Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Electro-mechanical Coupling'

Ferroelectric materials continue to find increasing use in actuator, sensor and transducer design. Questions regarding lifetime and reliability remain a concern due to the inherent low fracture toughness and complex material behavior. The poling procedure required for use in actuator and sensing devices introduces anisotropy in elastic and dielectric coefficients as well as piezoelectric coupling between the mechanical and electrical fields. This introduces complex fracture behavior which necessitates advanced analytical techniques and fracture characterization. In this dissertation, fracture mechanics of ferroelectric materials is evaluated by employing different analytical techniques and experimental methodology. The theoretical work has focused on linear piezoelectric coupling that accounts for the influence of anisotropy and heterogeneity on fracture. A new orthotropic rescaling technique is presented that explicitly solves the anisotropic linear elastic piezoelectric crack problem in terms of material coefficients. The effects of heterogeneities on electric field induced microfracture are analyzed by implementing a crack at the edge of a heterogeneous piezoelectric inclusion. A positive, flaw-localized driving force is realized when permeable crack face boundary conditions are considered. The experimental portion of the work evaluates fracture behavior in the ferroelectric ceramic, lead zirconate titanate (PZT), and the ferroelectric relaxor single crystal PZN-4.5%PT. Relative humidity and electric boundary conditions are shown to have significant effects on crack kinetics in PZT. Fracture anisotropy in single crystal PZN-4.5%PT is characterized using the Single-Edge V-notch Beam (SEVNB) method and Vickers indentations. Scanning electron micrographs are used to determine the crack profile which leads to a prediction of crack tip toughness and local energy release rate. A weak cleavage plane is identified in the single crystal relaxor which contains a significantly lower toughness in comparison to the ferroelectric ceramic PZT.

Recent advances in manufacturing of multifunctional materials have provided opportunities to develop structures that possess superior mechanical properties with other concurrent capabilities such as sensing, self-healing, electromagnetic and heat functionality. The idea is to fabricate components that can integrate multiple capabilities in order to develop lighter and more efficient structures. In this regard, due to their combined structural and electrical functionalities, electrically conductive carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) matrix composites have been used in a wide variety of applications in most of which they are exposed to unwanted impact-like mechanical loads. Experimental data have suggested that the application of an electromagnetic field at the moment of the impact can significantly reduce the damage in CFRP composites. However, the observations still need to be investigated carefully for practical applications. Furthermore, as the nature of the interactions between the electro-magneto-thermo-mechanical fields is very complicated, no analytical solutions can be found in the literature for the problem. In the present thesis, the effects of coupling between the electromagnetic and mechanical fields in electrically conductive anisotropic composite plates are studied. In particular, carbon fiber polymer matrix (CFRP) composites subjected to an impact-like mechanical load, pulsed electric current, and immersed in the magnetic field of constant magnitude are considered. The analysis is based on simultaneous solving of the system of nonlinear partial differential equations, including equations of motion and Maxwell's equations. Physics-based hypotheses for electro-magneto-mechanical coupling in transversely isotropic composite plates and dimension reduction solution procedures for the nonlinear system of the governing equations have been used to reduce the three-dimensional system to a two-dimensional (2D) form. A numerical solution procedure for the resulting 2D nonlinear mixed system of hyperbolic and parabolic partial differential equations has been developed, which consists of a sequential application of time and spatial integrations and quasilinearization. Extensive computational analysis of the response of the CFRP composite plates subjected to concurrent applications of different electromagnetic and mechanical loads has been conducted. The results of this work verify the results of the previous experimental studies on the subject and yield some suggestions for the characteristics of the electromagnetic load to create an optimum impact response of the composite.

The application of static shape control was investigated in this thesis particularly for a composite plate configuration using piezoelectric actuators. A new electro-mechanically coupled mathematical model was developed for the analysis and is based on a third order displacement field coupled with a layerwise electric potential concept. This formulation, TODL, is then implemented into a finite element program. The mathematical model represents an improvement over existing formulations used to model intelligent structures using piezoelectric materials as actuators and sensors. The reason is TODL does not only account for the electro-mechanical coupling within the adaptive material, it also accounts for the full structural coupling in the entire structure due to the piezoelectric material being attached to the host structure. The other significant improvement of TODL is that it is applicable to structures which are relatively thick whereas existing models are based on thin beam / plate theories. Consequently, transverse shearing effects are automatically accounted for in TODL and unlike first order shear deformation theories, shear correction factors are not required. The second major section of this thesis uses the TODL formulation in static shape control. Shape control is defined here as the determination of shape control parameters, including actuation voltage and actuator orientation configuration, such that the structure that is activated using these parameters will conform as close as possible to the desired shape. Several shape control strategies and consequently algorithms were developed here. Initial investigations in shape control has revealed many interesting issues which have been used in later investigations to improve shape controllability and also led to the development of improved algorithms. For instance, the use of discrete actuator patches has led to greater shape controllability and the use of slopes and curvatures as additional control criteria have resulted in significant reduction in internal stresses. The significance of optimizing actuator orientation and its relation to piezoelectric anisotropy in improving shape controllability has also been presented. Thus the major facets of shape control has been brought together and the algorithms developed here represent a comprehensive strategy to perform static shape control.

Les nanostructures, et en particulier les nanofils semi-conducteurs, ont suscité ces dernières années un très grand intérêt pour de nombreuses applications comme les systèmes de récupération d'énergie ou les capteurs de très haute précision. Dans de telles structures des expérimentations et des calculs théoriques ab-initio ont mis en évidence des effets de taille, pouvant modifier significativement les propriétés électromécaniques pour des diamètres de fils en dessous de 10 nm. L'objectif de ce travail de thèse est de proposer des modélisations multi échelle des nanostructures électromécaniques, telles que les nanofils ioniques et des nanocomposites stratifiés, permettant de reproduire les effets de taille associés à l'échelle nanométrique dans un cadre continu, en se basant sur des calculs ab-initio pour identifier et valider les modèles. Dans une première partie, les effets de surface dans des nanofils piézoélectriques isolés homogènes sont modélisés. Une approche multi échelle est développée, incluant une modélisation continue des nanofils en prenant en compte une énergie de surface supplémentaire dans un cadre piézoélectrique, dont les paramètres associés sont identifiés par calculs ab-initio. Pour cela, une procédure basée sur un modèle de films minces est développée, permettant au travers de calculs ab-initio sur des films d'épaisseurs successives d'isoler l'énergie volumique et de surface, et d'en déduire les coefficients élastiques et piézoélectriques de surface. Les équations du modèle continu sont ensuite résolues par une méthode d'éléments finis incluant des éléments de surface adaptés. Le modèle multi échelle continu est comparé à des calculs ab-initio impliquant des modèles atomistiques complets de nanofils de différents diamètres (de 0,6 à 3,9 nm) pour valider les effets de taille des propriétés électromécaniques. Dans une deuxième partie, des modèles multi échelles sont construits en vue de modéliser les effets de taille pour des nanostructures hétérogènes. Ces structures incluent des nanofils revêtus, ou des nanocomposites stratifiés. Pour les nanofils avec hétérogénéités radiales, l'approche précédemment développée est étendue au cas des surfaces revêtues, et le modèle continu fait intervenir une énergie de surface incluant les effets du revêtement. Pour les nanocomposites stratifiés AlN/GaN, les effets de taille observés par calculs ab-initio sont dus à des effets d'interface et induisent des propriétés élastiques dépendantes des épaisseurs des couches. Un modèle de matériau homogénéisé continu est proposé, incluant un modèle d'interface imparfaite, permettant d'inclure les effets de taille, identifié par calculs ab-initio. Dans une dernière partie, des applications à des systèmes de nanogénérateurs à base de nanofils sont proposées, faisant intervenir des ensembles de nanofils alignés dans une matrice polymère et surmontés par une feuille de graphène. Les approches précédemment développées sont utilisées pour modéliser ces structures par éléments finis<br>Nanostructures, and more specifically semiconductor nanowires, have drawn special attention in recent years for many applications such as energy harvesting systems or sensors of very high precision. Many recent experiments and theoretical ab-initio calculations have evidenced size effects, which can significantly modify the electromechanical properties of nanowires for diameters below 10 nm. The objective of this thesis is to provide multi-scale modeling of electromechanical properties of nanostructures, such as ionic nanowires and laminated nanocomposites, to reproduce the size effects associated with nanoscale in a continuum model, based on ab-initio calculations to identify and validate the models. In a first part, the surface effects in isolated homogeneous piezoelectric nanowires are modeled. A multi-scale approach is developed, including continuous nanowires modeling taking into account an additional surface energy in the piezoelectric laminates where the associated parameters are identified by ab-initio calculations. For this, a procedure based on slabs is developed, allowing through first-principles calculations on successive slabs thicknesses to isolate the surface energy and to deduce the surface elastic and piezoelectric coefficients. The equations of the continuous model are then solved by a finite element method including appropriate surface elements. The continuous multi-scale model is compared with ab-initio calculations involving full atomistic models of nanowires with different diameters (from 0.6 to 3.9 nm) to validate model regarding size effects of electromechanical properties. In the second part, multi-scale models are constructed to describe the size effects for heterogeneous nanostructures. These structures include coated nanowires or laminated nanocomposites. For nanowires with radial heterogeneity, the previously developed approach is extended to the case of coated surfaces, and involves a continuous surface energy incorporating the effects of the coating. For laminated AlN/GaN nanocomposites, size effects observed by ab-initio calculations are caused by the presence of the interfaces and induce size-dependent elastic properties with respect to the layer thickness. A continuum model based on an imperfect interface is proposed to describe the size dependent effective elastic properties of the overall composite, which are identified by ab-initio calculations. In the last part, nanogenerators system based on nanowires are modeled, involving nanowires arrays aligned in polymer substrates with graphene electrode. The previously developed finite element models are used to simulate the electromechanical properties of such systems

The application of static shape control was investigated in this thesis particularly for a composite plate configuration using piezoelectric actuators. A new electro-mechanically coupled mathematical model was developed for the analysis and is based on a third order displacement field coupled with a layerwise electric potential concept. This formulation, TODL, is then implemented into a finite element program. The mathematical model represents an improvement over existing formulations used to model intelligent structures using piezoelectric materials as actuators and sensors. The reason is TODL does not only account for the electro-mechanical coupling within the adaptive material, it also accounts for the full structural coupling in the entire structure due to the piezoelectric material being attached to the host structure. The other significant improvement of TODL is that it is applicable to structures which are relatively thick whereas existing models are based on thin beam / plate theories. Consequently, transverse shearing effects are automatically accounted for in TODL and unlike first order shear deformation theories, shear correction factors are not required. The second major section of this thesis uses the TODL formulation in static shape control. Shape control is defined here as the determination of shape control parameters, including actuation voltage and actuator orientation configuration, such that the structure that is activated using these parameters will conform as close as possible to the desired shape. Several shape control strategies and consequently algorithms were developed here. Initial investigations in shape control has revealed many interesting issues which have been used in later investigations to improve shape controllability and also led to the development of improved algorithms. For instance, the use of discrete actuator patches has led to greater shape controllability and the use of slopes and curvatures as additional control criteria have resulted in significant reduction in internal stresses. The significance of optimizing actuator orientation and its relation to piezoelectric anisotropy in improving shape controllability has also been presented. Thus the major facets of shape control has been brought together and the algorithms developed here represent a comprehensive strategy to perform static shape control.

Micrometer-sized liquid-crystal (LC) droplets embedded in a polymer matrix may enable optical switching in the composite film through the alignment of the LC director along an external electric field. When a ferroelectric material is used as host polymer, the electric field generated by the piezoelectric effect can orient the director of the LC under an applied mechanical stress, making these materials interesting candidates for piezo-optical devices. In this work, polymer-dispersed liquid crystals (PDLCs) are prepared from poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) and a nematic liquid crystal (LC). The anchoring effect is studied by means of dielectric relaxation spectroscopy. Two dispersion regions are observed in the dielectric spectra of the pure P(VDF-TrFE) film. They are related to the glass transition and to a charge-carrier relaxation, respectively. In PDLC films containing 10 and 60 wt% LC, an additional, bias-field-dependent relaxation peak is found that can be attributed to the motion of LC molecules. Due to the anchoring effect of the LC molecules, this relaxation process is slowed down considerably, when compared with the related process in the pure LC. The electro-optical and piezo-optical behavior of PDLC films containing 10 and 60 wt% LCs is investigated. In addition to the refractive-index mismatch between the polymer matrix and the LC molecules, the interaction between the polymer dipoles and the LC molecules at the droplet interface influences the light-scattering behavior of the PDLC films. For the first time, it was shown that the electric field generated by the application of a mechanical stress may lead to changes in the transmittance of a PDLC film. Such a piezo-optical PDLC material may be useful e.g. in sensing and visualization applications. Compared to a non-polar matrix polymer, the polar matrix polymer exhibits a strong interaction with the LC molecules at the polymer/LC interface which affects the electro-optical effect of the PDLC films and prevents a larger increase in optical transmission.<br>Mikrometer-große, in eine Polymermatrix eingebettete Flüssigkristall-Tröpfchen können als elektro-optische Lichtventile fungieren, da die Ausrichtung der Flüssigkristalle durch ein externes elektrisches Feld verändert werden kann. Wird nun ein ferroelektrisches Polymer als Matrix verwendet, so kann das durch den piezoelektrischen Effekt erzeugte und von der äußeren mechanischen Spannung abhängige elektrische Feld den Flüssigkristall ausrichten. Solche Materialien können daher als piezo-optische Lichtventile eingesetzt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden PDLCs (polymer-dispersed liquid crystals) durch Einbettung von nematischen Flüssigkristallen in Poly(Vinylidenefluoride-Trifluorethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) erzeugt. Die Wechselwirkungen an der Grenzfläche zwischen Flüssigkristall und Polymer wurden mittels dielektrischer Spektroskopie untersucht. Im dielektrischen Spektrum des reinen P(VDF-TrFE) wurden zwei Dispersions-Regionen beobachtet, welche vom Glasübergang und einer Ladungsträgerrelaxation des Polymers herrühren. PDLC Folien mit unterschiedlichen Anteilen von Flüssigkristall-Tröpfchen (10 bzw. 60 Gewichtsprozente) zeigten beim Anlegen eines elektrischen Wechselfelds zusatzliche Relaxationseffekte, welche der Bewegung der eingebetteten Flüssigkristall-Moleküle zugeordnet werden konnten. Durch die Einlagerung der Flüssigkristall-Moleküle weist die Struktur eine Relaxation auf, die gegenüber vergleichbaren Prozessen im reinen Flüssigkristall deutlich verlangsamt ist. Des weiteren wurde das elektrooptische und piezo-optische Verhalten der mit 10 und 60 Gewichtsprozent Flüssigkristall geladenen Folien untersucht. Die Lichtstreuung hängt dabei ab von der Fehlanpassung der Brechungsindizes von Polymermatrix und Flüssigkristallen sowie von den Wechselwirkungen der Polymerdipole mit den Flüssigkristall-Molekülen an der Tröpfchenoberfläche. Es konnte erstmalig gezeigt werden, dass die Lichtdurchlässigkeit der PDLC-Folien durch eine externe mechanische Spannung gesteuert werden kann. Dieser Effekt macht das piezo-optische PDLC-Material für die Verwendung in Optik- und Sensoranwendungen interessant. Im Vergleich mit unpolaren Wirtspolymeren zeigen polare Wirtsmaterialien eine deutlich stärkere Wechselwirkung zwischen den Flüssigkristall-Molekülen an der Polymer/Flüssigkristall-Grenzfläche, welche den elektrooptischen Effekt beeinflusst und so die maximale transmissions änderung reduziert.

Depuis quelques années on s'intéresse aux actionneurs base polymères, souvent appelés polymères électroactifs électroniques (EAPS) pour intégrer dans des microsystèmes électromécaniques (MEMS). Trois mécanismes sont à l'origine du couplage électromécanique : (i) la piézoélectricité qui apparait dans certaines phases cristallines, (ii) la force "de Maxwell" lorsqu'un champ électrique aux bornes du condensateur constitué d'un polymère souples placé entre deux électrodes, et (iii) l'électrostriction, phénomène intrinsèque aux matériaux polaires, mal connu. Les deux derniers se traduisent par une dépendance quadratique de la déformation macroscopique avec le champ électrique appliqué. Parmi les EAPs électrostrictifs, on cite souvent certains polyuréthanes (PU) qui a conduit à ce choix pour ce travail de thèse. Une première partie a consisté à analyser en détail l'électrostriction de 3 PUs, copolymères à blocs de deux types d'unités de répétition, les unes conduisant à des segments rigides très polaires, les autres à des segments souples peu polaires. La séparation de phase qui apparait lors de la mise en œuvre de ces PUs (contenant des fractions différentes de segments souples et rigides) semble propice à l'apparition de leur électrostriction. C'est ce qu'indique une modélisation récemment proposée qui prédit un facteur de près de 1000 entre forces de Maxwell (ici négligeables) et électrostriction. Le comportement des matériaux résultent clairement de la compétition entre contraintes d'origine électrostatique (dipôles des phases polaires dans un gradient de champ électrique) et contraintes mécaniques liées à la rigidité des phases. L'influence systématique de l'épaisseur des films sur leur activité électromagnétique a été rendue compte: les films minces présentent une plus faible déformation à champ électrique donné que les films plus épais. Les films obtenus par évaporation du solvant utilisé pour dissoudre les PU présentent probablement un gradient de microstructure : en surface, l'évaporation rapide limite la séparation de phase, alors qu'elle est plus avancée à cœur. C'est cohérent avec la modélisation reposant sur la présence de gradient de constante diélectrique au sein des films. Dans une dernière partie, on a cherché à augmenter encore l'électrostriction de ces matériaux en dispersant des particules conductrices à conduction électronique, de taille nanométrique (noir de carbone et nanotubes de carbone). On observe trois effets, l'un correspondant à l'augmentation de la constante diélectrique apparente (celle diverge au seuil de percolation), et un deuxième effet à une augmentation des forces d'attraction locales. En revanche, le troisième effet qui contrecarre les forces d'origine électrostatique puisqu'il résulte de l'augmentation de la rigidité dû à la présence des particules rigides. Là encore, la compétition entre contraintes électrostatique et mécanique conduit à un optimum en termes de fraction volumique de particules renforçantes.

碩士<br>華梵大學<br>機電工程學系<br>102<br>A new electro-mechanical theorem for alternating the behaviors of a mechanical system is proposed. Two voice-coil motors (VCM), one is the sensor and the other is the actuator, are mounted on a beam structure. An electrical circuit connected between the two VCMs is used to alternate stiffness and mass of the beam structure, respectively. Two kinds of circuit, the differentiator and the integrator, are individually studied. Experimental results show that the system fundamental frequency can be increased from 152 Hz to 210 Hz as increasing the gain of the integrator. On the contrary, the spring constant can be decreased and the system fundamental frequency can be decreased from 152 Hz to 96 Hz as the circuit is connected inversly. The effect of the differentiator is not carried out due to the reaction of the power amplifier is too slow.

碩士<br>國立成功大學<br>機械工程學系碩博士班<br>90<br>Computer aided design (CAD) is a key issue in development for all engineering products. In MEMS, it is important to reduce the lead-time and to accelerate the product development by CAD.As a result, the development of MEMS CAD has significant contributions to the MEMS industry. However, the current commercialized MEMS CAD are extremely expansive and the most of their analysis modules can be actually replaced by other cheaper or free FEM or BEM utilities. In spite of accuracy ,their 3-D approach represents a higher computational cost and a less flexible in initial design phase. In this thesis, we like to develop our own MEMS CAD by integrating the lab owned solid modeling and FEM utilities with academic developed free-licensed solvers to improve these issues. A fabrication complier has been developed to convert user’s fabrication flow to 3-D virtual MEMS devices using SDRC I-DEAS solid moduler and has been successfully demonstrated through a DMD fabrication procedure. Commercialized FEM software ABAQUS and the academic developed free-licensed electrostatic solver FASTCAP have been integrated together to form the electromechanical coupling analysis solvers. It is found that in most situations, including pull-in, this solver yields the same results with those obtained by the 3-D MEMCAD COSOLVER. In parallel, a simplified electromechanical coupling model by considering only the mechanical response has also developed by FEM with a FORTRAN distribuated load subroutine. This model yields similar but less accurate results. Nevertheless, this solver is still an efficient method for fast general parametric study in conceptual design phase. The fabrication simulator and the electromechanical coupling solver developed in this thesis can be easily implemented using lad-owned facilities. Therefore they represent a low cost solution for MEMS analysis for specific fields. In addition, these utilities are also served as the frame for building our own MEMS CAD in the future.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is the most widely used transparent electrode in flexible solar cells because of its high transparency and conductivity. But still, cracking of ITO on PET substrates due to tensile loading is not fully understood and it affects the functionality of the solar cell tremendously as ITO loses its conductivity. Here, we investigate the cracking evolution in ITO/PET exposed to two categories of tests. Monotonous tensile testing is done in order to trace the crack propagation in ITO coating as well as determining a loading range to focus on during our study. Five cycles test is also conducted to check the crack closure effect on the resistance variation of ITO. Analytical model for the damage in ITO layer is implemented using the homogenization concept as in laminated composites for transverse cracking. The homogenization technique is done twice on COMSOL to determine the mechanical and electrical degradation of ITO due to applied loading. Finally, this damage evolution is used for a simulation to predict the degradation of ITO as function in the applied load and correlate this degradation with the resistance variation. Experimental results showed that during unloading, crack closure results in recovery of conductivity and decrease in the overall resistance of the cracked ITO. Also, statistics about the crack spacing showed that the cracking pattern is not perfectly periodical however it has a positively skewed distribution. The higher the applied load, the less the discrepancy in the crack spacing data. It was found that the cracking mechanism of ITO starts with transverse cracking with local delamination at the crack tip unlike the mechanism proposed in the literature of having only cracking pattern without any local delamination. This is the actual mechanism that leads to the high increase in ITO resistance. The analytical code simulates the damage evolution in the ITO layer as function in the applied strain. This will be extended further to correlate the damage to the resistance variation in following studies.

Organic conducting polymer, poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene)-poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), is widely recognized for its electro-actuation mechanism and is used in flexible electronics. Its high potential as actuator is based on a strong coupling between chemical, mechanical and electrical properties which directly depends on external stimuli. There is no model today to describe the interplay between moisture absorption, mechanical expansion and electrical stimulus. Elucidating the role of each component in the effective actuation properties is needed to further optimize and tailor such materials. The objective of this thesis is to develop a macroscopic model to describe water sorption kinetics of the PEDOT:PSS film. We used gravimetric analysis of pure PEDOT:PSS film of three different thicknesses to investigate absorption kinetics over a broad range of temperatures and relative humidity. Our results revealed that the moisture uptake of PEDOT:PSS film does not follow Fickian diffusion law due to the retained amount of water after desorption process. We used an existing diffusionreaction model to describe this behavior, and COMSOL Multiphysics and MATLAB software programs to implement it. We observed that the generic model we used in our work could predict polymer behavior with 95% accuracy. However, our model was not able to properly represent the data at very high relative humidity at low temperature, which was attributed to the excessive swelling of the film. Also, we examined a relation between the moisture content of PEDOT:PSS and its mechanical strain and electrical conductivity. The results presented here are the first step towards a general multiphysics electro-thermo-mechanical description of PEDOT:PSS based actuators.