Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Electric vehicle'

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, 1992.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 169-172) and index.
by Camilla M. Denison.
M.S.

When hybridizing a vehicle, new components are added that need to be monitored due to safety and legislative demands. Diagnostic aspects due to powertrain hybridization are investigated, such as that there are more mode switches in the hybrid powertrain compared to a conventional powertrain, and that there is a freedom in choosing operating points of the components in the powertrain via the overall energy management and still fulfill the driver torque request. A model of a long haulage truck is developed, and a contribution is a new electric machine model. The machine model is of low complexity, and treats the machine constants in a different way compared to a standard model. It is shown that this model describes the power losses significantly better when adopted to real data, and that this modeling improvement leads to better signal separation between the non-faulty and faulty cases compared to the standard model. To investigate the influence of the energy management design and sensor configuration on the diagnostic performance, two vehicle level diagnosis systems based on different sensor configurations are designed and implemented. It is found that there is a connection between the operating modes of the vehicle and the diagnostic performance, and that this interplay is of special relevance in the system based on few sensors. In consistency based diagnosis it is investigated if there exists a solution to a set of equations with analytical redundancy, i.e. there are more equations than unknown variables. The selection of sets of equations to be included in the diagnosis system and in what order to compute the unknown variables in the used equations affect the diagnostic performance. A systematic method that finds properties and constructs residual generator candidates based on a model has been developed. Methods are also devised for utilization of the residual generators, such as initialization of dynamic residual generators, and for consideration of the fault excitation in the residuals using the internal form of the residual generators. For demonstration, the model of the hybridized truck is used in a simulation study, and it is shown that the methods significantly increase the diagnostic performance. The models used in a diagnosis system need to be accurate for fault detection. Map based models describe the fault free behavior accurately, but fault isolability is often difficult to achieve using this kind of model. To achieve also good fault isolability performance without extensive modeling, a new diagnostic approach is presented. A map based model describes the nominal behavior, and another model, that is less accurate but in which the faults are explicitly included, is used to model how the faults affect the output signals. The approach is exemplified by designing a diagnosis system monitoring the power electronics and the electric machine in a hybrid vehicle, and simulations show that the approach works well.

Electric vehicles are being considered as one of the pillar of eco-friendly solutions to overcome the problem of global pollution and radiations due to greenhouse gases. Present thesis work reports the improvement in overall performance of the propulsion system of an electric vehicle by improving autonomy and torque-speed characteristic. Electric vehicle propulsion system consists of supply and traction system, and are coordinated by the monitoring & control system. Case of light electric vehicle propulsion system with permanent-magnet (PM) brushless dc (BLDC) drive being used in electric scooters and electric-mini cars is considered for analytical study and the implementation of the proposed solutions. PM BLDC motor and voltage source inverter are considered as a part of traction system and electric energy source such as battery, fuel cell or photovoltaic panel are considered as a part of supply system. Available electric energy sources are capable of delivering higher current at lower terminal voltage, so are connected either in series or -more often- to the higher voltage dc-link through a circuital arrangement (boost topology) to achieve higher voltage. For the evaluation of boost topologies, traditional dc-to-dc boost converter with cascade VSI (DBI) and Z-source inverter (ZSI) are considered for fuel cell and battery as on-board energy sources. Evaluation of the convenience of the two supply topologies is carried out in terms of the factors defining transistor power utilization, and voltage and current transistor solicitation. In addition to mentioned defined factors, sizing of the passive components in terms of the power contribution factor of fuel cell is considered. In respect to the defined factors, DBI supply is found to be beneficial for PM BLDC drive whereas, with respect to the power contribution factor, ZSI supply is good to adopt for the cases were major contribution of power is from battery. For the improvement in torque-speed characteristics of the considered drive, issue of torque ripple due to non-ideal phase commutation in case of conventional square-wave phase current (SqPC) supply is studied analytically by establishing a correlation between the behavior of the commutating phase currents and motor torque. Behavior of the motor torque during commutation for low and high speed zone as a function motor speed and defined motor specific quantity are explained in detailed. The analytical results are used to explain the dropping torque-speed characteristic of the drive and are verified experimentally for a propulsion drive available in the laboratory. Dropping torque-speed characteristic limits the use of the drive up till the nominal speed. To overcome this issue sinusoidal phase current (SPC) supply is proposed. SPC offers constant motor torque. A detailed convenience analysis of SPC over SqPC is carried out. Strategy for the implementation of SPC supply is also discussed and the analytical results were verified by the experimentally. The study of the PM BLDC drive by means of the space phasor/vector approach has been executed. While such an approach is quite common for drives with motors with sinusoidal back-emf and phase currents, it is not explored in the literature for the present case, where back-emfs are trapezoidal and phase currents are square-wave in nature. Behavior of the PM BLDC drive has been revisited in stationary plane and the current commutation between the motor phases has been explained with the help of phase variable vectors. All the results obtained in a-b-c plane are cross verified in stationary plane showing the simplicity and potentialities of the vector approach for PM BLDC drive. To address the issue of the autonomy of electric vehicles, use of solar energy to assist the on-board batteries of an electric mini-car is considered. Photovoltaic Geographical Information Systems database provided by Joint Research Centre Europe, is used to estimate the solar irradiance available in Padova, Italy. Output of a 0.487 sq-meter, 20-cell multi-crystalline PV panel is estimated and accordingly a conventional dc-to-dc boost converter is designed to interface PV panel with dc-link of a mini-car available in the laboratory. Appropriate control is implemented through DSP to track maximum power point. Whole system was tested outside the laboratory and measurements were carried out. Analytical loss model of the dc-to-dc boost converter is developed to explain the variations in gain, efficiency and loss components of the converter under varying solar irradiance. The thesis work has been carried out at the Laboratory of “Electric systems for automation and automotive” headed by Prof. Giuseppe Buja. The laboratory belongs to the Department of Industrial Engineering of the University of Padova
I veicoli elettrici sono considerati uno dei pilastri tra le soluzioni ecosostenibili per superare il problema dell’inquinamento globale dovuto ai gas serra. Questo lavoro di tesi tratta del miglioramento delle prestazioni complessive di un sistema di propulsione di un veicolo elettrico mediante l’aumento dell’autonomia e della caratteristica coppia-velocità. Il sistema di propulsione di un veicolo elettrico consiste in un sistema di alimentazione e di un sistema di trazione, coordinati da un sistema di monitoraggio e controllo. Lo studio analitico e l’implementazione della soluzione proposta per il sistema di propulsione sono stati svolti con riferimento ad un motore brushless a magneti permanenti con fem trapezoidale (PM BLDC), utilizzato comunemente in veicoli elettrici leggeri come gli scooter e le mini-car. Il sistema di propulsione è costituito dal motore PM BLDC e dall’invertitore di tensione, mentre il sistema di alimentazione è formato da sorgenti energia elettrica come le batterie, le celle a combustibile o i pannelli fotovoltaici. Le sorgenti di energia elettrica disponibili sul mercato consentono di raggiungere elevati valori di corrente ma con bassi valori di tensione. Al fine di ottenere i valori di tensioni richiesti dal bus in continua, esse sono collegate in serie tra loro o sono connesse mediante convertitori innalzatori di tensione. Ciò può avvenire o attraverso un tradizionale convertitore dc/dc innalzatore con in cascata un invertitore di tensione (DBI) o attraverso un invertitore di tipo Z-source (ZSI). La valutazione di convenienza delle due modalità di alimentazione è basata sul fattore di utilizzazione e sulle sollecitazioni in termini di corrente e tensione dei transistor di potenza. Oltre ai fattori menzionati in precedenza, sono stati dimensionati gli elementi passivi in funzione della quota parte di potenza fornita dalla cella a combustibile. In relazione ai parametri definiti, la migliore soluzione risulta essere l’alimentazione con DBI, mentre quella con ZSI appare conveniente quando la maggior parte della potenza assorbita dal carico sia fornita dalle batterie. Al fine di migliorare le prestazioni di coppia, il ripple di coppia dovuto alla non ideale commutazione del convertitore ad onda quadra (SqPC) è stato studiato analiticamente, stabilendo la correlazione tra le correnti durante la fase di commutazione e la coppia del motore. Il comportamento di coppia a basse ed ad alte velocità è stato esaminato in dettaglio utilizzando specifiche grandezze del motore. I risultati analitici sono stati utilizzati per spiegare la caduta della coppia sviluppata dal motore ad alte velocità; essi sono stati verificati sperimentalmente su un azionamento di propulsione disponibile in laboratorio. La non costanza della caratteristica coppia-velocità limita l’uso del motore nei pressi della velocità nominale. Per superare questo limite è stata altresi utilizzata un’alimentazione con corrente sinusoidale (SPC). Essa permette di fornire al motore una coppia costante. E’ stata quindi eseguita un’analisi dettagliata al fine di vedere quale sia il metodo di alimentazione più conveniente tra SqPC e SPC. È stata altresì descritta la strategia d’implementazione dell’alimentazione SPC, e i risultati analitici sono stati verificati sperimentalmente. E’ stato eseguito lo studio degli azionamenti con motori PM BLDC con l’approccio dei fasori spaziali. Mentre questo approccio è abbastanza comune nel caso di azionamenti con motori con forza contro-elettromotrice e correnti di sinusoidali, esso non è trattato in letteratura per gli azionamenti con motori PM BLDC, in quanto la forza contro-elettromotrice è trapezoidale e il profilo delle correnti di fase è un onda quadra. Il comportamento del motore PM BLDC è stato rivisitato sul piano stazionario e la commutazione della corrente tra le fasi è stata descritta con l’ausilio dei vettori delle grandezze di fase. Tutti i risultati ottenuti nel piano a-b-c sono stati verificati nel piano stazionario, mostrando la semplicità e le potenzialità dell’approccio vettoriale. Al fine di estendere l’autonomia del veicolo sono stati utilizzati dei pannelli fotovoltaici. Il Sistema Geografico di Informazioni Fotovoltaico sviluppato dal Joint Research Center Europe è stato utilizzato per stimare il valore d’irraggiamento solare disponibile a Padova. È stata stimata la potenza generata da un pannello fotovoltaico di superficie 0.487 m2, formato da 20 celle multi-cristalline, e in relazione ad essa, è stato progettato il convertitore dc-dc elevatore per interfacciare il pannello fotovoltaico al bus in continua di una mini-car disponibile in laboratorio. Un appropriato controllo è stato implementato in un processore DSP al fine di inseguire il punto di massima potenza. L’intero sistema è stato provato all’esterno del laboratorio, facendo le misure necessarie per le verifiche. Un modello analitico delle perdite del convertitore dc-dc elevatore è stato sviluppato per descrivere la variazione di guadagno, rendimento e perdite del convertitore al variare dell’irraggiamento solare. Il lavoro di tesi è stato sviluppato presso il Laboratorio di “Sistemi elettrici per l’automazione e la veicolistica” diretto dal Prof. Giuseppe Buja. Il laboratorio afferisce al Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale dell’Università di Padova

The decarbonisation of transport and power supply sectors is key to achieving global and national emissions cut targets in line with Paris Agreement’s limiting global warming goals. Electric vehicles (EVs), coupled with large adoption of renewable energy (RE) resources in the power system, offer such carbon mitigation solutions. However, due to the unknown spatio-temporal variability of EV charging load, introducing large quantities of EVs and high shares of variable wind and solar energy poses challenges to the load balance management. Against this background, this thesis examines the potential role of flexible EV loads and diverse energy resources in decarbonisation of the transport and electricity supply sectors. The main content of this thesis includes: First, based on real-world vehicle driving survey data, I present a deterministic and a probabilistic model to quantitatively investigate the spatio-temporal distribution of EV charging load for Australia. Second, I present a cross-sectoral integrated EV-grid model for accessing various energy supply and demand scenarios with high spatio-temporal resolution. I quantify the impacts of EV charging demand on the current fossil-based power system in terms of its electricity generation, LOLP and levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) in Australia. Third, I further investigate spatio-temporal configurations of the least-cost 100% renewable power supply in Australia, at various levels of biomass resource use and concentrated solar power (CSP) penetration. Fourth, I utilize the EV-grid integrated model to examine the spatio-temporal interactions of widespread EV charging with a future, 100% renewable electricity system in Australia. I obtain least-cost grid configurations that include both RE generators and EVs, the latter under both uncontrolled and controlled charging, and under adoption rates between 0 and 100%.

With electric vehicles becoming increasingly prevalent in the automotive market consumers are becoming more conscientious of total driving range. In light of this trend, reliable and accurate modeling methods are necessary to aid the development of more energy efficient vehicles with greater drivable range. Many methods exist for evaluating energy consumption of current and future vehicle designs over the US certification drive cycles. This work focuses on utilizing the well-established Willans line approximation and proposes a simplified modeling method to determine electric vehicle energy consumption and powertrain efficiency. First, a backwards physics-based model is applied to determine tractive effort at the wheel to meet US certification drive cycle demand. Second, the Willans line approximation then augments the tractive effort model and parameterizes the vehicle powertrain to establish a bi-directional power flow method. This bi-directional approach separates propel and brake phases of the vehicle over the certification City and Highway drive cycles to successfully isolate the vehicle powertrain from non-intrinsic losses, such as parasitic accessory loads. The proposed method of bi-directional modeling and parameter tuning provides significant insight to the efficiency, losses, and energy consumption of a modeled electric vehicle strictly using publicly available test data. Results are presented for eight electric vehicles with production years varying from 2016 to 2021. These electric vehicles are chosen to encapsulate the electric vehicle market as performance electric vehicles to smaller commuter electric vehicles are selected. All vehicles are modeled with an accessory load constrained between 300 and 850 W and a regenerative braking ("regen") low-speed cutoff of 5 mph with six of the eight vehicles modeled with a regenerative braking fraction of 94%. The bi-directional Willans line is then tuned to reach agreement with the net EPA energy consumption test data for each vehicle with the results presented as representative of the chosen vehicle. Lastly, a transfer function relating major model inputs to the output is derived and lends considerable insight for the sensitivity of the modeling method. Sensitivity of the proposed modeling method is conducted for a 2017 BMW i3 with the model deemed reasonably resilient to changes in input parameters. The model is most sensitive to changes in powertrain marginal efficiency with a 6% decrease of marginal efficiency leading to a 0.404 kW and 0.793 kW cycle average net battery power increase for the City and Highway drive cycles respectively. Additionally, the model is also sensitive to changes in vehicle accessory load with a direct relationship between increases of vehicle accessory load to increases of cycle average net battery power for the City and Highway cycles. The sensitivity results justify the use of the proposed model as a method for evaluating vehicle energy consumption and powertrain efficiency solely using publicly available test data.
Master of Science
Developing robust and accurate methods for analyzing electric vehicle energy consumption and powertrain efficiency is of great interest. For the purposes of this paper, powertrain refers to a motor / inverter pair which is coupled to a simple gear reduction for torque multiplication. Many vehicles are designed with motors of varying power and torque capabilities which can present challenges when attempting to effectively compare electric vehicles from different manufacturers. The proposed modeling method presented in this work utilizes public test data to derive detailed vehicle and powertrain information. Vehicle energy consumption is also modeled and compared to net EPA test data. Eight electric vehicles are modeled with each vehicle representing a specific segment of the current electric vehicle market. A bi-directional Willans line is applied to model the propel and brake phases of each electric vehicle over the US certification drive cycles. The bi-directional approach effectively isolates the vehicle powertrain from non-intrinsic losses. From the derived powertrain parameters and modeled energy consumption, the proposed method is deemed accurate and highly useful for translating public test data to detailed vehicle information. Lastly, a sensitivity analysis is presented with the proposed method deemed reasonably resilient to changes in input parameters. The modeling method is most sensitive to changes of powertrain marginal efficiency and vehicle accessory load but constraining these inputs to reasonable ranges for electric vehicles proves sufficient.

This work is intended to contribute with knowledge to the area of electic motorsfor propulsion in the vehicle industry. This is done by first studying the differentelectric motors available, the motors suitable for vehicle propulsion are then dividedinto four different types to be studied separately. These four types are thedirect current, induction, permanent magnet and switched reluctance motors. Thedesign and construction are then studied to understand how the different typesdiffer from each other and which differences that are of importance when it comesto vehicle propulsion. Since the amount of available data about different electricmotors turned out to be small a tool was developed to use for collecting data fromthe sources available which can be for instance product sheets or articles with informationabout electric motors. This tool was then used to collect data that wasused to create models for the different motor types. The created motor models foreach motor type could then be used for simulating vehicles to investigate how thespecific motor is suited for different vehicles and applications. The work also containsa summary of different electric motor comparison studies which makes it agood source of information during motor type selection in the process of designingan electric vehicle.

Dans cette thèse inscrite dans le cadre de la chaire Renault-Centrale Nantes, l’objectif est de concevoir des stratégies de contrôle pour améliorer les performances et le rendement du chargeur réversible du Véhicule Electrique (VE). Dans le mode décharge, le nouveau défi consiste à concevoir une stratégie de Modulation par Décalage de Phase (MDP) pour améliorer la zone de fonctionnement et le rendement du convertisseur DC-DC. La loi de commande est basée sur l’inversion de gain du convertisseur DC-DC LLC. Du point de vue coût, la contribution porte essentiellement sur la conception d’une stratégie d’optimisation pour diminuer le dimensionnement du convertisseur DC-DC LLC mais aussi d’améliorer les performances de la stratégie de Modulation par Fréquence d’Impulsion (MFI). Ensuite, un développement d’un modèle grand signal du convertisseur LLC basé sur la stratégie MDP est élaboré. La contribution principale consiste à implémenter des stratégies du contrôle robuste, telles que la commande sans modèle et la commande adaptive super twisting, combinées avec la stratégie MDP. D’autre part, l’apport principal conduit à fournir une stratégie de contrôle hybride du chargeur afin de réguler la tension du bus DC dans les zones de saturation du convertisseur DC-DC. Enfin, une nouvelle topologie d’un chargeur VE avec la structure DAB est étudiée. Une stratégie de contrôle en cascade est proposée pour régler le bus DC et le courant réseau. Différentes stratégies de modulation, telles que les modulations par décalage d’un ou de deux déphasages, sont étudiées. Des résultats de simulation de modèles de chargeurs réels sont présentés afin de mettre en évidence l’efficacité des stratégies de contrôle proposées
In this thesis, part of the chair Renault/Centrale Nantes, the aim is to design control strategies to improve the performance and efficiency of the bidirectional charger of the Electric Vehicle (EV). In the discharging mode, the new challenge is to design a Phase Shift Modulation (PSM) strategy to improve the operating zone and efficiency of the DC-DC converter. The control law is based on the DC-DC LLC gaininversion. In terms of cost, the contribution is mainly about the design of an optimization strategy, not only to reduce the sizing of the DC-DC LLC converter, but also to improve the performance of the Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM) strategy. Then, a large signal model of the LLC converter based on the PSM strategy is developed. The main contribution consists of implementing robust control strategies, such as model-free control and adaptive super twisting control, combined with the PSM strategy. On the other hand, the key contribution leads to provide a hybrid control strategy of the charger in order to be able to regulate the DC bus voltage in the saturation zones of the DC-DCconverter. Finally, a new topology of an EV charger with the DAB structure is studied. A backstepping control strategy is proposed to regulate the DC bus voltage and the grid current. Different modulation strategies, such as single and dual phase shift modulation,are studied. Simulation results of real charger models are presented in order to highlight the effectiveness of the proposed control strategies

Since few years the electric vehicles draw the attention. The battery technology’s continual improvements and incentives from the authorities guarantee them an assured future with a fast and considerable development. Some figures are forecasted by 2020: one or two millions electric vehicles. This could mean a huge increase in electricity consumption. The consequences on the total energy consumption have already been analyzed, however studies on the impact on the load curve remain scarce. In this context, this master thesis focuses on the impact of the electric vehicles’ charge on the French load curve and the production and consumption balancing. The grid issues are not studied here. The first part presents the state of the art in battery and electric vehicle technology, as well as battery charge’s characteristics. Besides the French traffic data are studied, in order to build the most realistic model as possible. The second part explains the principle of the modeling. A general and flexible model for the French fleet is built. This model can simulate the times of charge of a vehicle, and the state of charge of its battery, in order to get a total load curve for several days for an electric fleet. And finally, the different load curves are analyzed as well as their impacts on the electric balancing system and the possible solutions to lower these impacts. As the peak load for the electric vehicles’ charge corresponds to the total consumption peak in the evening according to the most probable scenario, services have to be implemented to reduce or put back the overload due to the electric vehicles. Those services (tariff signals regulations, battery management system, cut-off injunctions) have been tested. A model for grid injections during peak hours has also been developed, in order to help the electric system, and erase the electric vehicles’ impact on the load curve. Studies for the optimum load, the reserves and the margins are also suggested as well as other possible studies, such as EV’s carbon footprint. The reflections and strategies developed in this master thesis don’t reflect RTE’s policy and don’t commit the company.

Electrification of transport forms a major part of British policy for energy and climate change. The formation of the early market for Electric Vehicles (EVs) has been supported through consumer subsidies, regulatory support, and programmes for the deployment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure, but uptake does not seem to be proceeding at the rate needed for meeting policy objectives. The approach pursued by policy actors is consistent with the approach of Strategic Niche Management (SNM), which would call for the creation of protected spaces to facilitate the development of new sociotechnical configurations. The Plugged-in Programme (PiP) in Milton Keynes is an example of creating a protective space. A comparison of PiP and other case studies in the literature of sociotechnical transitions identified a gap in SNM that may shed light on the limitations of EV policy in the UK. Traditionally, SNM has been used to monitor and manage interventions in support of prototype or pre-production vehicles. In consequence, there is no precedent for its application in support of early market technologies. The market introduction of innovative technologies can trigger interrelated technological and behavioural changes, affecting the preferences of producers and consumers while altering the demand structure of the sector. However, SNM does not account for the patterns of use and demand implied in what remain largely technological templates for the future. This thesis begins to develop a framework for the analysis and management of early market strategic niches. Insights from a second discipline, that of social marketing, were sought to complement the analytical tools of SNM. Social marketing is useful for understanding the effect of behavioural and market factors on the adoption of innovative technologies. Social marketing provides a framework for analysing and influencing behaviour in socially beneficial directions. Behaviour and choice are modulated through the application of a marketing orientation, identifying and addressing needs and creating valuable offerings. This research is centred on organizational users of electric vehicles (EVs), and explores the effectiveness of the policy portfolio for addressing the needs of early adopters and for building an early market for EVs. Thematic analysis, a form of qualitative content analysis, is applied to evidence from documentary sources, participant observation and interviews with key organizational actors in the community of pioneering and prospective EV users. The analysis draws on concepts from SNM and social marketing to explore previously neglected forces affecting the early market for EVs, with particular focus on the increasing importance of market selection and the competition presented by an entrenched but socially undesirable incumbent. Contrary to the expectations of policy actors, financial incentives and infrastructure deployment have a limited impact on the choices made by organizational actors. This thesis shows that the processes of learning and embedding that take place within the niche need to be multidimensional. Before a choice can be made, pioneering and prospective adopters of EVs invest considerable effort in the collaborative construction of new patterns of use and demand. This process can be supported by empowering interventions that identify suitable applications (creating multiple sub-niches within the niche) and facilitate the co-construction of new, competitive configurations around them. The models and networks created through this multidimensional, collaborative process translate into capabilities that give distinct advantages to pioneering adopters, allowing them to expand beyond their original niche and outperform the incumbents in mainstream markets.

Nowadays, the energy warehouse structures of EVs have to now no longer acquire big quantities of strength however additionally percentage out rapid dissimilarities of the burden. The increase and implementation of Electric Vehicles (EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) are these days obtaining a massive momentum particularly because of environmental and gasoline sources to deal with. An electric powered automobile model is simulated withinside the Mat lab wherein an electric powered automobile load on the idea of speed, acceleration, torque, strength at load is analyzed. Suitable factors of Indian power cycle incorporating like drag coefficient, coefficient of rolling resistance, etc. parameters are analyzed. A Mat lab Simulink of the Brushless DC motor, Inverter circuit, commutation switching circuit, Buck converter, PID controller, sensor circuit, and ultra-capacitance battery control version is evolved for the evaluation of an electric powered automobile. In an electric-powered automobile, the available electricity as a consequence of the battery might not be constantly enough to fulfill the weight ultimatum, especially at some stage in height ephemeral conditions. Hence, an ultra-capacitor financial institution is used as a further electricity garage detail in an electric-powered automobile, which could deliver electricity to satisfy the height strength ultimatum and may enhance the overall performance at some stage in short-lived conditions. The mixed use of battery and ultra-capacitor improves the performance of the system, the battery operates inside shielded limits, battery dwelling receives more desirable, brings down the battery size, and enlarging the automobile overall performance. The obstacles are decreased electricity density, low lifestyles cycle, immoderate cost, and limited using span. Ultra-capacitors are related to the battery because it has a double-layer electrochemical capacitor with an extended lifestyles cycle, successful to build up one thousand instances greater strength than a traditional capacitor, more advantageous electricity density, and green rate and law of discharge.

This text as a part of the master thesis, describes the propulsion of electric vehicles. In the context of this thesis, there is a study made that gives an overview of the market of electric and hybrid electric vehicles in Europe. One of the facts of this study is that the most manufacturers launch their first electric vehicle in the next following years. Technological is there a key difference between vehicles on the market and vehicles that are launched in the next years. The upcoming electrical vehicles use mostly a high power lithium-ion battery and an induction motor. The second part of this thesis describes the different technologies that are used to propel an electric vehicle. The third and last part of this thesis are a few simulations of an electric vehicle. Here in is a power simulation based on a drive cycle. The power curve is calculated with several losses of an electric vehicle. Based on this power curve is it possible to simulate the maximum range of an electric vehicle on one battery cycle.

The thesis considers methods for the spatial deployment of public charging stations for electric vehicles. After studying the future situation for public charging infrastructure three cases where spatial deployment methods can come to use were identied: Public slow charging a within city area Public fast charging a within city area Charging station alongside a major road The methods were constructed using the GIS-software ArcGIS and was then validated using three different test studies (an introduction to GIS and ArcGIS is found in Appendix A). It could be concluded that it is difficult to predict the future public charging need because of uncertainties in predicting the future electric vehicle market penetration, charging behaviours and market models. The GIS software used proved to have many useful tools which made the deployment implementation straight forward. Much work will have to be invested in nding adequate GIS input data and defining the method objective and parameters, since each deployment situation is unique.

Thesis: S.M. in Technology and Policy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Engineering Systems Division, 2015.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student-submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 79-88).
Light-duty vehicle transportation accounted for 17.2% of US greenhouse gas emissions in 2012 [95]. An important strategy for reducing CO₂ emissions emitted by light-duty vehicles is to reduce per-mile CO₂ emissions. While one approach is to improve vehicle efficiency, greater reductions in emissions can be achieved by switching from gasoline vehicles to electric vehicles, if the electric vehicles run on electricity from clean energy sources. Batteries affect the consumer adoption of electric vehicles by influencing two important vehicle characteristics: cost and driving range on a single charge. The cost of the battery is a significant fraction of total vehicle cost, and the battery's energy capacity determines driving range. To lower battery costs and improve battery energy capacity, further research is needed. To guide such research, several organizations have created performance targets for batteries, including the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) and the US Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC). The goal of this thesis is to assess these performance targets based on real-world vehicle performance. A method is developed for estimating the energy requirements of personal vehicle travel, which improves upon previous methods by accounting for per-trip variation of vehicle energy consumption and analyzing data with wider geographic scope. The method consists of a model of battery-to-wheel vehicle energy consumption and a conditional bootstrap procedure for combining GPS travel data with large-scale data from the US National Household Travel Survey. The research finds that the distribution of energy requirements for US vehicle-trips and vehicle-days (the sum of all trips taken in a day) has a heavy tail, namely that a small proportion of long trips accounts for a disproportionately large amount of energy consumption. Current electric vehicle batteries (2011 Nissan Leaf) can satisfy 83% of vehicle-days, which account for 53% of all energy consumed in personal vehicle travel, while batteries that meet the performance targets can satisfy 98 to 99% of vehicle-days, which account for 90 to 96% of energy. These results allow for a quantification of the benefits of meeting performance targets for battery energy capacity, which can help assess technology readiness and guide allocation of research funding.
by Michael Tse-Gene Chang.
S.M. in Technology and Policy

The electric vehicle industry is under rapid development and the fleet of chargeable cars in society is increasing fast. As a result, a high demand for public chargers has emerged. Simultaneous to the expansion of the electric vehicle fleet and charging infrastructure the power grid is occasionally highly strained. Additionally, factors like cities expanding and the digitization of society also have a large effect on the power grid. This master's thesis investigates the characteristics of electric vehicle users and presents a prototype of an information display for electric vehicle charging stations. The design is is based on the user studies and founded in theory about sustainable user behaviour with the goal of encouraging behaviours that minimize the strain on the local power grid of Uppsala. It concerns the research topic of how to design for sustainable behaviour and address research questions of how to design electric vehicle charging station information to communicate multiple charging alternatives to a broad variety of users. The work reveals that electric vehicle users suffer from the charging infrastructure being underdeveloped, feel frustration towards payment solutions available and lack information regarding electric vehicle use. Also, electric vehicle user's common passion for tech and environmental consciousness are revealed in the study. These facts are used as the foundation for the mobile application design prototype suggested.

Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) systems transfer electric energy from a source to a load without any wired connection. WPTs are attractive for many industrial applications because of their advantages compared to the wired counterpart, such as no exposed wires, ease of charging, and fearless transmission of power in adverse environmental conditions. Adoption of WPTs to charge the on-board batteries of an electric vehicle (EV) has got attention from some companies, and efforts are being made for development and improvement of the various associated topologies. WPT is achieved through the affordable inductive coupling between two coils termed as transmitter and receiver coil. In EV charging applications, transmitter coils are buried in the road and receiver coils are placed in the vehicle. Inductive WPT of resonant type is commonly used for medium-high power transfer applications like EV charging because it exhibits a greater efficiency. This thesis refers to a WPT system to charge the on-board batteries of an electric city-car considered as a study case. The electric city-car uses four series connected 12V, 100A•h VRLA batteries and two in-wheel motors fitted in the rear wheels, each of them able to develop a peak power of 4 kW to propel the car. The work done has been carried out mainly in three different stages; at first an overview on the wired EV battery chargers and the charging methodologies was carried out. Afterwards, background of different WPT technologies are discussed; a full set of Figures of Merit (FOM) have been defined and are used to characterize the resonant WPTs to the variations in resistive load and coupling coefficient. In the second stage, the WPT system for the study case has been designed. In the third stage, a prototypal of the WPT system has been developed and tested. Design of the WPT system is started by assessing the parameters of the various sections and by estimating the impact of the parameters of the system on its performance. The design process of the coil-coupling has come after an analysis of different structures for the windings, namely helix and spiral, and different shapes for the magnetic core; further to the preliminary results that have shown the advantages of the spiral structure, a more detailed analysis has then been executed on this structure. The coil design has encompassed the determination of the inductive parameters of the two-coil coupling as a function of the coil distance and axial misalignment. Both the analysis and the design was assisted by a FEM-approach based on the COMSOL code. Design of the power supply stages of the WPT system has consisted of the assessment of values and ratings of a) the capacitors that make resonant the coil-coupling, b) the power devices of the PFC rectifier and of the high frequency inverter (HF) that feeds the transmitting coil, c) the power devices of the converters supplied by the receiver coil: the rectifier diode and the in-cascade chopper that feeds the battery in a controlled way. For the converters that operate at high frequency (inverter and the rectifier in the receiver section), power electronic devices of the latest generation (the so-called Wide Band Gap (WBG) devices) have been used in order to maximize the efficiency of the WPT system. A prototypal WPT battery charger was arranged by using available cards with the power and signal circuits. Relevant experimental activities were: a) measurement of the parameters of the coils, b) desk assembling of the prototype, and c) conducting tests to verify proper operation of the prototype. The thesis work includes also a brief overview of i) emerging topics on WPT systems such as on-line electric vehicle (OLEV), ii) shielding of the magnetic fields produced by a WPT system, and iii) standards on WPT operation. These three issues play a significant role in the advancement of the WPT technology. The thesis work has been carried out at the Laboratory of “Electric systems for automation and automotive” headed by Prof. Giuseppe Buja. The laboratory belongs to the Department of Industrial Engineering of the University of Padova, Italy.
I sistemi per il trasferimento di potenza wireless (WPT) trasferiscono energia elettrica da una sorgente ad un carico senza alcuna connessione via cavo. I sistemi WPT sono attraenti per molte applicazioni industriali grazie ai loro vantaggi rispetto alla controparte cablata, come l’assenza di conduttori esposti, la facilità di ricarica e la trasmissione senza rischi della potenza in condizioni ambientali avverse. L’adozione di sistemi WPT per la carica delle batterie di bordo di un veicolo elettrico (EV) ha ricevuto l'attenzione di alcune aziende, e sforzi sono stati fatti per lo sviluppo e il miglioramento delle varie topologie ad essi associate. Il WPT è ottenuto tramite l'accoppiamento induttivo tra due bobine, definite bobina trasmittente e bobina ricevente. Nelle applicazioni per la carica delle batterie, le bobine trasmittenti sono installate sotto il manto stradale mentre le bobine riceventi sono poste a bordo del veicolo. Il WPT induttivo di tipo risonante è comunemente utilizzato nelle applicazioni per il trasferimento di potenze medio-alte, come la carica degli EV, perché presenta una maggiore efficienza. Questa tesi tratta un sistema WPT per caricare le batterie di bordo di una city-car elettrica considerato come caso di studio. La city-car elettrica utilizza quattro batterie da 12V, 100A•h VRLA collegate in serie e due motori-ruota montati sull’assale posteriore, ognuno in grado di sviluppare una potenza di picco di 4 kW per la propulsione del veicolo. Il lavoro svolto è stato effettuato principalmente in tre fasi diverse; in un primo momento è stata effettuata una panoramica sui caricabatteria cablati per EV e sulle metodologie di ricarica. Successivamente, sono stati discussi i principi base di diverse tecnologie WPT; è stato definito un insieme di figure di merito (FOM) che sono state utilizzate per caratterizzare il comportamento dei WPT risonanti rispetto alle variazioni di carico resistivo e al coefficiente di accoppiamento. Nella seconda fase, è stato progettato il sistema WPT per il caso di studio. Nella terza fase, è stato sviluppato e sperimentato un prototipo del sistema WPT. La progettazione del sistema WPT è stata iniziata con una valutazione dei parametri delle varie sezioni e stimando l'impatto dei parametri del sistema sulle sue prestazioni. La progettazione della bobina di accoppiamento è stata effettuata dopo l'analisi di avvolgimenti con strutture diverse, ovvero elica e spirale, e con forme differenti del nucleo magnetico; a seguito dei risultati preliminari che hanno mostrato i vantaggi della struttura a spirale, è stata poi eseguita un'analisi più dettagliata su questa struttura. Il progetto della bobina ha compreso la determinazione dei parametri induttivi dell’accoppiamento in funzione della distanza e del disallineamento assiale delle bobine. Sia l'analisi che la progettazione sono state assistite da un approccio FEM basato sul codice COMSOL. La progettazione degli stadi di alimentazione del sistema WPT è consistita nella valutazione dei valori e dei dati di targa di a) i condensatori che rendono risonante l’accoppiamento tra le bobine, b) i dispositivi di potenza del raddrizzatore PFC e dell'inverter ad alta frequenza (HF) che alimenta la bobina di trasmissione, c) i dispositivi di potenza dei convertitori alimentati dalla bobina ricevente, segnatamente il raddrizzatore a diodi e il chopper collegato a valle che carica la batteria in modo controllato. Per i convertitori che operano ad alta frequenza (l’invertitore e il raddrizzatore della sezione ricevente), sono stati utilizzati dispositivi elettronici di potenza di ultima generazione (i cosiddetti dispositivi Wide Band Gap (WBG)) al fine di massimizzare l'efficienza del sistema WPT. E’ stato realizzato un caricabatteria WPT prototipale utilizzando schede elettroniche disponibili in Laboratorio con i circuiti di potenza e di segnale. Le relative attività sperimentali sono state: a) misurazione dei parametri delle bobine, b) assemblaggio a banco del prototipo, e c) esecuzione di prove sperimentali per verificare il corretto funzionamento del prototipo. Il lavoro di tesi comprende anche una breve panoramica su temi emergenti in materia di sistemi WPT come i) IL WPT dinamico, chiamato anche “on-line electric vehicle” (OLEV), ii) la schermatura dei campi magnetici prodotti da un sistema WPT, e iii) la normativa sui sistemi WPT. Questi tre temi svolgono un ruolo significativo nello sviluppo della tecnologia WPT. Il lavoro di tesi è stato effettuato presso il Laboratorio di “Sistemi elettrici per l'automazione e la veicolistica” diretto dal Prof. Giuseppe Buja. Il Laboratorio fa parte del Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale dell'Università degli Studi di Padova, Italia.

Wireless battery charging (WBC) is an attracting solution to promote electric vehicles (EVs) in the market, which may provide superior charging infrastructure and unlimited driving range. The most suitable technique to implement WBC is inductive power transfer (IPT) with a coupling established between two distant coils, one buried into the road and another installed in EV, and the power transferred from the buried coil to that onboard EV through a high-frequency oscillating magnetic flux. WBC can be carried out with EV that is either standing (while parked) or moving (on the road); the two WBC modes are termed static wireless charging (SWC) and dynamic wireless charging (DWC), respectively. However, this thesis focusses on the DWC, where an IPT track is buried into the road whilst the coil onboard EV, commonly termed pickup, remains coupled with the track to get power while moving on the road. The in-moving vehicle charging has been researched and demonstrated by some institutes across the world using two possible track arrangements: stretched and lumped coil track. The former one is composed of a single elongated coil, much longer than the pickup size, and the later one is an arrangement of multiple coils placed one next to the other, the length of them being comparable to the pickup size. A lumped track permits activation/deactivation only of the coil interacting with a pickup. This ability is called segmentation and is very important for DWC to reduce the losses and to avoid exposing the people to electromagnetic radiations; therefore, a lumped track has been dealt with in this thesis. The contactless power transfer at large airgap is possible with high frequency (in kHz) and high-magnitude current supply of the track coils; as increasing supply frequency improves power transfer efficiency. Apart from the supply characteristics and the coil dimensions, power transfer capabilities of a the system depend upon the coupling properties of the coil pairs, thus a pair polarized coils (also called DD coils) has been found more suitable for DWC due to its coupling merits at misalignment. Considering a lumped track composed of equally distant several DD coils, power and energy transfer to an EV moving on the track have been analyzed. Based on that, lumped track layout and its design procedure have been discussed in detail with an example of an EV. Segmentation of a DWC track is very important function, as mentioned above, which can be obtained by various methods and one of them is using the impedance reflected into a track coil from the coupled pickup. In this way, four compensation topologies have been discussed to investigate their reflexive properties (resistance and reactance) when they are deployed in a pickup circuit. Summarizing the outcomes and comparing their behavior, two topologies have been found useful for the track segmentation. Considering them, further analysis has been done to obtain and discuss their performance figures. This thesis also discusses about the power converters in both track side and pickup side circuit. The track side power converters include rectifier, power factor correction circuit and inverter, which extract power from the supply grid and transform into the appropriate form to realize efficient WBC. Converter arrangement in the pickup circuit includes rectifier and chopper to charger a battery using the received power.
La ricarica della batteria senza fili (dall’inglese Wireless Battery Charging - WBC) è una soluzione attraente per la possibile diffusione dei Veicoli Elettrici (VE) nel mercato. Essa può fornire infrastrutture di ricarica migliori e un’ autonomia del veicolo praticamente illimitata. La tecnica più adatta per attuare il WBC è il trasferimento di potenza induttivo (Inductive Power Transfer - IPT), il quale sfrutta l’accoppiamento magnetico tra due bobine, una posizionata sotto il manto stradale e l’altra installata a bordo di un veicolo elettrico, e la potenza viene trasferita dalla bobina interrata a quella di bordo attraverso un flusso magnetico oscillante alta frequenza. Il WBC può essere effettuato con un VE fermo (parcheggiato) o in movimento sulla strada; le due modalità di WBC sono chiamate ricarica senza fili statica (Static Wireless Charging - SWC) e ricarica senza fili dinamica (Dynamic Wireless Charging - DWC), rispettivamente. Tuttavia, questa tesi si concentra sulla DWC, dove una bobina trasmittente, chiamata track, è interrata sotto la strada, mentre la bobina a bordo del VE, comunemente chiamata pickup, rimane accoppiata con il track per ricevere la potenza mentre il VE è in movimento. La ricarica di un VE in movimento è stata studiata e dimostrata da alcuni istituti di tutto il mondo i quali hanno adottato due differenti strutture di bobina trasmittente: track allungato e track concentrato. La prima struttura è formata da una singola bobina allungata, molto più lunga del pickup, mentre la seconda struttura è una disposizione di più bobine posizionate una dopo l’altra, la cui lunghezza è paragonabile alle dimensioni pickup. La struttura con track concentrato consente l'attivazione/disattivazione della sola bobina interagente con il pickup. Questa capacità è chiamata segmentazione ed è molto importante per DWC perché consente di ridurre le perdite e di evitare l'esposizione delle persone a radiazioni elettromagnetiche; di conseguenza, in questa tesi è stata trattata la soluzione con track concentrato. Il trasferimento della potenza senza fili con un elevato traferro è possibile solo con un’alta frequenza (dell’ordine dei kHz) ed un’alta intensità della corrente di alimentazione delle bobine del track; poiché l'aumento della frequenza di alimentazione migliora l'efficienza di trasferimento della potenza. Oltre alle caratteristiche di alimentazione e le dimensioni delle bobine, le capacità di trasferimento di potenza di un sistema dipendono dalle proprietà di accoppiamento delle bobine stesse, così una coppia di bobine polarizzate (chiamate anche bobine DD) è stata trovata essere la soluzione più adatta per il DWC grazie al suo elevato valore di accoppiamento quando track e pickup sono disallineati. Considerando un track concentrato composto da diverse bobine DD equamente distribuite, sono state analizzate la potenza e l’energia trasferite al VE in movimento. Sulla base di questo, la struttura del track concentrato e la sua procedura di progettazione sono stati discussi in dettaglio per un particolare caso di studio. Come detto precedentemente, la segmentazione del track è una funzione molto importante. Essa può essere ottenuta con vari metodi e uno di questi utilizza l'impedenza riflessa del pickup in una bobina del track. Così, quattro topologie di compensazione del circuito di pickup sono state investigate per studiarne le differenti impedenze riflesse. Riassumendo i risultati e confrontando il loro comportamento, solo due topologie sono state trovate utili per la segmentazione del track. Considerando quest’ultime, ulteriori analisi sono state fatte per ottenere e discutere le loro prestazioni. Questa tesi tratta anche i convertitori di potenza utilizzati sia nel track che nel pickup. I convertitori di potenza del track includono un raddrizzatore, un circuito di correzione del fattore di potenza (PFC) e un inverter, i quali sfruttano l’energia prodotta dalla rete di alimentazione e la convertono nella forma più appropriata per realizzare efficienti WBC. Nella bobina di pickup il circuito di condizionamento è formato dalla cascata di un raddrizzatore e un chopper che permettono di ricaricare la batteria di bordo utilizzando la potenza ricevuta.

Commercial aviation accounts for 2,4% of the total carbon dioxide emissions. This number is expected to reach 25% in 2050. In contrast to flying, the most energy efficient transportation mode is rail. In Sweden, rail and air are the most competitive on the distance Stockholm-Gothenburg due to similar total travel time. The most popular high-speed train on this distance is X2000. X2000 is electrified, contributing to merely indirect carbon emissions. Considering electricity as an energy source, the corresponding air transportation mode with respect to X2000 would be electric aircraft. This study investigates if electric aircraft could compete with electric trains on the distance Stockholm-Gothenburg in the foreseeable future. The objective was to identify challenges regarding electrification of aircraft using X2000 as a benchmark. These challenges were determined through a comparison between electric aircraft and electric train. In general, the comparison contains an analysis of cost, environmental impact, safety, comfort and time. In particular, the ticket price, carbon dioxide emissions, fatality rate, interior and exterior noise and transportation time were studied. The comparison was performed through a literature study. The results depicted electric aircraft could in the best-case scenario be slightly cheaper than the corresponding high-speed train option. Conversely, electric aircraft have somewhat higher energy consumption than X2000, hence the indirect carbon dioxide emissions from the electricity production are higher. However, these emissions are significantly lower than those from conventional aircraft. Regarding safety, electric aircraft are predicted to be safer than conventional ones, and therefore even safer than trains. Furthermore, electric aircraft contribute to less noise pollution than X2000. Though, the interior noise level is lower in a train car of X2000 than in a cabin of an electric aircraft. Concerning time, electric aircraft would even in the worst-case scenario have the same transportation time as X2000. Therefore, it was concluded that electric aircraft could compete with electric trains for short travel distances such as Stockholm-Gothenburg, in the foreseeable future.

The market segment of hybrid-electric and full function electric vehicles is growing within the automotive transportation sector. While many papers exist concerning fuel economy or fuel consumption and the limitations of conventional powertrains, little published work is available for vehicles which use grid electricity as an energy source for propulsion. Generally, the emphasis is put solely on the average drive cycle efficiency for the vehicle with very little thought given to propelling and braking powertrain losses for individual components. The modeling section of this paper will take basic energy loss equations for vehicle speed and acceleration, along with component efficiency information to predict the grid energy consumption in AC Wh/km for a given drive cycle. This paper explains how to calculate the forces experienced by a vehicle while completing a drive cycle in three different ways: using vehicle characteristics, United States Environmental Protection Agencyâ s (EPA) Dynamometer â targetâ coefficients, and an adaptation of the Sovran parameters. Once the vehicle forces are determined, power and energy demands at the wheels are determined. The vehicle power demands are split into propelling, braking, and idle to aide in the understanding of what it takes to move a vehicle and to identify possible areas for improvement. Then, using component efficiency data for various parameters of interest, the energy consumption of the vehicle as a pure EV is supplied in both DC (at the battery terminals) and AC (from the electric grid) Wh/km. The energy that flows into and out of each component while the vehicle is driving along with the losses at each step along the way of the energy path are detailed and explained. The final goal is to make the results of the model match the vehicle for any driving schedule. Validation work is performed in order to take the model estimates for efficiencies and correlate them against real world data. By using the Virginia Tech Range Extended Crossover (VTREX) and collecting data from testing, the parameters that the model is based on will be correlated with real world test data. The paper presents a propelling, braking, and net energy weighted drive cycle averaged efficiency that can be used to calculate the losses for a given cycle. In understanding the losses at each component, not just the individual efficiency, areas for future vehicle improvement can be identified to reduce petroleum energy use and greenhouse gases. The electric range of the vehicle factors heavily into the Utility Weighted fuel economy of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, which will also be addressed.
Master of Science

This dissertation identifies the average treatment effect of state level incentives for hybrid vehicles, identifies individual-level predictors of early adopters, and attempts to understand why states adopt these incentives. These questions are estimated using traditional parametric techniques, logistic regression, difference-in-difference regression, and fixed effects. In particular, this dissertation looks at changes in aggregate demand on two comparison groups: (1) the natural control group, states that did not adopt subsidies, and (2) a constructed control group, states that proposed subsidies during this same time period but did not adopt them. In addition to these parametric models, propensity score matching was used to construct a third comparison group using the models that identified determinants of the policy adoption. These findings were supplemented by exploratory analyses using the individual-level National Household Travel Survey. This multitude of evaluative analyses shows that HOV lane exemptions, if implemented in places with high traffic congestion, were found to impact aggregate demand and an individual's propensity to adopt a hybrid, while traditional incentives had limited impact. These analyses provide insight into why states adopt certain policies and the circumstances in which these incentives are effective. Since people may be motivated by factors other than economic factors, creating effective incentives for energy efficiency technologies may be more challenging than just offsetting the price differential. Instead, customization to the local community's characteristics could help increase the efficacy of such policies.

Electric vehicle technology is an interdisciplinary field in continuous development. It appears to be a margin for improvements. The Division for Electricity at Uppsala University is doing significant research in the field. The present thesis investigates electric machines for vehicular applications, both in the driveline and in the traction motor. Section 1 presents a driveline with two galvanically isolated voltage levels. A low power side is operated at the optimum voltage of the batteries, while a high power side is operated at a higher voltage leading to higher efficiencies in the traction motor. Both sides are coupled through a flywheel that stabilizes the power transients inherent to a drive cycle. A review of electric machine topologies for electric vehicles is presented in Section 2. The permanent magnet excited machine is the most suitable technology for an electric driveline. Section 3 is devoted to numerical models applied to electric machines. The equivalent circuit of a motor/generator with two sets of windings is first presented. This machine couples both sides of the driveline and drives the rotor of the flywheel. The electric parameters are calculated with custom FEM models. A discussion on slotless machines concludes with a simple model to analyze the magnetic field from one static 3D simulation. The tooth ripple losses in solid salient poles are also analyzed with a novel FEM approach. A complete description of the losses in electric machines gives a proper background for further discussion on efficiency. Section 4 presents the experimental work constructed to validate the theoretical models. The experiments include an axial flux, single wounded prototype, an axial flux, double wound prototype and a planed radial flux coreless prototype. Section 5 focuses on traction motors for electric vehicles. A simulated prototype illustrates a design and calculation process. The loss theory and the numerical methods presented in Section 3 are applied.

Au cours des années récentes, les véhicules électriques sont revenus sur le devant de la scène des politiques publiques en matière de transport. Considérés comme un remède possible à diverses préoccupations pressantes des pouvoirs publics, ils bénéficient d'un soutien croissant de leur part. De telles mesures de soutien demeurent contestées : en effet, leur impact sur le décollage effectif des ventes, leur soutenabilité, leur utilité et leur justification sont loin d'aller de soi. Cette étude vise à éclairer l'impact des politiques publiques destinées à influencer la demande sur i) le taux de pénétration des véhicules électriques auprès des ménages français, et ii) les finances publiques. Dans un premier temps sera brossé le tableau du contexte dans lequel les véhicules électriques ont vocation à se développer. Il sera proposé un panorama large des opportunités potentielles offertes par l'introduction des véhicules électriques. Une revue internationale des politiques publiques est conduite, qui décrit les leviers de politique publique qui sont aujourd'hui actionnés en soutien au véhicule électrique de par le monde. L'accent y est mis sur les mesures destinées à agir sur la demande. Des conclusions préliminaires seront proposées sur l'efficacité de ces mesures au regard des taux observés de pénétration du véhicule électrique. Dans un deuxième temps, l'étude s'attache à évaluer le marché potentiel des véhicules électriques auprès des ménages français. L'analyse porte non seulement sur les déterminants financiers de la demande, mais aussi sur les obstacles socio-économiques à l'adoption des véhicules électriques par ces ménages. S'appuyant sur une analyse par scénarios qui permet de rendre compte des nombreuses incertitudes relatives aux évolutions à prévoir des véhicules, des coûts et des tendances de marché, une prévision du potentiel de demande à l'horizon 2023 est avancée. L'approche désagrégée qui est appliquée à partir de la base de données de l'Enquête Nationale Transports et Déplacements 2007/2008 permet d'identifier les combinaisons de instruments financiers de politique publique les plus à même de garantir certains niveaux de pénétration du véhicule électrique dans la prochaine décennie. Enfin, l'impact sur les finances publiques du remplacement d'un véhicule conventionnel par un véhicule électrique est étudié. L'analyse porte à la fois sur les phases de production et d'usage du véhicule. Le modèle d'évaluation développé à cet effet tient compte des impacts directs et indirects sur les finances publiques. Sont pris en compte les subventions directes à l'achat, les allègements fiscaux, les recettes fiscales, ainsi que les effets sur l'emploi. Les conclusions et observations tirées de l'étude permettent de formuler diverses suggestions à l'attention des constructeurs automobiles et des décideurs publics affichant la volonté de soutenir l'essor du véhicule électrique
In recent years, electric vehicles have come to the forefront of public transport policies. They are seen as remedy for various pressing public concerns and are thus increasingly benefiting from supportive policy measures. Such measures remain contested: their impact on actual vehicle uptake rates, their sustainability, usefulness and justification are far from being self-evident. This study aims at uncovering the effect of financial demand-side public policy measures on i) the uptake rate of electric vehicles among private households in France, and ii) the public budget. First, the context within which electric vehicles are to evolve is sketched. A comprehensive overview of the potential opportunities that come with the introduction of electric vehicles is given. An international policy review depicts public policy levers that are currently deployed in order to support the uptake of electric vehicles. A focus is put on financial demand-side measures. Preliminary conclusions on their effectiveness with regards to observed electric vehicle uptake rates in the various countries reviewed are drawn. Next, the potential market for electric vehicles among French households is explored. Besides financial aspects, socio-economic obstacles to electric vehicle uptake among private households are analysed. With the aid of scenario analysis that accounts for the many uncertainties with regards to future vehicle developments, costs and market trends, a forecast of the electric vehicles' potential up until 2023 is given. The applied disaggregate approach based on the database of the French National Transport Survey 2007/2008 allows identifying the most promising sets of financial public policy measures that are likely to guarantee certain electric vehicle uptake rates over the next decade. Lastly, the effect of replacing one conventional vehicle by one electric vehicle on the public budget is investigated. Both, vehicle manufacture and use aspects are considered. The set up valuation model hereby accounts for direct and indirect financial impacts on the public budget. These comprise direct purchase subsidies, tax breaks, and tax income, as well as effects of changing employment situations that alter the amount of social contributions and unemployment benefits .The study's findings and considerations allow for various suggestions for vehicle manufacturers and policy makers willing to support the uptake of electric vehicles. These are listed in the conclusions section which also sketches directions for further research

This dissertation addresses the challenges of scoping and sizing components and modeling the tank to wheel energy flows in new and rapidly evolving classes of automotive vehicles. It introduces a system of computer models, known as the Oxford Vehicle Model (OVEM), which provide for the novel simulation of the powertrains of electric (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). OVEM has a three-level structure that makes a unique contribution to the field of vehicle analysis by enabling a user to proceed from performing scoping and sizing exercises through to accurately simulating the energy flows in powertrains of EVs and HEVs utilizing existing and emerging technologies based on real world data. Level 1 uses simplified models to support initial component scoping and sizing exercises in an analysis environment where uncertainty regarding component specifications is high. Level 2 builds on Level 1 by obtaining more refined component scoping and sizing estimates via the use of component models based on well-understood scientific principles that are product-independent – a crucial feature for obtaining unbiased scoping and sizing estimates. Level 3 employs a high degree of fidelity in that its models impose actual physical limits and are based on data from real technologies. This dissertation concludes with two chapters based on studies published as journal articles that used OVEM to address key issues facing the development of EVs and HEVs. The first study used OVEM to make the novel comparison between high-speed flywheels, batteries, and ultracapacitors on the bases of cost and fuel consumption while functioning as the energy storage systems in an HEV. The second study applied OVEM towards a novel examination of the CO2 emissions from plug-in HEVs (PHEVs) and compares their CO2 emissions to those from similar EVs and ICE-based vehicles.

The aim of this study is to find coherence between the theory of consumers‟ attitudes and the challenge of product acceptance. The relationship between consumer attitudes and product acceptance will be explored using the example of the Electric Vehicle (EV), an innovative and much debated product, in China. This study will analyze the attitudes of the Chinese consumers toward the EV and how these attitudes might affect the acceptance of this particular product. The reason China was chosen as the target market was because that country seems to be a non-researched area. 1 This study will shed some light on the mentioned concepts and offer findings from the Asian continent. These findings will be crucially important for the academic world, as they will be a solid base for future research. More importantly, this research can be used by marketers for their strategies in regards to EV sales in China.

The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the maturity and the performance of the currently available roaming solutions that provide interoperability and roaming services to Electrical Vehicle Charging Networks. At least three different entities are involved in an Electrical Vehicle (EV) charging roaming scenario, namely the EV, the home charging network and the visited charging network. All of these entities have to interface and interact with each other on the physical and the communication protocols level. The Open Clearing House Protocol (OCHP) roaming protocol is implemented and its performance is evaluated against the e-Clearing.net test platform. The protocol functionality for billing and its suitability for different scenarios is also evaluated. Furthermore, an extension to the protocol is proposed to support prepaid subscription, and its performance is also estimated. The findings of this study have verified the performance and the maturity of the OCHP protocol, and strongly recommends the implementation of roaming protocols and clearing houses. The estimated performance of the proposed extension confirmed that both prepaid and postpaid billing can be realized using the tested roaming protocol and clearing house implementations.

The University of Canterbury has purchased a 1992 Toyota MR2 and used it as the platform to construct a new electric car. Similar to the common combustion engine vehicle, electric vehicles require control systems to control the operation of 12Vdc auxiliary loads, such as lights, indicators and windscreen wipers, where traditional technology results in a large number of wires in the wiring harness. Also, with the added complexity of modern vehicles, the need for integrating independent control systems together has become very important in providing safer and more efficient vehicles. To reduce the number of wires and make it possible for different control systems to communicate, and so perform more complex tasks, a flexible and reliable control system is used. The CAN (Controller Area Network) control system is a simple two-wire differential serial bus system, which was developed by Bosch for automotive applications in the early 1980s. The power and control system within the vehicle is named the "Power Distribution Network" and it is implemented by using multiple power converters and the CAN control system. This thesis presents the design, implementation, and test results of the CAN control system for the MR2. The 312Vdc nominal battery voltage is converted to an intermediate voltage of 48Vdc. This configuration is considered more efficient than the usual 12Vdc distribution system since smaller and lighter wires can be used to carry the same amount of power. The power distribution network operates off the 48Vdc intermediate voltage, and provides 12Vdc output to power all auxiliaries within the vehicle. The Power Distribution Network is implemented with two major subsystems: the auxiliary power system, which consists of multiple converters to step-down voltage from the 48Vdc intermediate voltage to the 12Vdc, and the CAN control system, which is developed to control and integrate the 12Vdc auxiliary loads within the vehicle. The prototype CAN control system is fully operational and has been tested with 12Vdc loads which are used to simulate most of the auxiliary loads in the vehicle. Experimental measurements show that the prototype is able to successfully control and maintain the network of independent nodes. This confirms that in principle the CAN control system is suitable for controlling the auxiliary loads in an electric vehicle.

Abstract In 1999, the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Canterbury started building their third electric vehicle (EV3) based on a TOYOTA MR2 with the goal of building a higher performance vehicle to match present combustion engined vehicles. The car is powered by 26 12volt sealed lead-acid batteries connected in series to achieve a nominal 312V DC source. A battery voltage equaliser is a device that draws energy from a higher charged battery, then discharges into a lower charged battery. The need for a voltage equaliser is principally due to the differences in cell chemistry, temperature gradients along the battery string and the ages of the batteries. During the charging or discharging process, some batteries reach their nominal voltage or reach deep discharge states before the others. Then if the charger keeps charging the batteries or the load keeps drawing energy from these batteries, it results in damage to the batteries. Therefore maintaining the charge level on each battery becomes important. In addition, it also improves the battery life and vehicle travelling range. This thesis details the analysis of three different types of battery equaliser, which are based on a 24W buck-boost converter, 192W buck-boost converter and 192W flyback converter. In this design, all converters are designed to work under current mode control with average of 2A. To make each converter install without significant effect on the performance and the cost, each converter is also built with the goals of being small, lightweight, cost effective, flexible for mounting, maintenance free and highly efficient. At the end, the prototype battery equalisation converters were designed, constructed and tested, and the efficiencies from each converter are measured around 90 ~ 92%. The experimental results show two banks of series connected batteries can be successfully equalised by the designed equaliser. This thesis covers the design, simulation and the construction procedures of this battery equaliser system, and also details on some considerations and possible future improvement that were found during the experimental test.

This thesis explores the role of consumers' choices into the integration of mobility and power systems. It will contribute to the wider literature of electric vehicles-power systems integration by explicitly accounting for consumers' preferences in shaping charging demand. This objective is achieved by developing a methodology to investigate electric vehicles (EV) charging choices in technological scenarios that enable smart charging operations. A modelling framework for the joint analysis of EV charging and activity-travel behaviour is introduced. This is based on an extension of traditional activity scheduling models that embeds the charging choice dimensions: namely the available energy after charging (that is related to the driving range) and the charging duration (defined here as the time elapsed from arrival at a charging facility until the desired battery level is achieved). This framework accommodates the interaction between charging behaviour and travel/activity behaviour, and allows us to capture the potential effects of charging service pricing and charging demand management policies on charging choices as well as along the timing dimension of travel/activity choices. A stated response survey instrument for estimating a tour-based operational version of the model is developed. Results from this empirical study provide insights into the value placed by individuals on the main attributes of the charging choice. The trade-offs between target battery levels and schedule delays potentially induced by long durations of the charging operation are also analysed. The model is then implemented into a micro-simulation framework to demonstrate the model applicability for modelling electric vehicle charging demand. The specific application shows the compatibility of charging choices under various electricity pricing scenarios with electric vehicle load flexibility - an essential requirement to enable smart charging operations.

Uber and Lyft, the “unregulated taxis” that are putting traditional taxi companies out of business, are expanding quickly and changing the landscape of urban transportation as they go. This thesis analyzes the environmental impacts of Transportation Network Companies, particularly in California, with respect to travel behavior, congestion, and fuel efficiency. The analysis suggests that fuel efficient taxis are being replaced by less fuel efficient Uber and Lyft vehicles. Linear regressions were run on data from the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project’s Electric Vehicle Consumer Survey of electric vehicle owners in California. The findings indicate that Uber drivers are more reliant upon the state rebate than the general population of electric vehicle owners in California.

The subject of this thesis is the realization of the control system of an autonomous electric vehicle for agricultural applications. The robot will be used for field experimentation of innovative agricultural techniques. The software is developed in LabVIEW programming language, and is employed on an embedded system manufactured by National Instruments that is used as Platform Control Unit. MATLAB and Simulink software are used for simulations and processing of the collected experimental data. As a secondary activity, the electrical circuit was realized including both high-power and signal control wiring harness. The result of the thesis is a working prototype that will be used in a first section of the experimental plant, located at the DISTAL Experimental Center in Cadriano.

There is an urgent need to migrate the vehicle industry from conventional combustion vehicles to electric vehicles due to pressing climate changes caused by the fossil fuel industry. The general public seem to have a prejudice against electric vehicles due to their limited range and the extra planning that may be required from the user. The market for electric vehicles is much more limited than for conventional vehicles, partially because it is a much younger industry. Buying an electric vehicle is also a bigger change than just buying a new car, one has to plan and manage the limited range in a new way. Unfortunately, it is more complicated to create a route planner for electric vehicles than for conventional vehicles and the market for such planners is limited. The complication is because an optimal route is better calculated by lowest energy consumption, rather than the shortest path. This requires more parameters in the routing algorithm to accurately calculate the energy consumption for individual vehicles. The problem attended to in this thesis is that no clear guidelines exist about which parameter affect the energy consumption in an electric vehicle and to what degree. The purpose of this thesis is to provide guidelines that can show which of nine chosen parameters to implement in an electric vehicle route planner. The parameters chosen in this thesis are already implemented in Simulation of Urban Mobility, a road traffic simulator. The simulator is used in this thesis to simulate electric vehicles with different parameter values and analyse the impact they have on the energy consumption when the values are incremented. The thesis shows that although some parameters have a relatively large impact on the energy consumption, it is hard to approximate the correct values for them, and therefore not worth implementing.
Det finns ett brådskande behov att migrera bilindustrin från fossildrivna bilar till eldrivna bilar på grund av den rådande klimatpåverkan av fossila bränslen. Allmänheten verkar ha fördomar mot elbilar på grund av deras begränsade räckvidd och den ytterligare planering som krävs av en elbilsanvändare. Marknaden för elbilar är mer begränsad än marknaden för fossildrivna bilar. Delvis för att elbilsmarknaden är en mycket yngre industri men också för att köpa elbil är en större förändring än att köpa en vanlig bil. En elbilsförare måste använda bilen på ett annorlunda sätt på grund av den kortare räckvidden. Dessvärre så är det mer komplicerat att skapa en ruttplanerare för elbilar än för fossildrivna bilar, och marknaden för sådana ruttplanerare är begränsad. Problemet är att en optimal rutt för en elbil är beräknas mer effektivt med hjälp av lägsta energikonsumtionen istället för den kortaste vägen. Detta kräver mer parametrar i algoritmen för ruttplanering för att effektivt beräkna energikonsumtionen för individuella fordon. Problemet som hanteras i denna rapport är att det inte finns några tydliga riktlinjer om vilka parametrar som har störst påverkan på energikonsumtionen i en elbil. Syftet med denna rapport är att förse riktlinjer som visar vilka av nio valda parametrarna som är värda att implementera i en ruttplanerare för elbilar. Parametrarna som valdes är implementerade i trafiksimulatorn Simulation of Urban Mobility. Trafiksimulatorn används för att simulera elbilar och analysera förändringen i energikonsumtionen när parametervärdena stegvis ökas. Rapporten visar att även om vissa parametrar har en relativt stor påverkan på energikonsumtionen så är det svårt att uppskatta de korrekta värdena för dem. Dessa parametrar är därför inte värda att implementera.

The aim of this thesis is to explore the possibility of adual-purpose electric vehicle. The vehicle should be ableto be used for both commuting and racing. It also aims todescribe different power limiting methods and their effecton performance. Lastly it hopes to see if the Swedish laws,as written today are reasonable. An electric longboard hasbeen constructed for this purpose and several tests havebeen performed.A list of goals were set up for the board prototype. Theseincluded power output, running time, and that the boardshould have an audible warning device.The findings demonstrated that all tested power limitingmethods worked and that the “Simple power limiting” methodprovided quickest movement over a fixed distance. Most ofthe goals were met by the prototype and the board’s twomodes worked as planned. While the law is reasonable itcan be improved to cover the diversity of electric vehicles.Further work may include better measurements and implementationof a dual microcontroller system.
Syftet med detta arbete är att testa möjligheten med etttvå-läges personligt fordon. Fordonenet ska kunna användasför både pendling och tävling. Arbetet har även testat olikaenergilimeteringsmetoder samt undersökt hur dessa metoderpåverkar prestandan. Arbetet har även försökt besvarafrågan om det svenska lagarna, som det är skrivna idag, ärlämpliga. En elektrisk longboard har konstruerats och fleratest utförts.Ett antal målsättningar har definerats för prototypen. Dessainkluderar: effekt, körtid och att brädan bör ha en ringklocka.Resultaten visar att alla metoder fungerade och att “Simplepower limiting” var den som gav snabbast rörelse över denbestämda sträckan. Det flesta av målen nåddes av prototypenoch brädans två lägen fungerade som tänkt. Dagens lagarär rimliga men kan förbättras för att täcka mångfaldenav elektriska fordon. Framtida arbete kan inkludera bättremätningar och implementation av ett system med två mikrokontroller.

The aim of this thesis is to explore the possibility of a dual-purpose electric vehicle. The vehicle should be able to be used for both commuting and racing. It also aims to describe different power limiting methods and their effect on performance. Lastly it hopes to see if the Swedish laws, as written today are reasonable. An electric longboard has been constructed for this purpose and several tests have been performed. A list of goals were set up for the board prototype. These included power output, running time, and that the board should have an audible warning device. The findings demonstrated that all tested power limiting methods worked and that the “Simple power limiting” method provided quickest movement over a fixed distance. Most of the goals were met by the prototype and the board’s two modes worked as planned. While the law is reasonable it can be improved to cover the diversity of electric vehicles. Further work may include better measurements and implementation of a dual microcontroller system.
Syftet med detta arbete är att testa möjligheten med ett två-läges personligt fordon. Fordonenet ska kunna användas för både pendling och tävling. Arbetet har även testat olika energilimeteringsmetoder samt undersökt hur dessa metoder påverkar prestandan. Arbetet har även försökt besvara frågan om det svenska lagarna, som det är skrivna idag, är lämpliga. En elektrisk longboard har konstruerats och flera test utförts. Ett antal målsättningar har definerats för prototypen. Dessa inkluderar: effekt, körtid och att brädan bör ha en ringklocka. Resultaten visar att alla metoder fungerade och att “Simple power limiting” var den som gav snabbast rörelse över den bestämda sträckan. Det flesta av målen nåddes av prototypen och brädans två lägen fungerade som tänkt. Dagens lagar är rimliga men kan förbättras för att täcka mångfalden av elektriska fordon. Framtida arbete kan inkludera bättre mätningar och implementation av ett system med två mikrokontroller.

The aim of the research is to explain the causes underlying the great differences in the adoption of hybrid electric vehicles between France and Italy. The research proposes a model for explaining the existing gap, which includes findings from previous studies and which attempts to go beyond that by introducing other key variables. In order to fulfill the analysis, a survey is delivered to drivers of both countries for evaluating their purchase intention.

The Electric Vehicles (EVs)/ plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs) are slowly and steadily making inroads, in public as well as personal vehicle markets worldwide. The limited fuel reserves and pollution caused due to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) driven vehicles are the main driving elements for allowing a paradigm shift towards EVs. However, with the rapidly increasing demand of EVs, many experts had a manifest concern regarding the charging infrastructure and thus, several studies have been presented over it. With the growing popularity of EVs, power distribution networks are under stress to accommodate the charging infrastructure. The large-scale penetration of EV charging loads in low voltage network may lead to severe voltage fluctuations, overloading of distribution transformer and harmonics related power quality issues. To subsides the negative effect of EVs on distribution system, smart charging technique must be required. During one of the two operating mode, EV charger transfers active power to grid as well as compensating reactive power and known as Vehicle to grid (V2G) mode. This mode requires a bidirectional EV charger which may operate in all over the active-reactive (P-Q) power plane. Moreover, single phase single stage EV chargers have inherent problem of producing second order ripple component on DC side. This problem is further exaggerated during vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode of operation where it may be normally controlled to supply both active as well as reactive power. During the V2G reactive power compensation, the second order harmonics ripple component at DC side will increase which further reduces the life cycle and performance of battery pack. Therefore, the second order ripple component must be minimized for improving the life of battery pack. Therefore, the main aim of proposed study is to develop a robust control system for EV charger to operate it in wide range of G2V and V2G mode of operations while maintain the amount of ripple content on DC side within the permissible limit. The EV charger may supply active power to grid if required and compensate reactive power (inductive or capacitive) if a battery charges at slower rate. In that case, the remaining rating of charger is utilized for compensating the reactive power for optimally utilization charger can work as an active power filter and improves the power quality. viii In this regard, total four control techniques based on proportional integral (PI), proportional resonant (PR), plant integrated proportional integrated (PIPI), repetitive controller (RC), and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) have been presented in this thesis for two stage EV charger. The two control techniques have been presented for both ON board and OFF board EV charger. These EV chargers having two conversion stages i.e., AC-DC and DC-DC converter. Both the converters have their separate controller. Moreover, for single phase single stage ON board EV charger, a control technique has been proposed for minimization of second order ripple presented on DC side. For this, single phase AC-DC converter is utilized for charging purpose. Further, all the EV chargers are able to compensate the reactive power of local load. They all have active and reactive power input references where active command depends on customer desire charging rate and reactive command is requested by grid. All EV charger prototype is controlled by using dSPACE 1104 in laboratory.

Electric mobility, E-mobility, will play a central role in a sustainable future transport system. The potential of curbing climate change in both short and long term are significant. Emobility will also offer the possibility to leapfrog the Internal Combustion car, IC-car, economy for developing countries. The low dependence of oil will be a benefit but E-mobility will demand a well functional electricity grid. Development of this grid will be beneficial for the developing world. For the European society E-mobility will in long term offer lower operating costs, decreased dependence of oil and lower emission of pollutants and Green House Gases, GHGs. All these factors are beneficial for the European society. The transition to E-mobility will depend upon a set of different factors and will call for different actions in order to overcome the barriers of E-mobility. A well developed charging infrastructure will be important in order to offer the full potential of E-mobility. The infrastructure will develop along with the market introduction of Electrical Vehicles, EVs. It is important that there are existing charging alternatives in the early introduction phase of EV in order to avoid the stagnation in the transition toward E-mobility. In order to provide the proper conditions for E-mobility, the determining factors must be investigated and evaluated. The four main factors are economical, social, R&D and infrastructure. The European driving patterns meet the offered operating range of an EV with ease. This means that EV has the potential to become an inner city vehicle under existing conditions. The investigation of the four determining factors leads to a base from which an implementation plan is suggested. The implementation plan is directed toward governments, energy utilities and other active participants in the development. The key factors of the implementation plan are to actively engage in the market, see E-mobility as a disruptive technology, use spin-off companies and social transparency. In order to gain the most from the implementation plan it is important that the correct actions are taken at the correct time. Therefore the transition period is divided into three phases; the introduction phase, the commercial phase and the re-development phase. The introduction phase will create the basic conditions for E-mobility. Government’s main action will be to invest in EVs and offer subsidies and other incentives to major companies that will equip their vehicle fleets with EVs. These actions will send signals toward vehicle Original Equipment Manufactures, OEMs, and other actors that the market of EVs is worth investing in. During the introduction phase try-out sessions, demonstrations and hearings will be important in order to communicate the advantages of E-mobility to society. Energy utilities will work to create roaming deals and standardization of important components and characteristics. The commercial phase is the most important phase for social adoption of E-mobility. During this phase commercial businesses will use EV charging a competitive advantage. New business models will be one of the keys to fully adoption of E-mobility. Cross industry alliances will reduce the initial cost, offer the service of a vehicle without owning it and leasing deals. The perception of travelling will shift and reduction of operating cost will be evaluated against travel time and planning. The re-development phase is based on a society that has adopted E-mobility. The development will proceed in order to offer more advantages to drivers but also to increase efficiency and to use the full potential of E-mobility.

This thesis is focused on individual wheel actuators in road vehicles intended for vehicle motion control. Particular attention is paid to electro-mechanical actuators and how they can contribute to improving vehicle dynamics and safety. The employment of individual wheel actuators at the vehicle's four corner results in a large degree of over-actuation. Over-actuation has a potential of exploiting the vehicle's force constraints at a high level and of controlling the vehicle more freely. One important reason for using over-actuated vehicles is their capability to assist the driver to experience the vehicle as desired. This thesis demonstrates that critical situations close to the limits can be handled more efficiently by over-actuation. To maximise the vehicle performance, all the available actuators are systematically exploited within their force constraints.  Therefore, force constraints for the individually controlled wheel are formulated, along with important restrictions that follow as soon as a reduction in the degrees of freedom of the wheel occurs. Particular focus is directed at non-convex force constraints arising from combined tyre slip characteristics. To evaluate the differently actuated vehicles, constrained control allocation is employed to control the vehicle. The allocation problem is formulated as an optimisation problem, which is solved by non-linear programming. To emulate realistic safety critical scenarios, highly over-actuated vehicles are controlled and evaluated by the use of a driver model and a validated complex strongly non-linear vehicle model. it is shown that, owing to the actuator redundancy, over-actuated vehicles possess an inherent capacity to handle actuator faults, with less need for extra hardware or case-specific fault-handling strategies.
QC 20100722

Die dauerhafte Reduktion der von Menschen verursachten Emissionen ist eine der zentralen Herausforderungen unserer Zeit. Eine Strategie zur Reduzierung von Emissionen im Mobilitätssektor sind elektrisch betriebene Fahrzeuge, die je nach Typ teilweise oder vollständig mit Strom angetrieben werden. Für die Verkehrspsychologie stellt sich nun die Frage, ob und wie schnell sich Fahrer an die Nutzung von Elektrofahrzeugen gewöhnen und welche Herausforderungen sich aus Nutzersicht ergeben. Anhand von Studien mit vollelektrischen Fahrzeugen wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit zwei grundlegende Eigenschaften von Elektrofahrzeugen aus psychologischer Perspektive untersucht: Zum einen verfügen Elektrofahrzeuge über eine Rekuperationsfunktion, mit der es möglich ist, in Verzögerungsvorgängen kinetische in elektrische Energie umzuwandeln, also Energie rückzugewinnen und damit letztlich die Emissionen zu reduzieren. Zum anderen beschränkt sich die mögliche Emissionsreduktion von Elektrofahrzeugen nicht nur auf den CO2-Ausstoß, sondern betrifft auch die Geräuschentwicklung dieser Fahrzeuge. Fahrzeuge mit Elektroantrieb emittieren weniger Geräusche, was einerseits die Lärmbelastung durch Straßenverkehr reduzieren kann, zum anderen aber auch zu Bedenken z.B. blinder Verkehrsteilnehmer geführt hat. Gerade bei geringen Geschwindigkeiten sind Elektrofahrzeuge schlechter wahrnehmbar und dadurch eine potentielle Gefahr für andere Verkehrsteilnehmer. Das erste Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation bestand darin, die Auswirkungen einer über das Gaspedal gesteuerten Rekuperation aus verkehrspsychologischer Perspektive zu untersuchen. Die zur Nutzung der Rekuperation nötigen motorischen Fertigkeiten müssen erlernt und in unterschiedlichen Verkehrssituationen angewandt werden. Basierend auf dem Power Law of Practice (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981) wurde der Fertigkeitserwerb bei der Nutzung der Rekuperationsfunktion eingehend betrachtet. Anhand von Fahrzeugdaten lassen sich eine sehr steile Lernkurve und damit ein kurzer Adaptationsprozess zeigen, der mit einer Powerfunktion beschrieben werden kann. Bereits innerhalb der ersten gefahrenen Kilometer nehmen die Anzahl der konventionellen Bremsmanöver und ihr zeitlicher Anteil an der gesamten Verzögerung rapide ab. Das zweite Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war, die Auswirkungen der geringeren Geräuschemission auf das Verkehrsgeschehen zu prüfen. Dies erfolgte jedoch nicht, wie in anderen Studien bereits dargestellt, aus Fußgängerperspektive, sondern aus der Fahrerperspektive. Da die Fahrer gerade in der Anfangsphase eine zentrale Rolle bei der Entschärfung geräuschbedingter kritischer Situationen spielen, soll die Arbeit dazu beitragen, diese Forschungslücke zu schließen, um eine umfassendere Bewertung der Geräuschthematik bei Elektrofahrzeugen zu ermöglichen. In Anlehnung an Deerys (1999) Modell zu Fahrerreaktionen auf potentielle Gefahren, wurden Risikowahrnehmung (risk perception) und Gefahrenwahrnehmung (hazard perception) als entscheidende Determinanten der Fahrerreaktion auf geräuschbedingte Gefahrensituationen identifiziert. Was die Risikowahrnehmung betrifft, so konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese sich mit zunehmender Erfahrung verändert. Risiken aufgrund der Geräuscharmut werden als weniger bedrohlich, das leise Fahren zunehmend als Beitrag zum Komfort gewertet. Zusätzlich wurden im Rahmen der Dissertation Situationen im Straßenverkehr näher untersucht, die aufgrund der Geräuscharmut von Elektrofahrzeugen auftraten. Darauf aufbauend wurde ein Katalog von geräuschbedingten Szenarien erstellt, der als empirische Grundlage für die nähere Betrachtung der Gefahrenwahrnehmung von Fahrern diente. Ergebnisse daraus resultierender Experimente zur Detektion von geräuschbedingten Gefahren (hazard detection tasks) zeigten, dass die individuelle Erfahrung mit Elektrofahrzeugen offenbar lediglich eine untergeordnete Rolle bei der Erkennung und Reaktion auf geräuschbedingte Gefahren spielt. Erfahrene Fahrer von Elektrofahrzeugen unterschieden sich nur marginal von unerfahrenen Fahrern in der Reaktion in und der Bewertung von geräuschbedingten Gefahrensituationen, was darauf hindeutet, dass geräuschbedingte Gefahrensituationen auch von Fahrern ohne extensive Erfahrung mit Elektrofahrzeugen bewältigt werden können. Das dritte, übergreifende Ziel der Dissertation bestand darin, die Bedeutung beider Eigenschaften für die Nutzerakzeptanz zu untersuchen. Neben der Untersuchung momentan existierender Barrieren (z.B. Reichweite, Preis, Batterielebensdauer), die eine weitreichende Adoption von Elektrofahrzeugen erschweren können, ist es ebenso wichtig, solche Eigenschaften zu identifizieren, die sich positiv auf das Nutzererleben auswirken. Sowohl die Rekuperation, als auch die Geräuscharmut spielen eine wichtige Rolle in der Nutzerbewertung, da beide Eigenschaften als zentrale, individuell erlebbbare Vorteile von Elektrofahrzeugen beurteilt werden. Im Hinblick auf die Geräuschemission lässt sich konstatieren, dass diese mit zunehmender Erfahrung des Fahrers fast ausschließlich als Vorteil statt als Barriere von Elektrofahrzeugen gewertet wird. Eine bemerkbare, über das Gaspedal gesteuerte Rekuperation scheint als Teil des Fahrererlebens ebenfalls eine zentrale Rolle in der Bewertung zu spielen. Ein hohes Maß an Nutzerakzeptanz und Vertrauen in das System unterstreichen die positive Evaluation einer solchen Funktionalität. Aus verkehrspsychologischer Sicht haben die angeführten Eigenschaften von Elektrofahrzeugen Auswirkungen auf verschiedene Teilaufgaben der Fahrzeugführung. So sind nicht nur motorische Fertigkeiten in der Pedalnutzung (Stabilisierungsbene) erforderlich, sondern auch komplexere kognitive Prozesse, wie z.B. der Umgang mit möglichen Gefahrensituationen aufgrund der geringen Geräuschemission (Bahnführungsebene). Insgesamt weisen die Ergebnisse der Dissertation darauf hin, dass Herausforderungen aufgrund beider oben genannten Fahrzeugeigenschaften gemeistert werden können. Zusätzlich zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass beide Eigenschaften von den Nutzern als willkommene Aspekte der technologischen Innovation geschätzt werden und somit zur allgemeinen Akzeptanz von Elektrofahrzeugen beitragen können. Da auch andere Fahrzeugkonzepte mit elektrischem Antriebsstrang diese beiden Eigenschaften aufweisen, lassen sich die gefundenen Ergebnisse auf andere Fahrzeugtypen übertragen.

Smartcities,withprosumersatthecentre,areatthefrontlineoftheenergytransition. The national and international policies should encourage then this transition by promoting, among many aspects, energy digitalization, massive penetration of renewable energies and electrification of the transport sector. To embrace all these changes, a holistic view, covering not only the distribution system, is necessary to plan, design and reorganize in particular urban areas. The radical distribution networks transformation is monitored and presented, both considering technical and non-technical aspects, which aims at encouraging potential directions that distribution system operators can pursue. The thesis work has three main objectives. From the distribution system operator (DSO) perspective, the main objective is to investigate how the technical and non-technical features vary among distribution system networks in Europe. From the modelling perspective, the second main objective is firstly to define a method which incorporates the previous findings to properly design a tool able to reproduce representative urban networks and secondly to validate the results through a statistical methodology. From the electric vehicle’s infrastructure perspective, the thirdmainobjectiveisfirstlytounderstandtheelectricvehiclesdemandbehaviour and develop models capable of reproducing them, and secondly to assess, through a dedicated methodology, the electric vehicles charging infrastructure features and performance. Theresultsfromthisthesisindicatesthattheincreasingattentiontowardthedistribution sector should not be underestimated by the main actor, distribution system operator, which appears to have different approaches in smartening and digitalizing their network especially concerning electric mobility, demand response and data management between distribution and transmission system operators (TSO). It is urgent for policy makers and stakeholders involved to align distribution system operators to a common strategy to tackle the introduction in the distribution network grids of new players. Tools like DiNeMo platform applied in this thesis may be used to perform preliminary research studies concerning the installation of newcharginginfrastructure, renewableenergygeneratorsornetworkreinforcement analysis. Indeed, it is crucial for regulators to take into account the physical layer of distribution grids when designing new policies and incentives in order to address challenges of tomorrow’s cities.

Le challenge de ces prochaines années est de réduire le plus possible les émissions de CO2 qui la première cause du réchauffement climatique. L’émission de CO2 est principalement due à l’utilisation du moteur thermique dans le milieu du transport. Pour diminuer cette émission, la solution réside à utiliser des véhicules électriques qui sont non polluants et rechargés par des sources émettant le moins possible de CO2. Mais cela impliquerait une production supplémentaire d’énergie. Aujourd’hui l’énergie électrique est produite principalement par des centrales thermiques au niveau mondial, des centrales nucléaires enFrance et des centrales hydrauliques au Québec. Les pics d’utilisations et de productions restant une problématique posant encore beaucoup de problèmes.Une utilisation croissante de véhicules électriques ou hybrides rechargeables permettrait de pouvoir disposer de systèmes de stockage d’énergie, permettant à la fois d’alimenter le moteur électrique du véhicule ou d’aider le réseau électriques. Ce flux est appelé Vehicle-to-Grid ou plus précisément dans le travail présenté ici, ce flux s’appelle Vehicle-to-Home. Alimenter la maison via la batterie du véhicule, permet de diminuer le pic de consommation du foyer. De plus, la batterie du véhicule peut être chargée durant la nuit lorsque la production d’énergie est au plus bas et la moins chère.Ce document présente une optimisation offline du système qui inclut les différents flux d’énergie. Cette optimisation a été réalisée à l’aide de la programmation dynamique. L’objectif de cette optimisation est de minimiser le coût de l’énergie que ce soit le coût de l’essence ou de l’électricité ou encore des énergies renouvelables installées localement.Ensuite deux contrôleurs flous localisés dans le véhicule et dans la maison ont été dimensionnés, testés par simulation (simulation online) et validés expérimentalement.Finalement cette recherche a mis en avant deux cas d’études: un en hivers et l’autre en été. Le cas d’hiver présente une réduction budgétaire de 40% dans la simulation offline, 27% dans la simulation online et 29% en expérimentation. D’autre part, le cas d’été montre une réduction budgétaire de 62% dans la simulation offline, 60% dans la simulation online et 64% en expérimentation
The challenge for the next few years is to reduce CO2 emissions, which are the cause of global climate warming. CO2 emissions are mainly due to thermal engines used in transportation. To decrease this emission, a viable solution lies in using non-polluting electric vehicles recharged by low CO2 emission energy sources. New transportation penetration has effected on energy production. Energy production has already reached peaks. At the same time, load demand has drastically increased. Hence, it has become imperative to increase daily energy production. It is well-known that world energy production is mainly produced thermal pollutant power plants, except in Québec, where energy is produced by hydro power plants.The more recent electricity utility trend is that electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (EV, PHEV) could allow storage and/or production of energy. EV/PHEV batteries can supply the electric motor of the vehicle, and act as an energy storage that assists the grid to supply household loads. This power flow is called vehicle-to-grid, V2G. In this dissertation, the V2G power flow is specifically called vehicle-to-home, V2H. That is battery is used during peak. Moreover, the EV battery is charged during the night, when energy production is low and cheap. This important aspect of V2H is that the vehicle battery is not connected to the grid, but is a part of a house micro-grid.This dissertation presents an offline optimization technique, which includes different energy flows, between the home, EV/PHEV, and a renewable energy source (such as photovoltaic - PV and/or wind) which forms the micro-grid. This optimization has been realized through the dynamic programming algorithm. The optimization objective is to minimize energy cost, including fuel cost, electricity cost, and renewable energy cost.Two fuzzy logic controllers, one located in the vehicle and the second one in the house, have been designed, tested by simulation (online simulation) and validated by experiments.The research analyses two seasonal case studies: one in winter and the other one in summer. In the winter case, a cost reduction of 40% for the offline simulation, 27% for the online simulation and 29% for the experiment is realized whereas in the summer case a cost reduction of 62% for the offline simulation, 60% for the online simulation and 64% for the experiment is presented