No significant differences in apparent velocity were found between redd and nonredd sites. No consistent differences in permeability or apparent velocity were found between streams or over time. Permeability and apparent velocity decreased significantly with depth. Freeze cores were collected from redd and nonredd sites and divided into three 10-cm layers for analysis. Geometric mean diameter, sorting coefficient, fredle index, percent fines <2.00 mm, and percent porosity were highly variable and averaged 11.8 mm, 2.8, 4.2, 17.0 percent, and 19.0 percent, respectively. No significant differences were found among factors tested. Correlations between these gravel indices and permeability and apparent velocity were low. The gravel and intragravel environments appeared to be adequate for larval survival. Measurements did not reveal any clear trends during the incubation period. Brown trout did not by choice or redd construction appear to select or create (by redd construction) a subsurface environment different from the surrounding stream bed.
M.S.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of age and lineage of layers breeders light and semi heavy on the quality of the egg, the pinto newly eclodido and performance of incubation. 3,456 eggs were used for breeding light (Dekalb White) and semi heavy (Bovans Goldline) in three different ages (young, old and middle age). The experiment was divided into two stages, at first we evaluate the characteristics of the eggs of a sample of 360 eggs (60 per treatment). In the second stage evaluated the performance of chicks hatching and quality of a sample of 3,096 eggs (516 per treatment). It was observed that the quality of the shell fell and the weight of the egg increased with the increase of age of the birds. The layers breeders Dekalb White eggs produced heavier in the middle ages and with better quality of bark at all ages. With the increasing age of the bird has increased the percentage of yolk and albumen decreases. This decrease was more pronounced in a manner eggs line Dekalb White. Eggs of the same lineage, layers breeders young and old had a higher percentage of egg yolk. The pH of the yolk and albumen increased with the ageing of layers breeding, which in old age, the egg line Dekalb White shows higher values for these variables that line Bovans Goldline. As for the assessment of incubation found that birds' eggs old line Bovans Goldline had greater percentage of weight loss during the incubation than those from Dekalb White layers breeders of the same age. The weight of pinto increased with increasing age of the leyer breeding and Dekalb White chicks born heavier that the Bovans Goldline. However, the relationship of chicks weight / weight of the egg was higher for chicks Bovans Goldline poultry young and middle age. The progeny Dekalb White was not influenced by the age of reproductive on this parameter. The percentage of females born in respect of fertile eggs was greater in the lineage Dekalb White. Since young matrices obtained lower values for this variable, regardless of their lineage. The female chicks Dekalb White, and had weights more uniform, had a higher percentage of bag viteline than the Bovans Goldline. The age of the matrix no effect on these variables. The percentage of the heart and lungs in the weight of the female chicks were not influenced by age or the lineage of breeding.
O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da idade e da linhagem de galinhas matrizes leves e semi pesadas sobre a qualidade do ovo, do pinto recém-eclodido e do rendimento da incubação. Foram utilizados 3.456 ovos de reprodutoras leves (Dekalb White) e semi pesadas (Bovans Goldline) em três diferentes idades (jovens, velhas e de média idade). O experimento foi dividido em duas etapas; na primeira se avaliou as características dos ovos de uma amostra de 360 ovos (60 por tratamento). Na segunda etapa avaliou-se o desempenho da incubação e a qualidade dos pintinhos numa amostra de 3.096 ovos (516 por tratamento). Observou-se que a qualidade da casca diminuiu e o peso do ovo aumentou com a elevação da idade das aves. As matrizes Dekalb White produziram ovos mais pesados na idade média e com melhor qualidade de casca em todas as idades. Com o aumento da idade da ave o percentual da gema aumentou e do albúmen diminui. Essa diminuição ocorreu de maneira mais acentuada em ovos da linhagem Dekalb White. Ovos dessa mesma linhagem, de matrizes jovens e velhas apresentaram maior percentual de gema. O ph da gema e do albúmen aumentou com o envelhecimento das matrizes, sendo que na idade ve lha, o ovo da linhagem Dekalb White apresenta valores maiores para essas variáveis que os da linhagem Bovans Goldline. Quanto à avaliação da incubação verificou-se que ovos de aves velhas da linhagem Bovans Goldline apresentaram maior percentual de perda de peso durante a incubação do que aqueles provenientes de matrizes Dekalb White de mesma idade. O peso do pinto aumentou com o aumento da idade da matriz e pintinhos Dekalb White nasceram mais pesados que os Bovans Goldline. Porém, a relação peso do pinto / peso do ovo foi maior para pintos Bovans Goldline de aves jovens e de média idade. A progênie Dekalb White não foi influenciada pela idade da reprodutora quanto a esse parâmetro. O percentual de fêmeas nascidas em relação aos ovos férteis foi maior na linhagem Dekalb White. Sendo que matrizes jovens obtiveram valores menores para essa variável, independente de sua linhagem. As pintinhas Dekalb White, além de apresentaram pesos mais uniformes, obtiveram maior percentual de saco vitelino do que as Bovans Goldline. A idade da matriz não exerceu influência sobre essas variáveis. O percentual do coração e dos pulmões em relação ao peso da pintinha não foi influenciado pela idade nem pela linhagem das reprodutoras.
Mestre em Ciências Veterinárias

碩士
國立中興大學
農業機械工程學系
89
Abstract This study established a recycled water incubation system which was according to the traditional incubation system. This system could regulate and control the temperature and dispose the recycled water. Hereby, the testing steps and water quality data for incubating Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs were given to reference. The experiment device within Semi-Pelagic Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs was set up to figure out the differences of properties between the nature Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs and substitute eggs. Moreover, the related curve of the water flow and the pushed height of the plastic grains, a kind of substitute egg, in the incubation tank was found, and then was added a function F(X)=0.6072 * X + 35.3931 to establish the curve of Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs in the incubating tank. Incubating Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs needs 22-24 hours and must control the temperature at 25±0.5℃. When we tested the air and water flow rate to the floating condition of Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs in the incubating tank for seeking the best distribution condition of eggs, we found air flow rate at 3.0 L/min and water flow rate at 8.0 L/min are the optimum distribution condition of Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs. As to the water quality in this system of incubating Ctenopharyngodon idellus eggs, the concentrations of NH3-N and NO2--N were controlled respectively under 0.18 ppm and 0.11 ppm. The concentration change of NO3--N shall be kept at the range of 30ppm. The incubation rate of this system is 21.5% more than the traditional system, and the damage rate is 0.7%.

碩士
國立中興大學
動物科學系所
101
Incubation and egg quality are traits of major economic importance in the chicken industry because they have a strong effect on chick output. In this study, we investigated the differences of egg quality and incubation parameters traits in six breeds of local chickens: Hua-Tung (HT), Hsin-Yi (HY), Ju-Chi (JC) and Quemoy (KM) breeds from Taiwan, Shek–Ki (SK) breed from China, and Nagoya (NG) breed from Japan. The study eggs were collected when hens were 61-63 weeks of age in Generation 1 and 31-33 weeks of age in Generation 2. Two eggs per hen were collected to study egg quality traits. The results showed that egg qualities of Nagoya were better than other breeds with higher eggshell breaking strength and Haugh unit. Eggshell breaking strength of Quemoy and Shek-Ki was lower than other breeds. The incubation traits, including loss of egg weight during storage (storeloss), 18 days in the setter (inculoss), 21 days of incubation (hatchloss), time to hatch, and hatchability were tested for the effect of breed, egg weight and storage period. Eggs weight, chick weight, and storeloss (%) in Generation 1 were higher than Generation 2, whereas, inculoss (%), hatchloss (%), and hatchability in Generation 2 were higher than Generation 1. The highest inculoss (%) and hatchloss (%) were found in Quemoy, while the lowest was Shek-Ki. The longest hatchtime was found in Quemoy and the shortest was Ju-Chi. The highest hatchability was found in Hua-Tung breed, while the lowest was Shek-Ki breed. Heritabilities estimated from regression of Generation 2 to Generation 1 were very high for egg weight and hatchtime while storeloss was nil. Furthermore, long egg storage time increases egg weight loss and incubation duration (hatch time), but decreased hatchability. When eggs stored for one more day, egg weight loss increased 0.03 % during storage period, 0.03% during 18 days in the setter, and 0.07% for entire incubation period, increased the hatch time by 0.73 hr, but decreased hatchability about 0.03%.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of egg weight on hatchability and chick hatch-weight of Cobb 500 broiler chickens. A total of 396 Cobb 500 hatchable eggs classified according to three different egg weight groups as small: (<49 g) medium: (50-59 g) and large: (60-69 g) were used in the experiment. A complete randomized design of three treatments with three replicates and each replicate having” 44 eggs was used for the experiment. Simultaneously a linear type equation was used to determine the relationship between egg size and responses in hatchability values and chick hatch-weight. Results indicated that large-sized eggs produced chicks with higher (P<0.05) hatch-weight than medium and small-sized eggs. However, no differences were detected with fertility rate percentage, hatchability percentage and percentage hatch of fertile. It was therefore concluded from the result of the present study that sorting of Cobb 500 broiler chicken breeder eggs by weight prior to incubation might be advantageous in producing uniform size Cobb 500 broiler chicken hatchlings to meet specific market demands with improved efficiency.
Agriculture and  Animal Health
M. Sc. (Agriculture)

碩士
國立中興大學
生命科學系所
94
Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) and temperature sex determination (TSD) are common in some reptile groups (e.g. turtles and crocodiles). SSD may result from hatchling size differences, juvenile and adult growth rates, age and size at maturity, and incubating temperatures. It has been demonstrated that eggs incubated in high temperatures produce larger hatchlings, it is possible that SSD found in TSD species may result from the difference in incubation temperature. Among the four batagurid turtles found in Taiwan, the sex determination mode of the Chinese Stripe-Necked Turtle, Ocadia sinensis, is unknown. It is known that the size of females is larger than that of males in this species. In this research, I plan to determine the sex-determination mechanism of Ocadia sinensis, and, to understand the relationship between incubation temperature of eggs and juvenile growth rate and activity performance. I designed incubation experiments at five different temperatures (24℃、26℃、28℃、30℃、32℃) in order to determine the effects of incubation temperature on hatching success, sex ratio, hatchling body size, activity performance, and juvenile growth rate. I demonstrated that Ocadia sinensis is a TSD species; at incubating temperatures of 30℃ and 32℃, all hatchlings are females; all hatchlings are males when eggs are incubated at 24℃. Eggs hatched the fastest when incubated at 32℃ (46.1 ± 1.6 days), longest when at 24℃ (90.8 ± 2.6 days). Hatching success and the size of hatchlings are not influenced by incubation temperatures.. The activity performance of juveniles hatching at higher temperatures is higher than those hatching from lower temperature. Growth rate is faster in individuals hatching from high temperatures. There is no significant difference between individual growth rate and size of hatchling or activity performance of juveniles. Since growth rate is faster in high incubation temperatures than in low temperatures, incubation temperature could be one of the factors that cause SSD. However, there is no significant within-sex difference in growth rate among hatchlings incubated at different temperatures. It indicates that gender itself is one of the factors that influence growth rate.