Journal articles: 'Electrification – South Africa'

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Scharfetter, Beate, and Marco Van Dijk. "Legislation governing the implementation of small-scale hydropower projects for rural electrification in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 28, no. 2 (2017): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2017/v28i2a2005.

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The Department of Energy’s ‘new household electrification strategy’ allows for any appropriate and affordable technology option to be applied towards achieving South Africa’s non-grid electrification target of 300 000 households over the period 2014 to 2025. This paper describes the main legislative and regulatory framework governing the implementation of small-scale hydropower (SHP) projects in South Africa with the aim of attaining the objectives of the non-grid electrification component of the ‘new household electrification strategy’, and indicates that it is possible to implement such projects within South Africa’s complex institutional architecture. The inclusion of run-of-river type small-scale hydropower projects for rural electrification in the 2016 updated General Authorisation eased the process of attaining regulatory compliance in terms the National Water Act. This implies that these types of SHP projects would only need to follow a registration process to obtain the required water use authorisation, and not a full water use licence application process.

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Dinkelman, Taryn. "The Effects of Rural Electrification on Employment: New Evidence from South Africa." American Economic Review 101, no. 7 (2011): 3078–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.7.3078.

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This paper estimates the impact of electrification on employment growth by analyzing South Africa's mass roll-out of electricity to rural households. Using several new data sources and two different identification strategies (an instrumental variables strategy and a fixed effects approach), I find that electrification significantly raises female employment within five years. This new infrastructure appears to increase hours of work for men and women, while reducing female wages and increasing male earnings. Several pieces of evidence suggest that household electrification raises employment by releasing women from home production and enabling microenterprises. Migration behavior may also be affected. (JEL H54, L94, L98, O15, O18, R23)

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Bekker, B., C. T. Gaunt, A. Eberhard, and A. Marquard. "Uncertainties within South Africa’s goal of universal access to electricity by 2012." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 19, no. 2 (2008): 4–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2008/v19i2a3324.

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The South African President in 2004 stated the pol-icy goal of universal access to electricity by 2012. This goal requires a significant adjustment of annu-al connection targets and electrification budgets, based on accurate knowledge of the number of electrified and non-electrified households in South Africa. Published data on the state of electrification, however, varies widely, with reported proportions of households electrified in 2005 varying from 57% to 80%. In addition, apparent discrepancies of tens of thousands of connections exist between annual new connection rates reported in different official publi-cations. Different definitions of Universal Access fur-ther impact strategic planning. This paper explores these uncertainties in relation to South Africa’s goal of Universal Access by 2012 by focusing on the availability and accuracy of South African electrifi-cation data, and the definitions, targets and electrifi-cation budgets associated with Universal Access.

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Abu-Aisha, Hasan, and Sarra Elamin. "Peritoneal Dialysis in Africa." Peritoneal Dialysis International: Journal of the International Society for Peritoneal Dialysis 30, no. 1 (2010): 23–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3747/pdi.2008.00226.

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BackgroundAfrica is the world's second-largest and second most populous continent. It is also the poorest and most underdeveloped continent. Struggling to provide the essential health interventions for its occupants, the majority of African countries cannot regard renal replacement therapy a health priority.ReviewIn 2007, Africa's dialysis population constituted only 4.5% of the world's dialysis population, with a prevalence of 74 per million population (pmp), compared to a global average of 250 pmp. In almost half the African countries, no dialysis patients are reported. The prevalence of peritoneal dialysis (PD) was 2.2 pmp, compared to a global prevalence of 27 pmp, with the bulk of African PD patients (85%) residing in South Africa. In North African countries, which serve 93% of the African dialysis population, the contribution of PD to dialysis is only 0% – 3%. Cost is a major factor affecting the provision of dialysis treatment and many countries are forced to ration dialysis therapy. Rural setting, difficult transportation, low electrification rates, limited access to improved sanitation and improved water sources, unsuitable living circumstances, and the limited number of nephrologists are obstacles to the provision of PD in many countries.ConclusionThe potential for successful regular PD programs in tropical countries has now been well established. Cost is a major prohibitive factor but the role of domestic manufacture in facilitating widespread use of PD is evidenced by the South African example. Education and training are direly needed and these are areas where international societies can be of great help.

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Ajibade, Andrea A. "National strategies to promote renewable energy development: Whither Nigeria?" Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy (The) 10, no. 1 (2019): 73–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jsdlp.v10i1.5.

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Renewable energy (RE) development enhances electrification, mitigates climate change and aids energy efficiency. Kenya, South Africa and Ghana, among other states within sub-Saharan Africa, have established legal regimes to integrate renewable energy into their energy mix. Through defined legal strategies for RE deployment, these states have committed to the promotion, development and utilization of RE. Despite the momentum towards renewable energy development across the region, Nigeria’s efforts fall short of establishing effective legal strategies. As Africa’s most populous nation it must do more to make RE part of its energy mix in order to impact electrification rates, mitigate climate change and aid socio-economic conditions. This article appraises the legal strategies for RE development in Kenya, South Africa and Ghana. Against this appraisal, it critically evaluates Nigeria’s legal strategies to promote and develop RE. It recommends legal reforms that are necessary to better integrate RE into Nigeria’s energy mix. The methodological approach of this article is doctrinal and library-based. It includes primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include laws, statutes, legal documents, conventions and statistics. Secondary sources include journal articles, internet sources and newspaper articles. All sources are subject to content analysis. It is expected that the article will be useful to policy and lawmakers across various tiers of government in Nigeria.Keywords: Renewable Energy Development, Electrification, Energy Efficiency, National Strategies.

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Winkler, Harald. "Reducing energy poverty through carbon tax revenues in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 28, no. 3 (2017): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2017/v28i3a2332.

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How much can poverty be reduced through carbon tax revenue? This study analyses specific programmes, with carbon taxes generating revenues and equivalent spending on programmes to reduce energy poverty. The twin challenges of development and climate change could be addressed in this way in South Africa. A simple spreadsheet model was used to estimate revenue available from a carbon tax, given different tax rates and emission projections. Four programmes to reduce energy poverty were quantified: electrification, extended free basic energy, scaling-up sustainable housing, and subsidising rooftop solar for poor households. Matching carbon revenue with equivalent expenditure, the study found that applying all carbon revenue to a single programme could fund the national budget for electrification. Hundreds of thousands, and up to tens of millions, of households could receive free energy in the form of 5 kg of liquefied petroleum gas every month, as well as better houses that are warmer in winter and with fewer health impacts from indoor air pollution. Carbon revenues could fund at least a few hundred thousand improved homes, or subsidies for at least 100 000 rooftop solar systems per year to poor households. Institutional and other constraints would have to be addressed. Carbon revenue could fully fund all four programmes combined into an integrated strategy, in three of the four scenarios. The results suggested that full funding could be available from 2019 or from 2025, dependent on carbon tax revenue scenario. Energy poverty can be reduced by expenditure of carbon tax revenues.

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Tinto, E. M., and K. G. Banda. "The Integrated National Electrification Programme and political democracy." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 16, no. 4 (2005): 26–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2005/v16i4a3077.

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Since the coming of democracy in South Africa, the last decade has been marked by extraordinary, yet positive changes in policy development. Democratic organisation, both as a system of government and as a value system commanding the support of ordinary people, is of key importance in these developments and the implications for South Africa are still being analysed. Noticeable are the fundamental changes in the energy sector where there has been a shift from energy self-reliance and energy security to a more sustainable policy approach driven by economic efficiency, social equity and environment protection. Institutes of Democracy like IDEA (2004) concur with this trend that a strong democratic system must support poverty reduction for meaningful democratic change and, in practice; this is clearly the trend being defined. It is now a sustainable development issue, and voter’s confidence that is fast becoming the defining principle and drives for rapid policy change and service delivery in the form of an Integrated National Electrification Programme (INEP) in the energy sector. Policy makers in energy policy acknowledge this phenomenon as defining what is now seen as a ‘post-apartheid energy paradigm shift’. In this paper, it is suggested that the National Electrification Programme (NEP) has performed beyond expectation in increasing access to electricity for the poor in the country. It is also argued that, there is now an electrification and political democracy nexus exhibited in social and political development of this country. In this line of thought, the argument given is that one of the reasons why people voted for the ruling party in 1999 and 2000 was the NEP. Furthermore this identified linkage provides policy recommendations that suggest that the government should deliver other basic services in a similar manner in order to gain people’s confidence. In South Africa, because of the country’s unique social, economic and political history, a trade-off between basic social service delivery and linkage with democracy then becomes very crucial. Keywords

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Azimoh, Chukwuma Leonard, Patrik Klintenberg, Fredrik Wallin, Björn Karlsson, and Charles Mbohwa. "Electricity for development: Mini-grid solution for rural electrification in South Africa." Energy Conversion and Management 110 (February 2016): 268–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.12.015.

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Bokanga, Gilbert M., Atanda Raji, and Mohammed T. E. Kahn. "Design of a low voltage DC microgrid system for rural electrification in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 25, no. 2 (2014): 9–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2014/v25i2a2664.

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This project entails the design of a low voltage DC microgrid system for rural electrification in South Africa. Solar energy is freely available, environmental friendly and it is considered as a promising power generating source due to its availability and topological advantages for local power generation. Off-grid solar systems are perceived to be a viable means of power delivery to households in rural outlying areas in South Africa as solar panels can be used almost anywhere in the country. The design presented in this paper is based on the power demand estimation, photovoltaic panel selection, battery sizing and wire selection for the distribution system.

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Spalding-Fecher, Randall. "Health benefits of electrification in developing countries: a quantitative assessment in South Africa." Energy for Sustainable Development 9, no. 1 (2005): 53–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0973-0826(08)60482-2.

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Kroth, Verena, Valentino Larcinese, and Joachim Wehner. "A Better Life for All? Democratization and Electrification in Post-Apartheid South Africa." Journal of Politics 78, no. 3 (2016): 774–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/685451.

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Monyei, C. G., A. O. Adewumi, and K. E. H. Jenkins. "Energy (in)justice in off-grid rural electrification policy: South Africa in focus." Energy Research & Social Science 44 (October 2018): 152–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.05.002.

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Jamal, Noor. "Options for the supply of electricity to rural homes in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 26, no. 3 (2015): 58–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2015/v26i3a2129.

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The residential sector in South Africa is being electrified by the South African government on a priority basis. For this purpose, both grid and off-grid electrification options are being used. As off-grid option, 50 Watt Solar Home Systems (SHS) is being provided to consumers in remote rural areas where grid connection is inaccessible. But the SHS of the mentioned size can hardly produce 0.3 to 0.4 kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity per day, even under the best solar conditions. This electric energy is substantially lesser than the Basic Electric Energy (BEE = 50 kWh per month), being utilized in the country free of cost by grid connected low income households. In this research work, efforts have been made to determine the most economical options in South Africa’s rural areas with off-grid capacity equivalent to BEE. For analysis, off-grid/micro grid options have been compared not only with one another but also with grid connection. To incorporate renewable resources spatial variations, the work has been carried out at provincial level with the period 2014 to 2050. From analysis, it has been found that currently grid-connection is marginally better than off-grid options. But due to increasing grid connection cost and development in the off-grid technologies, the later with generation equivalent to BEE will be a more attractive option to electrify South African rural areas.

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Madubansi, M., and C. M. Shackleton. "Changing energy profiles and consumption patterns following electrification in five rural villages, South Africa." Energy Policy 34, no. 18 (2006): 4081–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2005.10.011.

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Madubansi, M., and C. M. Shackleton. "Changes in fuelwood use and selection following electrification in the Bushbuckridge lowveld, South Africa." Journal of Environmental Management 83, no. 4 (2007): 416–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.03.014.

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Kovacic, Zora, Suzanne Smit, Josephine Kaviti Musango, Alan Colin Brent, and Mario Giampietro. "Probing uncertainty levels of electrification in informal urban settlements: A case from South Africa." Habitat International 56 (August 2016): 212–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.06.002.

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Leitch, A. W. R., B. J. Scott, and J. J. Adams. "Non-grid electrification of 45 schools in the Eastern Cape, South Africa: An assessment." Renewable Energy 10, no. 2-3 (1997): 135–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0960-1481(96)00051-1.

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Meyer, Edson Leroy, and Ochuko Kelvin Overen. "Towards a sustainable rural electrification scheme in South Africa: Analysis of the Status quo." Energy Reports 7 (November 2021): 4273–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.07.007.

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Mzini, Loraine, and Tshombe Lukamba-Muhiya. "An assessment of electricity supply and demand at Emfuleni Local Municipality." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 25, no. 3 (2014): 20–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2014/v25i3a2654.

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Globally, electricity has become a modern tool to supply energy to households. This study investigates the supply and demand of household electricity and sustainability of distribution centres at Emfuleni Local Municipality (ELM). South Africa follows a vigorous programme of electrification, spearheaded by Eskom. Eskom is a South African state-owned power company which strives to meet the country’s increasing demand for energy. Resi-dential energy demand is growing as population levels rise and the number of households in ELM increases. Recently (2008–2010) in South Africa there have been unprecedented levels of load shedding nationally and there is a shortage of centres to purchase electricity. Furthermore, households do not receive uninterrupted electricity on a daily basis, largely because of stolen electrical cables and illegal connections. Low-income residents of Evaton, ELM, were interviewed. Empirical surveys were conducted and a theoretical exposition drawn up to meet the objectives of the study. It was found that electricity supply and demand in ELM is adequate but there is a shortage of selling points in Evaton and there are barriers towards the effectiveness of electricity consumption. In addition, public awareness programmes must continue to educate the communities to avoid stealing the electrical cables. Illegal connection must be reported to the local councillors for them to make sure that this activity is stopped in Evaton.

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Ballance, A., D. Stephenson, R. A. Chapman, and J. Muller. "A geographic information systems analysis of hydro power potential in South Africa." Journal of Hydroinformatics 2, no. 4 (2000): 247–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2000.0022.

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Electrification can reduce the dependence on combustible fuels and therefore also reduce the concomitant health risks. Hydro power is one possible method of generating electric power close to the potential consumers, thereby cutting out expensive reticulation costs in widely spread rural areas. For sustainable electricity generation there must be stream flows of sufficient flow rates down significant slopes. A preliminary assessment of hydro power potential in South Africa was undertaken by estimating actual energy potential calculated from digital maps of slope and runoff. Coefficients of variation and low flow indices proved good potential measures of flow variability and risk. The methodology allowed rapid identification of micro- and macro-hydro power potential. Micro-hydro power potential identification was calculated from run of river and local flow, while macro-hydro power generation needs storage and thus cumulative river flows were used. The steeper and more humid slopes of the eastern escarpment, and parts of the southern escarpment near Cape Town, showed the best potential for both micro- and macro-hydro power (with annual energy potential values in excess of 107 kWh yr−1 and 109 kWh yr−1, respectively). This preliminary assessment was intended to lead to further more detailed and in-field assessments of hydro power generating capacity.

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Govender, Rajen, David Kimemia, Nancy Hornsby, and Ashley Van Niekerk. "Differentiation of paediatric burn injury by household energy source in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 31, no. 2 (2020): 48–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2020/v31i1a8096.

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Burn injuries remain a significant cause of death and disability in the global south, with children amongst the most vulnerable. In South Africa, burns are a critical health and economic burden in densely populated and energy-impoverished communities. This study used secondary data on burn injuries from 19 health facilities to differentiate between risk for scalds and flame burns across three household energy sources (firewood, paraffin and electricity). The sample was 2 933 cases of child burn victims, with key analytical procedures being descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis. Results showed that 52% of burn injury admissions reported electricity as the household energy source used at the time of injury. Most burn injuries were scalds (85.3%), with infants and toddlers at greatest risk. The differentiation between wood and paraffin was associated with a threefold increase in scalds relative to flame burns, while that between paraffin and electricity indicated a sevenfold increase in scalds and nineteen times such an increase between wood and electricity. This was an indication of continued challenges for the country in addressing paediatric burns despite, and in the context of, the continued electrification of poor households. The study recommends improved regulation of electrical appliances used by low-income households, and targeted household safety education initiatives.

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Motjoadi, Vinny, Pitshou N. Bokoro, and Moses O. Onibonoje. "A Review of Microgrid-Based Approach to Rural Electrification in South Africa: Architecture and Policy Framework." Energies 13, no. 9 (2020): 2193. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13092193.

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Access to electricity for every South African citizen, including rural dwellers, is a human right issue guaranteed by the government’s laws and policies. However, many remote rural areas still suffer from a lack of this very important amenity, due to the expensive prospect of connecting them to the central national grid. The feasible approach to connecting the rural communities to electricity supply is suggestively through the use of microgrid solutions. The microgrid technology is a very recent and viable option for the energy revolution. Microgrids result from the incorporation of energy storage systems, distributed generators, and localized loads. The application of this technology requires deliberate and extensive work on the operational architecture and the policy framework to be adopted. The energy storage devices form an integral part of the microgrid configuration or architecture to make sure more maintainable and constant operation is attained. This paper presents a review of the architectures of the existing microgrid systems, as well as the policy framework for implementable solutions. The various architectures display the peculiarity of the systems based on the increased grid performance, stability, quality of electricity, and other comparative advantages. The microgrid architectures are fundamentally recognized according to their AC, DC, or hybrid distribution buses and the complexity inherent to them. In the Policy And Development Section, the problems are treated as ‘a search for the truth’—a truth being revealed by close and objective examination. The core of the problem to be solved is revealed clearly, thereby giving the basis for simplifying and solving it. The policies encourage the accomplishment of a zero-carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, energy security attainment, the meeting of the electricity demand, and, lastly, the promotion of access to electricity in rural areas. It is established that the returns through charges of the consumers are very insignificant. Although returns on investment always come in conflict with the human right demands of the local indigenes, the policy framework would be explicit on the mode of returns for the government, private partners, and the communities—a return that can be short, medium, or long term. Policymakers would be keen on the exhaustive analysis of issues, leading to optimal decision making.

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Rathi, Sambhu Singh, and Claire Vermaak. "Rural electrification, gender and the labor market: A cross-country study of India and South Africa." World Development 109 (September 2018): 346–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.016.

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Lloyd, Philip. "Challenges in household energisation and the poor." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 25, no. 2 (2014): 2–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2014/v25i2a2662.

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While the electrification of households in South Africa since 1994 has been impressive, many of the major energy services in poor households are still met by traditional fuels such as, on the Highveld, coal; in coastal regions, paraffin; and in rural areas by wood. Their use is associated with a range of challenges, from chronic respiratory tract infections to asphyxiation by carbon monoxide to massive fires that destroy not only homes but also lives. State interventions such as the provision of Free Basic Electricity are costly and do not appear to be contributing towards any solutions. The challenges are assessed, and a range of mitigations proposed.

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Seyedhashemi, Hanieh, Benoît Hingray, Christophe Lavaysse, and Théo Chamarande. "The Impact of Low-Resource Periods on the Reliability of Wind Power Systems for Rural Electrification in Africa." Energies 14, no. 11 (2021): 2978. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14112978.

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Decentralized electricity systems based on variable renewable energy (VRE) sources such as wind power can provide affordable, dependable, and modern energy in a manner consistent with the Paris Agreement. Such sources are, however, sensitive to extreme values of climatic factors—an issue that may jeopardize power system reliability. As a resource-rich region with a high proportion of rural population without access to electricity, Africa has been of wide interest in studies on VRE-based electricity generation. Nevertheless, there is still a major gap in our continent-scale understanding of the wind power potential and its variability at different time scales, as well as the influence of low-wind-resource periods in Africa. Using ERA5 hourly estimates of wind speed, the present study investigated the adequacy and temporal variability of local wind power potential across Africa over the 2000–2017 period. The results indicated that design requirements of wind power systems are, on average, fulfilled in regions in the North, South, and Horn of Africa at different time scales. However, low-resource periods were shown to have a significant impact on the reliability of wind power potential in the majority of the continent. Demand flexibility can reduce the severity of these periods and help to achieve design requirements.

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Shackleton, C. M., J. Gambiza, and R. Jones. "Household fuelwood use in small electrified towns of the Makana District, Eastern Cape, South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 18, no. 4 (2007): 4–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2007/v18i4a3394.

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Access to secure energy supplies is a key foundation for sustainable development. Consequently local planning and development initiatives must be based on a sound knowledge of the energy use patterns and preferences of local users. This paper reports on such for three small urban settlements in the Eastern Cape Province, with a particular focus on fuelwood use. Despite widespread electrification over a decade ago, and perceptions that the ease of fuelwood collection was declining, most households continued to use fuelwood for cooking and space heating, whereas electricity was favoured for light-ing. The most common reason for this was because fuelwood was cheap (or free) compared to electric-ity. Annual demand was approximately 1 450 kg per household per year. Households that collected their own supplies of fuelwood were significantly poorer than those that either bought their stocks, or those that did not use fuelwood at all. Indigenous species were favoured over exotic species, although fuelwood vendors traded mostly in exotic species, particularly Eucalyptus and wattle. The greater reliance of poorer and unelectrified households on fuelwood requires that local authorities consider this in energy planning, otherwise the poor will be neg-lected in policies such as the Free Basic Electricity.

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Lemaire, Xavier. "Off-grid electrification with solar home systems: The experience of a fee-for-service concession in South Africa." Energy for Sustainable Development 15, no. 3 (2011): 277–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.07.005.

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Saponara, Sergio, and Lucian Mihet-Popa. "Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid." Energies 12, no. 4 (2019): 663. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12040663.

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The special issue “Energy Storage Systems and Power Conversion Electronics for E-Transportation and Smart Grid” on MDPI Energies presents 20 accepted papers, with authors from North and South America, Asia, Europe and Africa, related to the emerging trends in energy storage and power conversion electronic circuits and systems, with a specific focus on transportation electrification and on the evolution of the electric grid to a smart grid. An extensive exploitation of renewable energy sources is foreseen for smart grid as well as a close integration with the energy storage and recharging systems of the electrified transportation era. Innovations at both algorithmic and hardware (i.e., power converters, electric drives, electronic control units (ECU), energy storage modules and charging stations) levels are proposed.

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Cabanero, Andrea, Lars Nolting, and Aaron Praktiknjo. "Mini-Grids for the Sustainable Electrification of Rural Areas in Sub-Saharan Africa: Assessing the Potential of KeyMaker Models." Energies 13, no. 23 (2020): 6350. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13236350.

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Solar hybrid mini-grid systems possess the potential to substantially support electrification in sub-Saharan Africa. While their technical reliability has been proven, their financial viability is achieved only by heavy subsidization as of now. Due to the growing importance of results-based financing, we ask whether newly developed business models leveraging on the value added of electricity supply in rural areas (such as the KeyMaker Model) bare the potential to substantially reduce amount of grants required to finance the initial capital investment and thus contribute to a sustainable form of development. The principle of the KeyMaker Model is based on utilizing the locally supplied mini-grid electricity to establish a local agro-processing project, the revenues of which are an additional income stream for the mini-grid operator, while the project creates an end-market for the local farmers to sell their produce. We have developed two scenarios (without and with KeyMaker Model) for four rural villages in Nigeria as a case study to scientifically assess the potential of KeyMaker Models. We simulated and optimized the mini-grid systems using the software tool HOMER. We then assessed their financial viability. Our analysis demonstrates grant finance requirements ranging from 82% to 99% of the total investment for the base-case mini-grid projects without consideration of the KeyMaker Model. We find that a well-selected KeyMaker Model such as cocoa bean processing reduced the grant requirement by 68 percentage points, while processes based on maize, palm oil and cassava processing achieved reductions of 36, 26 and 8 percentage points, respectively. Hence, we conclude that the value added by the introduction of new local business models bares the potential to reduce grant requirements for the socially and economically necessary electrification across the Global South.

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Kusakana, Kanzumba. "A survey of innovative technologies increasing the viability of micro-hydropower as a cost effective rural electrification option in South Africa." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (September 2014): 370–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.05.026.

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FISHER, J. T., E. T. F. WITKOWSKI, B. F. N. ERASMUS, et al. "Human-modified landscapes: patterns of fine-scale woody vegetation structure in communal savannah rangelands." Environmental Conservation 39, no. 1 (2011): 72–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892911000592.

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SUMMARYDespite electrification, over 90% of rural households in certain areas of South Africa continue to depend on fuelwood, and this affects woody vegetation structure, with associated cascading effects on biodiversity within adjacent lands. To promote sustainable use, the interactions between anthropogenic and environmental factors affecting vegetation structure in savannahs need to be understood. Airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data collected over 4758 ha were used to examine woody vegetation structure in five communal rangelands around 12 settlements in Bushbuckridge, a municipality in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve (South Africa). The importance of underlying abiotic factors was evaluated by measuring size class distributions across catenas and using canonical correspondence analysis. Landscape position was significant in determining structure, indicating the importance of underlying biophysical factors. Differences in structure were settlement-specific, related to mean annual precipitation at one site, and human population density and intensity of use at the other four sites. Size class distributions of woody vegetation revealed human disturbance gradients around settlements. Intensity of use affected the amplitude, not the shape, of the size class distribution, suggesting the same height classes were being harvested across settlements, but amount harvested varied between settlements. Highly used rangelands result in a disappearance of disturbance gradients, leading to homogeneous patches of low woody cover around settlements with limited rehabilitation options. Reductions in disturbance gradients can serve as early warning indicators of woodland degradation, a useful tool in planning for conservation and sustainable development.

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Klunne, Qim Jonker. "Small hydropower in Southern Africa – an overview of five countries in the region." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 24, no. 3 (2013): 14–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2013/v24i3a3138.

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This paper looks at the status of small hydropower in Lesotho, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. For each country, an overview will be given of the electricity sector and the role of hydropower, the potential for small hydropower and the expected future of this technology. Small hydropower has played an important role in the history of providing electricity in the region. After a period with limited interest in applications of small hydropower, in all five countries, a range of stakeholders from policy makers to developers are showing a renewed interest in small hydropower. Although different models were followed, all five countries covered in the paper do currently see activities around grid connected small scale hydropower. Particular frameworks that facilitate IPPs and Power Purchase Agreements with the national utility do provide a basis for (local) commercial banks to provide finance. Off-grid hydropower for rural electrification purposes sees activities in the countries with an active (support) role of government in this respect only. Small hydropower, renewable energy technology has large potential across the southern Africa region, both for grid connected and off-grid applications. Historically, small hydropower played an important role in the development of the region. Since the mid-1960s, however, the main emphasis has been on centralised fossil fuel-based electricity generation. Developers and policy makers have only recently begun looking at small hydropower again.

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Madziga, Miriam, Abdulla Rahil, and Riyadh Mansoor. "Comparison between Three Off-Grid Hybrid Systems (Solar Photovoltaic, Diesel Generator and Battery Storage System) for Electrification for Gwakwani Village, South Africa." Environments 5, no. 5 (2018): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/environments5050057.

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Chirwa, Paxie W., Cori Ham, Stella Maphiri, and Marlett Balmer. "Bioenergy use and food preparation practices of two communities in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 21, no. 4 (2010): 26–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2010/v21i4a3260.

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A study was undertaken in two communities that use firewood in the Keiskammahoek area of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa to understand their behaviour with regard to energy use during food preparation as well as the extent of practising efficient cooking habits. The results showed that despite the high level of electrification, firewood was used in most households (≥ 60%) for cooking while electricity was mostly used (≥ 90%) for lighting. Firewood is also preferred for cooking food that takes a long time to prepare, while more convenient sources of energy such as electricity is used for short periods of cooking and re-heating of food. Secondary sources of energy used for cooking included paraffin, dung, leaves and twigs. The study found that there was some deliberate use of energy saving techniques in both communities, although limited and not necessarily practiced with a view to saving energy. Less than half of the respondents soaked hard grains and beans before cooking; while all of them cut food into smaller pieces before cooking commenced. A third of respondents had utensils ready before cooking commenced in one village while two thirds placed utensils and food together before they commenced food preparations in the other village. Pots were covered with lids and water was added in small amounts as required. The heat from fire was not monitored, but fires were extinguished after use. The greatest potential for improvement exists around cooking appliances; where all households were found to be using three-legged pots on open fires when cooking with biomass energy. Open fires are highly inefficient and the use of efficient biomass cook stoves would increase efficiency. It is recommended that in order to reduce the use of biomass-derived energy consumption and expenditure in low-income households, the use of multiple energy sources and portable energy efficient firewood stoves should be promoted. In addition, there should be an aggressive dissemination of information on further processing of fuelwood into forms that can easily be stored and used; and various forms of pre-treatment of hard foods.

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Bonthuys, Gideon Johannes, Marco Van Dijk, and Jayant Narsee Bhagwan. "A feasibility and implementation model of small-scale hydropower development for rural electrification in South Africa: A case study of Kwa Madiba SSHP Plant." Water SA 42, no. 4 (2016): 528. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v42i4.03.

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Philipo, Godiana Hagile, Yusufu Abeid Chande Jande, and Thomas Kivevele. "Demand-Side Management of Solar Microgrid Operation: Effect of Time-of-Use Pricing and Incentives." Journal of Renewable Energy 2020 (June 5, 2020): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/6956214.

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Over 17% of the world’s population lack access to electricity, the majority being in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Microgrid technologies are a promising solution towards rural and remote area electrification; however, ever-increasing electricity demand remains a big challenge leading to pronounced power outages. Demand-side management is an indispensable tool towards addressing the challenges. This paper employs a mathematical model based on incentives and time-of-use rates to simulate daily power usage pattern of residential customers using data collected from an isolated village Ngurdoto solar microgrid, Arusha, Tanzania. Customer responsiveness on the increase in price was evaluated based on the concept of price elasticity of demand. Using two demand response strategies, namely, load shifting (LS) and scheduled load reduction (SLR), the results reveal that LS can achieve up to 4.87% energy-saving, 19.23% cost-saving, and about 31% and 19% peak reduction and power factor improvement, respectively. SLR method resulted in about 19% energy-saving, 49% cost-saving, and 24% power factor improvement. Thus, the results presented in this study may lead to a more efficient and stable system than the current state in developing countries’ utility.

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Ledwaba, Lehlogonolo P. I., Gerhard P. Hancke, Sherrin J. Isaac, and Hein S. Venter. "Smart Microgrid Energy Market: Evaluating Distributed Ledger Technologies for Remote and Constrained Microgrid Deployments." Electronics 10, no. 6 (2021): 714. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics10060714.

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The increasing strain on ageing generation infrastructure has seen more frequent instances of scheduled and unscheduled blackouts, rising reliability on fossil fuel based energy alternatives and a slow down in efforts towards achieving universal access to electrical energy in South Africa. To try and relieve the burden on the National Grid and still progress electrification activities, the smart microgrid model and secure energy trade paradigm is considered—enabled by the Industrial IoT (IIoT) and distributed ledger technologies (DLTs). Given the high availability requirements of microgrid operations, the limited resources available on IIoT devices and the high processing and energy requirements of DLT operations, this work aims to determine the effect of native DLT algorithms when implemented on IIoT edge devices to assess the suitability of DLTs as a mechanism to establish a secure, energy trading market for the Internet of Energy. Metrics such as the node transaction time, operating temperature, power consumption, processor and memory usage are considered towards determining possible interference on the edge node operation. In addition, the cost and time required for mining operations associated with the DLT-enabled node are determined in an effort to predict the cost to end users—in terms of fees payable and mobile data costs—as well as predicting the microgrid’s growth and potential blockchain network slowdown.

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Boopathy, C. P., and L. Sivakumar. "Optimal Design and Planning of an Autonomous Hybrid (Wind/Solar-PV/Diesel/Battery) Power System." Applied Mechanics and Materials 550 (May 2014): 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.550.83.

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In most of the developing countries like India and South Africa, there exists still many remote places (isolated from the grid); where the electrification is unavailable due to the financial aspect related to establishing the infrastructure to distribute power over a long distance and consequent high transmission losses. Authors emphasize for an optimal design and planning of an Autonomous Hybrid Power System (AHPS), which will eradicate the problems, faced by the remote places and also reduce per unit cost of electricity. Integration of Wind/Solar-PV/Diesel/Batteries also ensures the prompt availability of power to primary health clinics, high way petrol bunks, schools and the basic communication networks located in remote places. In this scheme, Homer software has been used for analysis the simulation results and compares the generation cost of the proposed Autonomous hybrid power system. DC power is generated by the wind turbine and solar-PV and DC is connected to the load through an inverter. This system has been successfully deployed to meet the small energy requirement of an office room in the educational institution. It also reduces the dependence on one single source of power and has increased the reliability. While doing so, the quality of the power as well as the variations in the environmental conditions does not disturb the loads connected. Therefore the reliability is also ensured in power generated with the AHPS. It is easy to construct the plant with 400W capacity on the roof top of the building; with a meager cost of around $1800.

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Singh, Harjit. "Affordable solar solutions to replace diesel gensets." Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies 1, no. 3 (2011): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/20450621111173303.

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Subject area Strategic management, sustainable development, business economics, construction management, energy management. Study level/applicability Undergraduate and Master's level business and management programmes with a focus on environmental or strategic management. Case overview Fewer than two percent of Guinea Bissau's rural households had access to electricity from the grid. Efforts by the state monopoly to improve that figure by expanding the grid have had little effect, in part because the rural population was sparse. Central Electronics Limited, a public sector based company in India, was assigned to develop economic solar systems as a safe and eco-friendly substitute for the diesel gensets under IBSA (a trilateral, developmental initiative among India, Brazil, and South Africa) with the help of United Nations Development Program. The case provides an opportunity to examine the strategy of a small and poor nation to meet the needs of modern energy sources needed for improvement in health, education, transportation, and commercial development. The case focuses on Guinea Bissau's use of a trilateral partnership to achieve its rural electrification objectives despite several push backs. Expected learning outcomes Students will demonstrate ability to analyse, comprehend, and evaluate the essence of solar energy as an alternate for costly grid energy in the initial stage of development. It will also provide students to converse with the specific advantages of solar systems over conventional power generating systems and construct a novel solution that serves the needs of various stakeholders at the bottom of the income pyramid. Supplementary materials Teaching note.

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Xu, Z., M. Nthontho, and S. Chowdhury. "Rural electrification implementation strategies through microgrid approach in South African context." International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems 82 (November 2016): 452–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2016.03.037.

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Gaunt, C. T. "Meeting electrification's social objectives in South Africa, and implications for developing countries." Energy Policy 33, no. 10 (2005): 1309–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2003.12.007.

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Nedostrelova, L., V. Chumachenko, and V. Nedostrelov. "A study of the statistical characteristics of integrated energy transfers to the blocking process." Physical Geography and Geomorphology 89, no. 1 (2018): 105–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/phgg.2018.1.14.

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Thunderstorm is an atmospheric phenomenon that manifests itself in the form of electrical discharges in cumulonimbus clouds of lightning. Usually, lightning arise between the surfaces of the earth and the clouds. Sometimes electric flashes can go inside the cloud. At the same time on Earth there are about one and a half thousand thunderstorms, the average intensity of discharges is estimated at 46 zips per second. On the surface of the planet thunderstorms are distributed unevenly. Above the ocean thunderstorm is observed about ten times less than over continents. In the tropical and subtropical zone, about 78% of all bursts of lightning are concentrated. The maximum thunderstorm activity is in Central Africa. The intensity of thunderstorms follows the sun: the maximum of thunderstorms is observed in the summer (in medium latitudes) and in the afternoon. The minimum of registered thunderstorms falls on time before sunrise. Storm in Ukraine is constantly happening even in the winter months. They are especially dangerous in the steppe zone, the strikes of lightning strike all that, at least slightly rising above the grass or shrub. Lightning - an electrical discharge between the clouds or between the cloud and the earth. Inthe process of formation of rainfall in the cloud, the electrification of droplets or ice particles occurs. As a result of strong upward flow of air in the cloud, separate regions are formed, charged with different charges. When the intensity of the electric field in the cloud or between the lower charged region and the ground reaches a breakdown value, lightning arises. In such a weather, there are stormy clouds. As a rule, this event is accompanied by thunder, shower, hail and strong wind. The high density of settlements and agro-industrial facilities in the south of Ukraine, the intensity of air transportation at the international airport of Odessa and the construction of high-rise buildings require increased attention to prevent the devastating effects of natural hydrometeorological phenomena. One of the most dangerous HMAs for a society's life is a variety of convective phenomena, that is, showers, thunderstorms, hailstones, squalls, and tornadoes. They significantly affect the life, health and economic activity of man. For example, the defeat of people, aircraft with lightning, radio interference, interruptions in electrical supply - this is not a complete list of negative factors associated with thunderstorms. The purpose of the work was to study lightning activity at the Odessa airfield for 2013-2017 years. Daily observation of atmospheric phenomena was used as the source data for the study.

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Van Niekerk, W. "From technology transfer to participative design: a case study of pollution prevention in South African townships." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 17, no. 3 (2006): 58–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2006/v17i3a3289.

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Since the 1960’s several unsuccessful attempts were made to reduce air pollution in South African townships. These efforts targeted coal fires and included devolatalised coal, low-smoke stoves and electrification. All these efforts were more or less prescriptive in nature, technology driven and shared a common view of the role of technology. In this paper a different approach is described that had very good results. This approach starts at the coal user and their preferences and does not try to change their behaviour or attitude by means of education or coercive measures. This was done because after several years of involvement with coal and wood using communities, a good understanding was developed of the role of fire in the household and the context in which possible solutions must function. Also, the user of the technology is made a full partner in the problem solving process. This approach resulted in the adaptation of an alternative method to light a coal fire. The adapted method enjoys widespread acceptance and can reduce the contribution of coal fires to air pollution by 50%. Plans are under way by the South African Government to introduce communities nationwide to this method.

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Makonese, Tafadzwa, Daniel M. Masekameni, Harold J. Annegarn, and Patricia B. C. Forbes. "Influence of fire-ignition methods and stove ventilation rates on gaseous and particle emissions from residential coal braziers." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 26, no. 4 (2017): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2016/v26i4a2089.

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Despite extensive electrification of low-income residential areas on the South African Highveld, extensive use is still made of wood and coal as domestic fuels, particularly for winter space heating. In informal settlements characterised by poverty and lacking electrification, coal is combusted in non-standardised, inefficient and polluting metal braziers, colloquially known as imbaulas. Copious emissions from domestic coal fires result in elevated household and ambient air pollution levels well above national air quality limits. Despite the severity of this pollution as a public health issue, emissions data from residential coal-burning braziers are still scarce. Consequently, there is a need to evaluate the emission characteristics of these devices. In this paper, we report on controlled combustion experiments carried out to investigate systematically influences of fire-ignition methods and stove ventilation rates on gaseous and condensed matter (smoke) emissions from informal residential coal combustion braziers. Two methods of stove ignition—conventional bottom-lit updraft (BLUD) and the top-lit updraft (TLUD) (colloquially known as the Basa njengo Magogo) were investigated. Emission factors (EFs) were found to be dependent on fire ignition method and stove ventilation rates. The top-lit ignition method reduces PM10/PM2.5 by 76% to 80% compared to the BLUD method. Carbon monoxide emissions do not change significantly with the ignition method. Pollutant emissions from normal combustion in high ventilation conditions were low compared to pollutants emitted when an oxygen deficient atmosphere was created under low ventilation conditions. High stove ventilation rates resulted in a 50% reduction in PM10/PM2.5 emissions compared to the low ventilation rates. Emissions of gaseous and particulate matter from incomplete combustion can be minimised by design optimisation of the braziers. Ideally, the emissions of condensed matter particles (which form the bulk of emitted particles in residential coal fires) can be reduced through good mixing of emitted gases and air, and by ensuring a long residence time in the high temperature oxygen rich post combustion zone, to allow for complete oxidation. This study is significant in that it presents the first systematic and comprehensive study of factors affecting emissions from coal braziers.

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Szabó, Sándor, Irene Pinedo Pascua, Daniel Puig, et al. "Mapping of affordability levels for photovoltaic-based electricity generation in the solar belt of sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and South Asia." Scientific Reports 11, no. 1 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-82638-x.

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AbstractLack of access to modern forms of energy hampers efforts to reduce poverty. The provision of electricity to off-grid communities is therefore a long-standing developmental goal. Yet, many off-grid electrification projects neglect mid- and long-term operation and maintenance costs. When this is the case, electricity services are unlikely to be affordable to the communities that are the project’s primary target. Here we show that, compared with diesel-powered electricity generation systems, solar photovoltaic systems are more affordable to no less than 36% of the unelectrified populations in East Asia, South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. We do so by developing geo-referenced estimates of affordability at a high level of resolution (1 km2). The analysis illustrates the differences in affordability that may be found at the subnational level, which underscores that electrification investments should be informed by subnational data.

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Masekela, Mahlodi Esther, and Khomotso Semenya. "Factors influencing the use of firewood post-electrification in rural South Africa: The case of Ga-Malahlela village." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 32, no. 3 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2021/v32i3a7781.

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Despite improved electrification rates and several government policies introduced to encourage rural households to switch from traditional to modern fuels, most South African households still rely on firewood for their energy needs. This study sought to assess the factors that influence the use of firewood in Ga-Malahlela village in the Limpopo province. To this end, a structured questionnaire was administered to 67 households. Microsoft Excel and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences were used to code and log in the data. The chi-square test was used to determine the relationship between the choice of energy source(s) and socio-economic factors. It was established that firewood was still widely used: by 61% of the participants for cooking, by 64% for space heating, and by 46% for water heating. For lighting, electricity was used by 98.5% of the participants, while liquefied petroleum gas was used by 1.5%. The dependency on firewood was mainly due to the socio-economic status of the surveyed households, which included income, education level, household size, and preference. Rural firewood reliance continues, due to socio-economic factors such as indigence, preference, and the inaccessibility of services like free basic electricity. It is therefore recommended that the Polokwane Local Municipality should play a part in assisting poor communities with cleaner, cost-effective fuel alternatives such as solar energy, biogas, and liquefied petroleum gas.

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Antoine, Bertille, and Xiaolin Sun. "Partially linear models with endogeneity: a conditional moment-based approach." Econometrics Journal, July 21, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ectj/utab025.

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Summary In a partially linear conditional moment model we propose a new estimator for the slope parameter of the endogenous variable of interest, which combines a Robinson’s transformation to partial out the nonlinear part of the model, with a smooth minimum distance approach to exploit all the information of the conditional mean independence restriction. Our estimator only depends on one tuning parameter, is easy to compute, consistent and $\sqrt{n}$-asymptotically normal under standard regularity conditions. Simulations show that our estimator is competitive with the generalised method of moments-type estimators and often displays a smaller bias and variance as well as better coverage rates for confidence intervals. We revisit and extend some of the empirical results in Dinkelman (2011b) who estimates the impact of electrification on employment growth in South Africa. Overall, we obtain estimates that are smaller in magnitude, more precise, and still economically relevant.

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Van Niekerk, Attie. "Tegnologie en sinvolle bestaan in Afrika." HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies 59, no. 4 (2003). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/hts.v59i4.696.

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Technology and meaningful existence in AfricaIn dealing with the human capability to improve reality, there are both pessimistic and optimistic views. Pessimistic views include the ancient Greek tragedies and the second law of thermodynamics according to which the level of chaos, or enthropy, increases in any closed system. Optimistic views include the modern Western belief in progress through human control over nature, through technology. Optimistic views are found in some postmodern chaos theories. The Nedcor- Old Mutual Scenarios of 1992 presented an optimistic view. The scenarios advocated massive investment in socio-economic programmes in South Africa dealing with housing, electrification, education, job creation and containing HIV/AIDS. The actual results however are disappointing. A more realistic view is found in the Bible: The power of chaos, sin and death is never underestimated and thus one cannot be optimistic. But the Kingdom of God, which began with Jesus Christ, prevents us from becoming pessimistic, and gives us hope. Such an approach would lead to more meaningful results than either an optimistic or a pessimistic approach would achieve.

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Masondo, L., D. Masekameni, T. Makonese, HJ Annegarn, and K. Mohlapi. "Influence of coal-particle size on emissions using the top-lit updraft ignition method." Clean Air Journal 26, no. 1 (2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2410-972x/2016/v26n1a8.

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Despite the Government’s intervention of an intensive electrification program in South Africa, which has resulted in more than 87% of households being connected to the grid, a majority of low-income households still depend on solid fuel (coal and wood) as a primary source of energy, especially on the central Highveld. In informal settlements, combustion of coal is done in inefficient self-fabricated braziers, colloquially known as imbaulas. Emissions from domestic coal combustion result in elevated household and ambient air pollution levels that often exceed national air quality limits. Continued dependence on coal combustion exposes households to copious amounts of health-damaging pollutants. Despite the health significance of coal-burning emissions from informal braziers, there is still a dearth of emissions data from these devices. Consequently, evaluating the emission characteristics of these devices and to determine the resultant emission factors is needed. The effects of ignition methods and ventilation rates on particulate and gaseous emission from coal-burning braziers are reported in literature. However, to date there are no studies carried out to investigate the influence of the size of coal pieces on brazier emission performance. In this paper, we report on controlled combustion experiments carried out to investigate systematically, influences of coal particle size on gaseous and condensed matter (smoke) emissions from informal residential coal combustion braziers. Results presented are averages of three identical burn-cycles of duration three hours or fuel burn-out, whichever was the soonest.

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"Electrification the South African experience and challenge." Fuel and Energy Abstracts 36, no. 3 (1995): 199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6701(95)80510-9.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Electrification – South Africa'

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