Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Elephant impact'

The African Elephant is a key component of the savanna ecosystem. They contribute to the generation of habitat for smaller vertebrates, as well as invertebrates, by the breaking of branches or uprooting of trees. Elephants also play a role in seed dispersal, germination and sapling recruitment. All these functions are advantageous to the ecosystem if the elephant population size is acceptable for the size of the reserve and the amount of available forage. The Tembe Elephant Park covers an area of 30 013 ha and is situated in northern KwaZulu Natal. This reserve has a diversity of vegetation types and is part of the Maputaland Centre of Plant Endemism and the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot of Biodiversity. Elephant numbers in the park are currently high and the elephant population is still increasing. This is threatening, especially to the endemic Sand Forest communities within the park. The extent of elephant impact in Tembe Elephant Park, South Africa, was investigated and compared to data collected six years prior to the current study. Elephant impact was determined in 44 transects within nine communities across the park. Percentage canopy removal was calculated for the woody individuals found in sites and with this data the targeted size classes and species could be identified. The preferences of elephants for specific woody species were determined by three electivity indices. Elephant utilisation in Tembe Elephant Park, as reflected by percentage canopy removal, increased since 2004 as the elephant population increased. Communities that experienced high values in 2010 of elephant utilisation were the Closed Woodland 1, Mature Sand Forest, Open Woodland 1 and the Closed Woodland 3. Not only did the actual canopy volume removed by elephant increase with approximately 57%, but the total canopy volume available for browsing decreased extensively since 2004. The size classes targeted by the elephants remained approximately the same from 2004 to 2010 although the 2010 results showed that elephant canopy removal percentage increased in the large size classes. This was expected as elephants target individuals with large stem diameters. A change in the selection for woody species by elephants was clear, but the change in species preference made future projections of canopy removal problematic. Elephants seem to utilise a species at extreme levels until the species is almost extirpated, then they move onto the next target species. This routine is evident in the results as highly preferred species in 2004, with high canopy volumes available and removed, had low canopy availability and electivity ratios in 2010, consequently the elephants moved on from these species as individuals became scarce. It was clear that the structure of individuals, populations and communities were being altered, selected species were facing extirpation and composition of communities was changed through the browsing manners of elephants. Management actions should be implemented to prevent irreversible damage to the vegetation and to conserve the woody species currently under threat.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Plant Science
MSc
Unrestricted

Impact assessment is a requirement for development in many countries across the globe, seeking to inform the decision-maker as to the environmental, social and economic impact of an ongoing or proposed project. Socioeconomic impact assessment (SEIA) is a means of informing decision-makers as to the socioeconomic effects a project could have, or is having, thus contributing to informing adaptive management practices. However, the tendency of socioeconomic impact assessment to highly quantitative economic methods of analysis raises the question of whether the desired results are achieved by the process. The purpose of the research was to determine whether highly quantitative forms of economic analysis are suitable for measurement of impacts in a social context where distributive as well as net impact is important; to critically analyze the method utilized in achieving highly quantitative economic impact assessment results; and lastly to draw conclusions and make recommendations regarding the efficacy of monitoring processes used to inform adaptive management practices. The research was conducted by means of a case study focusing on three SEIAs carried out on the same entity, namely the Addo Elephant National Park. Managed by South African National Parks (SANP), it began expanding its borders in the early 2000s. Funded by the World Bank, SANP was required to carry out a comprehensive Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in 2003 to ensure the expansion did not have negative environmental, social and economic repercussions, and where such consequences were unavoidable, to ensure that mitigation and management thereof was informed by useful monitoring exercises. Given the need for resettlement and issues of economic distributive concern raised in the 2003 SEA, the three socioeconomic impact assessments conducted from 2005 – 2010 as part of the ongoing monitoring exercises formed an ideal framework for answering the primary research questions. The findings indicate that despite consistent terms of reference, different assessors interpret mandates from the commissioning body in different ways, leading to varied applications of the same theory, some methodologically better than others. Economic multiplier analysis was found to be inadequate as a measure of the distributive effects of economic impact. Moreover, a lack of consistency, accountability and transparency in the monitoring process led to three sets of results that were incomparable over time and thus inadequate as a means to inform adaptive management practices. Asymmetries of and between power and expertise in the commissioning body and the assessors led to breakdowns of the assessment process in terms of accountability and integrity and resulted in a failure to properly define the scope of the study and measure the relevant indicators. The following recommendations were made: that the economic multiplier method be complemented by additional methods of analysis when utilized in disparate social contexts where distribution of economic benefit is important; that monitoring practices be systematized at an early stage of the process to ensure comparable results useful in informing ongoing management practices; and that what an assessment measures and how it measures it be clarified with reference to an objective source. Finally, the number of factors for consideration in any impact assessment means that measurement of the full picture suffers resource constraints, emphasizing the need for impact assessment oversight to recognize the deficiencies of the process whilst still acknowledging that ‘some number is better than no number’.

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are ecosystem engineers in that they substantially alter the environment through their unique foraging and feeding habits. At high densities, elephants potentially have negative impacts on the environment, specifically to large trees. Because of this, recent increases of elephants in the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) on the Western Boundary of Kruger National Park, South Africa have caused concern regarding the health of several species of tree. My objective was to assess the effectiveness of wrapping protective wire netting around the trunk of the tree in preventing and reducing bark stripping by elephants. 2,668 trees, 1352 marula (Sclerocarya birrea), 857 knobthorn (Acacia Nigrescens), and 459 false marula (Lannea schweinfurti), were assessed for elephant impact in the APNR, 1387 (52%) of which had previously been wrapped in protective wire netting (789, 548, and 50 respectively). For knobthorn and marula, wire netting significantly decreased the number of the trees that were bark stripped. For all trees, wire netting decreased the level of bark stripping especially for the highest impact levels. No trees wrapped with wire were ringbarked, compared to 23 unwired trees. In addition, wire netting had an effect on the distribution of damage for the highest impact class incurred regardless of type. A higher relative frequency of wired trees were found in lower impact categories compared to unwired trees. Wire netting is a low maintenance and ecologically valuable technique that alleviates bark stripping for some species. The judicial use of wire netting on trees could serve to maintain elephant and trees populations in areas of heavy confinement with locally high densities of elephants.

Includes bibliographical references.
African elephants are known to be important agents of structural and compositional changes in several vegetation types in southern Africa. This is of concern for biodiversity conservation and management of wildlife areas in the region. This study assesses how increasing elephant numbers have already altered and are likely to continue to modify the structure and composition of mopane woodlands in the south-eastern lowveld of Zimbabwe. Several features of vegetation structure and composition were quantified and compared across areas under three different elephant densities: low, intermediate and high. We assessed the degree, nature and patterns of damage incurred by woody plants within these woodlands to determine how elephants are both driving and responding to the changes in the vegetation. Increasing elephant densities were associated with increased losses of tall trees and the resultant development of a coppiced shrub layer. As elephant densities increased from low to intermediate levels, so did the level of damage to both shrubs and trees. However, elephants appeared to exhibit a functional response such that the increase in damage to the shrub layer was proportionately higher than to trees, probably because the coppiced shrub layer was a preferable food source. Nevertheless if elephant density increases further to high levels, damage to trees is likely to continue increasing suggesting that tree losses are likely to continue. In particular, the high level of bark damage to emergent trees is predicted to contribute greatly to further tree losses. This study provides evidence to suggest that increasing elephant impact is capable of completely converting tall mopane woodlands to shrublands. This is likely to have indirect effects on the ecosystem functioning and diversity of these areas as well as tourism, and is consequently of concern for local management. Continued monitoring of these woodlands and management of elephant abundance is advisable if a total conversion to shrubland is to be avoided.

Humans are modifying animal populations, indirectly accelerating or reducing the geomorphic alterations caused by animals. Species have been monitored and studied with focus on domesticated animals but little research has been undertaken on wild animals. This study analyses the geomorphic impact of elephants on Tembe Elephant Park, so that the changes they cause to the landscape may be quantified. To conduct this research four sites were chosen: an area where elephants had been excluded for twenty-five years, where excluded for five years, where elephants exist at present and where elephants mud wallow. Three of the four study sites were classed as sand forest (twenty-five-years exclusion, five-years exclusion and where elephants exist) and were analysed and compared to determine the similarities and differences in climate, microclimate, vegetation and the soil’s physical and chemical properties. The wallow site was not compared to any other study site, but was observed and mapped to quantify the geomorphic impact of elephants wallowing. When the sand forest sites were compared the climate, vegetation type and soil were found to be similar. Where elephants were present: the vegetation was inconsistent in basil cover, canopy height, structure and class. Soils were more compacted with a low infiltration rate, higher temperature, lower soil moisture, higher pH and a lower electric conductivity and air relative humidity was the highest. Where elephants have been excluded for twenty-five years, the opposite trends arose from the data analysis. The vegetation was consistent in basil cover, canopy height, structure and class, and the soils were less compacted with a high infiltration rate, low temperature, higher soil moisture, lower pH and a higher electric conductivity. The microclimate showed a trend where the air relative humidity was the lowest. At the elephant wallow site data showed that the wallows were in general circular in shape, 52.5m3 of soil was removed per month for the last nine months and the surface area of the wallows increased by 165.5m2 per month for nine months from April to December 2008. All the results from this study show that the elephant activity in Tembe Elephant Park has geomorphic consequences. From the results, it is possible to conclude that the geomorphic impacts of elephants on Tembe Elephant Park are contributing to a nutrient cycle shift in the sand forest biome, as they change aspects of the vegetation, microclimate, soil and landscape, which are the foundation of the cycle.
Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2011.
Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology
MA
Unrestricted

This thesis examines the impacts of human-elephant conflict on human wellbeing and the implications for elephant conservation and management in Trans Mara District, Kenya. The District comprises communal lands bordering the world-famous Masai Mara National Reserve in southwestern Kenya. Trans Mara supports a range of land use types and provides refuge to one of Kenya’s large elephant population comprised of over 3,000 transient and 500 resident animals. This study used interdisciplinary methods to gain insights into the nature and consequences of conflict on the wellbeing of communities living with elephants. In particular, I used a combination of existing wellbeing indices and a set of indicators developed through consultations with local communities in TM to measure impacts of HEC on specific wellbeing domains. The results show that elephants still use the communal lands in Trans Mara but are increasingly restricted to the riverine forest remnants in central Trans Mara. However, there was no evidence of a further decline in the elephant range. Instead, this study points to a shift in elephant range against a background of increasing human settlement, land sub-division and agricultural expansion. The wellbeing of Trans Mara residents comprised eight indicators. Human-elephant conflict negatively affected peoples’ wellbeing, but the impacts were limited to certain dimensions. Elephants affected school-going children within elephant range. Attitudes towards elephants and its conservation in TM were influenced by the location of human residence relative to elephant refuge, diversity of income sources, and age and gender. Finally, conflict mitigation in Trans Mara is still elusive and challenging, but opportunities exist to develop simple and dynamic mitigation tools. The findings of this study have important implications for the future of elephant conservation in the face of competing human needs, both in Trans Mara District and elsewhere in Africa.

"A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Georgia Southern University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science." Title from PDF of title page (Georgia Southern University, viewed on June 19, 2010). Bruce A. Schulte, major professor; Lissa M. Leege, J. Michelle Cawthorn, committee members. Electronic version approved: December 2009. Includes bibliographical references (p.76-78).

Investments in major transport infrastructure projects involve a significant mobilisation of economic resources both for construction and operation. In these projects, to assess the efficiency of the resources used, decision-makers usually use cost-benefit analysis (CBA). This key element of welfare economics is carried out taking into account the effects for society as a whole. Social welfare is thus measured independently of who are the components of society receiving the benefits or suffering the costs. However, besides the best use of resources, which should be always ensured, transport projects often have other objectives. These objectives, which are ideally defined by the political programs of elected decision-makers, often involve redistributive effects. Favouring the economic development of less advanced regions is, for instance, an argument that is used to justify territorial biases in investment. Practitioners have increasingly tried to identify redistributive effects to both create awareness of their existence and to quantify them in order to incorporate them rigorously in project appraisal. Intergenerational redistributive effects due to the financial scheme adopted for the project are a kind of redistributive effects that has neither been properly highlighted nor researched until now. The actual payments to cover the costs of projects unfolding over long timespans depend on the financing formula chosen and affect taxpayers and/or users of different generations. When transport investments are directly covered by the annual budgets of public administrations, they are paid by the taxpayers of the construction period but benefit users that will live in decades ahead. However, if the project is financed through loans, their payment schedule will define a very different financial time-profile. Relating the payments profile with the benefits produced by the project, which occur over its life cycle, can indicate the fairness of the distribution of expenditure and benefits across the successive generations affected by the project. At microeconomic level, intergenerational impacts have been discussed, often with insufficient rigor, in relation to environmental sustainability and mostly regarding the appropriate discount rate to be applied in CBA. However, the financial structuring of the project could have a much stronger impact on a project’s legacy. The issue of the long-term implications of financial decisions is illustrated, at a broader macroeconomic level, by the problems of public debt confronted by many countries. In this work the redistributive effects of transport investment projects are analysed, though the major contribution is the development of the “Intergenerational Redistributive Effects Model” (IREM). This microeconomic model allows performing an analysis of intergenerational impact for both major project of transport infrastructure and integrated investment programmes that is useful to obtain indicators of their utility for the successive (overlapped) generations concerned. Decision makers and financiers may use the IREM’s outputs when proposing a financial montage for a project and deciding the participation of private stakeholders and the contribution of users in it. They also can use the IREM’s indicators as insights to establish the most convenient financial montage to carry out a project. In synthesis, what is presented, developed and tested is a tool to characterise the intergenerational impacts from major transport investment. These effects should be included in the wide concept of project sustainability but have, until now, been disregarded in spite of their importance for decision makers and financiers.
Las inversiones en grandes proyectos de infraestructura de transporte comportan una movilización significativa de recursos económicos. Para analizar si se realiza un uso eficiente de estos recursos, los responsables de la toma de decisiones suelen evaluar la rentabilidad socieconómica de la inversión mediante un análisis coste-beneficio (ACB). Este análisis se lleva a cabo teniendo en cuenta los efectos del proyecto para la sociedad en su conjunto, sin tener en cuenta quiénes reciben los beneficios y quiénes sufren los costos. Sin embargo, las grandes inversiones en proyectos de transporte a menudo persiguen favorecer ciertos grupos sociales, territorios, etc. Estos objetivos, idealmente establecidos en los programas políticos de los responsables de la toma de decisiones, a menudo implican efectos redistributivos. Los efectos redistributivos de carácter social, territorial y medioambiental se han tratado de identificar tanto para crear conciencia de su existencia como con el fin de incorporarlos rigurosamente a la evaluación del proyecto. Sin embargo, los efectos redistributivos de carácter intergeneracional derivados de la fórmula de financiación utilizada para llevar a cabo el proyecto han pasado relativamente desapercibidos hasta ahora. Los pagos que se realizan para sufragar los costos de los proyectos dependen del montaje financiero finalmente empleado. En este sentido, si se recurre a préstamos a muy largo plazo, serán los contribuyentes y/o usuarios de diferentes generaciones quienes terminarán soportando la carga financiera del proyecto. Pero si la inversión principal se sufraga directamente con los presupuestos anuales de las administraciones públicas, la carga financiera recaerá en los contribuyentes del período de construcción mientras usuarios que vivirán en las próximas décadas se benefician de los efectos positivos del proyecto. Relacionar el perfil temporal de pagos y beneficios a lo largo del ciclo de vida del proyecto permite obtener información acerca si existe un cierto equilibrio entre la distribución de la carga financiera y los beneficios que obtienen las generaciones sucesivas afectadas por el proyecto. A nivel microeconómico, se han discutido los impactos intergeneracionales, a menudo con un rigor insuficiente, en relación con la sostenibilidad ambiental y, principalmente, con respecto a la tasa de descuento de aplicación al ACB. Sin embargo, la estructuración financiera del proyecto podría tener un impacto mucho mayor en su legado. El problema de las consecuencias a largo plazo de las decisiones financieras se ilustra, a nivel macroeconómico, por los problemas de la deuda pública que enfrentan muchos países. En este trabajo se analizan y clasifican por primera vez los distintos efectos redistributivos asociados a los grandes proyectos de inversión en infraestructuras de transporte. La mayor contribución de esta tesis es, sin embargo, el desarrollo de una herramienta de análisis denominada "Ingergenerational Redistributive Effects Model¿ (IREM). El modelo ofrece una serie de indicadores estandarizados que son útiles para evaluar la conveniencia de la inversión desde la perspectiva de las sucesivas generaciones involucradas y, además, permite establecer hasta que punto la fórmula de financiación empleada es adecuada o no teniendo en cuenta los potenciales efectos redistributivos intergeneracionales que provoca. En síntesis, esta tesis doctoral presenta, desarrolla y pone en práctica una herramienta que permite caracterizar los impactos intergeneracionales de las principales inversiones en transporte. Estos impactos deberían incluirse en el amplio concepto de sostenibilidad del proyecto, aunque hasta ahora han pasado desapercibidos tanto para los responsables de la toma de decisiones como para los agentes financieros.

In this study, I investigated the interaction between two megaherbivores, the African elephant and white rhinoceros, that has the potential to impact grazing lawns of which white rhino are the creators and maintainers and elephants are potentially the modifiers. I hypothesized that as elephants browse, they discard a variety of coarse woody debris onto the ground; should this woody debris (of varying amounts and sizes) fall onto grazing lawns, white rhino either move them, consume grass around the woody debris or abandon the lawn entirely. If high levels of woody debris are deposited here, grazing by white rhino is likely to be prevented, at which time I predicted that mesoherbivores would have a competitive advantage in accessing forage that white rhino cannot. I examined the mechanistic links between different levels of elephant-deposited woody debris and grass response at a point scale and feeding patch spatial scale of grazing lawns in an African savanna. In addition, I assessed the response of mesoherbivores in terms of vigilance behaviour with increasing levels of predation risk posed by increasing levels of woody debris. I present the first evidence of an indirect effect of elephant on white rhino foraging behaviour. I demonstrate how increasing levels of woody debris lead to a decreasing probability of foraging by white rhino. I also demonstrate how the probability of foraging by mesoherbivores increases as the amount of forage increases. However, since this study took place during a severe drought where resources are extremely limited, I was unable to properly separate the effects of elephant-deposited woody debris from the severe lack of rainfall on grass response and subsequently herbivore foraging behaviour. Due possibly to the drought, mesoherbivores responded less or not at all to risk factors such as woody debris therefore woody debris was not a predictor of vigilance behaviour in my study. This study contributes to our understanding of how the impacts of elephants, as ecosystem engineers, have cascading effects on savanna ecosystems. My study showed that elephant impact mediates the foraging behaviour of white rhino during a drought. However, under average rainfall periods, my original hypothesized effect of the indirect impacts of elephants on white rhino foraging and grazing lawn dynamics could still hold. This key hypothesis that I was unable to test under ‘normal’ conditions due to the drought is still valid and functionally important for understanding the ecosystem processes driving grazing lawn formation, persistence and composition in African savannas where elephants and white rhinos coexist.

The Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) is the only existing national park situated in succulent thicket. This unique veld type is endemic to the Eastern Cape, and forms an important centre of endemism for small succulents and geophytes which comprise the subdominant component of the vegetation. It is regarded as the most threatened vegetation type in the Eastern Cape, as much of it has been severely degraded by farming activities and its rate of regeneration is very low. Thus the AENP represents an important sanctuary for certain species. However, large herbivores, particularly elephants, pose a further threat to the vegetation, and areas from which elephants have been excluded in the park (botanical reserves) have been shown to be more speciesrich than the surrounding vegetation. Most elephant-impact studies have focussed on the large shrub component of the vegetation, and only preliminary studies have been done in AENP to date. As the elephant population continues to grow, there is pressure to utilise the botanical reserves to increase the amount of available grazing. It is thus important that the botanical reserve system be highly effective and efficient in terms of area. Existing botanical reserves were established ad hoc and are therefore not necessarily optimal in this regard. An iterative reserve-selection algorithm was used to maximise plant species conservation in the most efficient area.

Populations of small prey species (< 92 kg) can be regulated by competition, habitat-mediated responses, climate change, disease and predation. Populations of small prey species have declined in the Addo Elephant National Park Main Camp Section since the reintroduction of apex predators (lion and spotted hyaena). One possible explanation is predation by lion and spotted hyaena. However, small prey species are not generally considered preferred prey items of these predators, hence their contribution to predator diets needs to be explored. Global Positioning System (GPS) cluster analysis has emerged as a viable approach to locate lion kills for lion diet estimation in AENP, however this technique is known to bias diet estimates to large prey species. Understanding the impact of lion predation on populations of small prey in Main Camp therefore requires better estimates of lion diets. This study investigated the potential underestimation of small prey species in lion diet estimates by combining the data from scat analysis and carcasses located at GPS clusters. The adjusted lion diets were then used to investigate if the impact of lion predation could explain declines in small prey, by relating lion prey preferences to prey population trends in Nyathi. Using the results from Nyathi, it could then be inferred whether lions could have been responsible for the declines observed in Main Camp. Six GPS-collared lions provided location data used to construct individual movement paths, along which spatio-temporal clusters of GPS locations (n = 4896) were identified for ground investigation. Carcasses (n = 643) were recorded at the GPS clusters and scats (n = 256) were collected at GPS clusters with or without carcasses. Data from the located carcasses and scat collections were then used to create a history of feeding events for each collared lion in Main Camp-Colchester and Nyathi from a) carcasses alone or b) a combination of scats and carcasses, based on an estimated short and long lion throughout period. Relative prey availability was estimated based on camera trapping in Nyathi in high lion, low lion and no lion use areas, as lions may encounter some prey species more than other prey species. Jacobs’ index prey preference was used to investigate the importance of prey species to lion diets at three landscape scales: 1) Nyathi, 2) lion UD and 3) core lion UD. Lastly, prey population trends were investigated in Nyathi to provide an indication of possible changes in prey populations. Large prey species dominated the adjusted diets of lions in Main Camp-Colchester and Nyathi. However, when comparing the GPS carcass-derived lion diet estimate to the combined lion diet estimate, small prey were underestimated more often than large prey in the GPS carcass-derived lion diet estimate. Missed feeding events were therefore a function of prey body size. In addition, missed feeding events were also representative of the lion diets based on carcasses, with the tendency for species more often consumed to be missed more often in the diet record. However, even though small prey species were underestimated, they represented the minority of species consumed by lions and were predominantly avoided by lions in Nyathi. Lion prey preferences thus did not correlate to the declines in small prey species in Naythi, suggesting other potential drivers are important for small population trends in Nyathi. Lion predation cannot be ruled out as a driver of the decline in small prey species in Main Camp, due to different ecological conditions (e.g. vegetation density) in Main Camp compared to Nyathi, during the observed small prey population declines. Lion prey preferences in Nyathi revealed fine-scale variations in species specific preferences by lions, as well as site-specific differences in prey preferences when compared to published lion prey preference meta-analyses. These findings suggest that metaanalysis studies should be used as a guideline from which hypotheses about local predatorprey interactions can be developed rather than as an absolute measure of prey preference.

Elephant are renowned for their ability to substantially alter vegetation. However, as they need to drink regularly, surface water exerts a strong influence over the distribution and magnitude of elephant impacts on vegetation. This study was conducted in Zambezi National Park, a 560 km2 unfenced protected area in northwest Zimbabwe. It aimed to investigate the impacts of elephant on woody vegetation, particularly in relation to artificial waterholes. Sampling plots were located at different distances from four pumped waterholes in teak (Baikiaea) and Terminalia woodlands, the two main woody vegetation types recognised in the study area. Plots were set at 200, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 m from waterholes in the teak woodland. Due to the close proximity of waterholes, a lower maximum distance of 2500 or 3000 m from waterholes had to be used in the Terminalia woodland, but sampling intervals from 200-2000 m were otherwise the same. Assessment of elephant browsing and a series of measurements were performed on trees and shrubs within these plots, with plants assigned to one of three height classes (0.2 - < 1 m; 1 - <3 m and ≥3 m). Elephant dung counts were also conducted in these plots, to provide a measure of elephant occupancy. A clear decline in elephant browsing with distance from waterholes was evident in both the teak and Terminalia woodlands. However, elephant browsing was consistently higher in the latter woodland type. Averaged across all plant height classes, elephant had removed 30-45% of plant canopies in most Terminalia woodland plots. More moderate canopy removal of 10- 30% was found in most teak woodland plots. Plants ≥3 m were particularly highly browsed in the Terminalia woodland, with over 50% of their canopy volume removed in most plots. Elephant browsing impacts were also considered at the species level, which revealed clear differences in browsing levels among species. Some uncommon and highly browsed species were flagged as being potentially vulnerable to disappearance from the area, even in the teak woodland where overall elephant browsing was lower. The effects of elephant browsing on vegetation structure at different distances from artificial waterholes were also investigated. Little change was apparent in the teak woodland, where the only noted impact was a reduction in the density and canopy volume of plants 1 - <3 m tall, limited to within 1 km of waterholes. More pronounced structural impacts were evident in the Terminalia woodland. Substantial declines in the basal area and canopy volume of trees (i.e. plants ≥3 m) occurred closer to waterholes, with widespread conversion of woodland to shrubland evident. Reductions in both tree and shrub canopy volumes closer to waterholes also suggested a reduction in browse availability in the Terminalia woodland. Finally, elephant dung declined with distance to waterholes, confirming that elephant were found in higher densities closer to waterholes. However, dung counts did not reveal different levels of elephant occupancy between the two vegetation types, despite higher browsing in the Terminalia woodland. This finding suggests elephant might be using the teak woodland for purposes other than just browsing, such as for shade. The study thus provided evidence that waterholes have had a significant impact on vegetation in the area, particularly on the favoured Terminalia woodland. Acknowledging the tourism value of retaining waterholes in the area, it is suggested that distances between waterholes should be increased, through only continuing pumping at waterholes with viewing platforms. This could result in a more heterogeneous elephant browsing regime across the highly impacted Terminalia woodland in particular, and lessen further homogenisation of this vegetation type towards a shrubland.

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were absent from large portions of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa for more than 100 years following widespread hunting for ivory. However, recent shifts in land use practices have resulted in the establishment of many private game reserves throughout the region. Some of these reserves have reintroduced elephants, raising management concerns because of the perceived impact that elephants can have on vegetation and the animals that rely on it for resources. My thesis aimed to assess the role of elephants in determining the structure and complexity of the locally important Thicket Biome and how medium and large mammals are affected. I quantified the woody and succulent components of Albany Thicket across nine reserves with elephants between May 2016 and November 2017 using a modified Point-Centre-Quarter method. Camera traps were deployed at each site for the duration of a calendar year to measure the relative abundances of all medium and large mammals at the sites. Across all study sites, climatic conditions (specifically rainfall and temperature) were the primary drivers of woody vegetation structure and diversity. Elephants appeared to have little influence since they were reintroduced at low densities 20 years ago. The associated mammal communities were mostly influenced by the height and basal area coverage of the thicket across the sites. I conclude that because elephant populations have been maintained at relatively low densities across my study sites, negative effects on the thicket vegetation and the associated mammal communities were not observed. In fact, the establishment of private game reserves, even with elephants, present may offer sustainable conservation for the threatened Albany Thicket. However, these elephant populations are still relatively new and changes to the vegetation are likely to be cumulative. Thus, future research should focus on how the vegetation is affected over time. To this end, I recommend the establishment of permanent sampling stations across all reserves with elephants in the Eastern Cape Province.

“Conflicted” succinctly describes Ernest Hemingway. He had a strong desire to make his parents proud of him but this was in constant conflict with his need to tell a story, warts and all. Of particular importance is his relationship with his mother and the crippling effect it has on his relationships with women. Hemingway’s life becomes a series of dysfunctional relationships that fail to meet his needs, leaving him perpetually searching for the right woman. Kert posits that Hemingway’s contempt for women is related to his inability to make the transition from lover to husband, fueled by Hemingway’s belief that his father surrendered his manhood to Grace Hemingway. Ernest, haunted by his parents’ relationship continues to associate negative connotations with the term “husband,” leaving Hemingway in constant fear of becoming his father, poisoning his marriages, and coloring the relationships Hemingway depicts in his short stories. Evident across the arc of Hemingway’s short stories is an evolution in his skill as a writer, but also in the development of his female characters. Over his career, Hemingway develops a female voice that rings true, and he skillfully uses it to portray female characters who are evolving into strong self-reliant women. In these stories, there is a gradual shift in the dynamics of the relationships as Hemingway’s fictional women struggle to climb from under their man’s domination. Yet, these strong self-reliant women are not fully accepted by Hemingway’s male characters, leaving a palpable tension between Hemingway’s fictional men and women. This tension can be attributed to Hemingway’s ongoing love/hate relationship between himself and the self-reliant women in his life. Hemingway never recovers from the emotional damage inflicted by his mother, evident in his personal life and in the dysfunctional relationships in his short stories. He remains vigilant and is concerned that he will end up like his father and be controlled by a domineering bitch. However, Hemingway exerts so much control in his relationships and becomes a version of his mother as he dominates his significant others. In his life, he transitions from an angry resentful child-man to a young husband, a reluctant parent, a ladies’ man, and an adventurer. Likewise, his perception and portrayal of women in his short stories keeps pace with his personal experiences. These female characters sometimes reflect the women in his life and sometimes reflect Hemingway’s insecurities as a man, and often a seamless melding of both.

Includes abstract.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 83-97).
The reintroduction of free-roaming elephants on the 540 km2 Sanbona Wildlife Reserve in the Little Karoo, Western Cape, South Africa, raised concerns over the possible negative impacts that these animals may have on the biodiversity of the property, especially the tree component. The main objectives of this study were to determine the home range, habitat use and diet selection of the herd of re-introduced elephants and to document their impact primarily on the key tree species in the reserve. It was found that the home range of these animals was considerably smaller than expected (26 km2) and was strongly associated with the flood plain and tributaries of the only extensive water body on SWR.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Johannesburg, South Africa 2017
Concerns exist over the continual decline of marula trees (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) as a result of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact and a lack of recruitment and regeneration. One strategy of protecting adult marula trees is the usage of elephant mitigation methods. This study took place in Jejane Private Nature Reserve (JPNR), a protected area which recently opened up to the Greater Kruger National Park and had not had elephants in over 100 years. The aim of the study was to investigate the changes to the marula population structure in JPNR three years after the migration of elephants to the area due to fence removal, and to test whether African honeybees (Apis mellifera subsp. scutellata) could be used as a mitigation method for elephant impact on marula trees. A previous size-class survey had been done on a sample of JPNR’s marula population in 2009, prior to the fence removal in 2013. A resurvey of these trees was used to assess the elephant-induced impact and mortality levels on the marula trees and to compare these levels to previously recorded impact and mortality levels on marula trees in the Kruger National Park (KNP). Marula seed predation levels and seedling recruitment were also assessed to address recruitment concerns. The resurveyed marula population had declined by 23.8% post-elephant migration, with the highest annual mortality rates (AMR) and impact scores recorded for trees in the 5 - 11 m height classes. Impact scores on marula trees in JPNR were higher than impact scores recorded on KNP marula trees. Only two marula seedlings were found across all transects, with evidence of high seed predation on marula endocarps. JPNR displayed an adult-dominated marula population with a lack of regeneration, possibly due to a lack of fire which has increased available shelter for seed predators such as small mammals. African honeybees were then used to investigate their effectiveness as an elephant mitigation method and to compare this method against wire-netting (a method experimentally used to prevent ring-barking by elephants). Fifty active beehives were hung from 50 marula trees, with another 50 dummy (inactive) beehives hung from branches on the opposite ends of each beehive tree’s main stem. Fifty additional marula trees were wire-netted and a further 50 were used as control trees. Elephant impact on all 150 trees was measured prior to the addition of treatments and post-treatment addition for nine months. 54% of the control trees received some form of elephant impact, in comparison to 28% of the wire-netted trees and only 2% of the beehive trees. Wire-netting protected marula trees against bark-stripping, but did not prevent elephants from breaking branches. Beehives proved highly efficient at mitigating all forms of elephant impact. The financial cost and maintenance required for the beehive mitigation method is greater than that of wire- netting, but the beehives can provide honey and pollination services as an additional benefit. The results of this study illustrate that African honeybees can be used as an effective non-lethal mitigation method for elephant impact on marula trees and are a viable strategy to reduce human-elephant conflict in South Africa’s protected areas.
MT 2017

The aim of the study was to determine the consequences of elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact on selected nesting sites of avian fauna and other species in the Associated Private Nature Reserves. The study also aimed at answering key questions on how the architecture of trees influence nest site suitability and what landscape features affect nest site location. Furthermore the type of impact that elephants have on specific nesting sites was determined and how this would affect the short term persistence of these trees. The facillitatory role of elephants was examined by looking at the type of impact that produces gum exudants as well as what gum is selected for by primates and whether primary branch breaking may lead to the creation of nesting sites for species such as the southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri).
Environmental Sciences
M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

This study assesses elephant induced damage and mortality of baobab and common star-chestnut trees in the northern Kruger National Park. Comparisons are made between the populations north and south of the Luvuvhu River. The density, population size and age structure are estimated. The population structure of neither species has been shaped by elephant utilisation. While the baobab population has a healthy age distribution, that of the star-chestnut population shows that recruitment has declined in recent decades. Utilisation has been found to be higher in the south as a result of higher elephant densities, although recently damage has been greater in the north. Damage increases with tree size. The mortality of baobabs is lower than in other areas where elephants and baobabs co-exist. Elephants are not playing a significant role in mortality of either tree species and management of factors other than elephant is required to improve regeneration rates of these species.
Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007.
Animal and Wildlife Sciences
unrestricted

This study was carried out along the Chobe liver front region in Northern Botswana. Bushbuck numbers had reportedly declined along the river front (Gibson 1990). The decline was probably related to the vegetation change which had occurred due to the heavy utilisation by elephant. The aims of this study were; (1) to estimate the extent of the decline in the bushbuck population along the Chobe river front since 1969/19'70; and (2) to determine the relation between the elephant induced vegetation change and the current status of the bushbuck population. Bushbuck abundance and distribution were assessed by road and river counts and identification of known in9Jy!Quals. The results obtained from my study were compared with the results from a previous study in 1969/1970. The general study area (GSA) extended from the Park headquarters to Ihaha, Within the GSA a smaller intensive study area (ISA), situated between Crocodile island and Ihaha was delimited, The study confirmed a decline in the bushbuck population over the 21 years. This decline appears to have been spatially variable along the river frontage. There were pockets where suitable habitats persisted and where the population had declined to about 34% (b~twcefl24% and 43%) of the 1969170 level. They included the intensive study area where bushbuck had been abundant historically. The extent of the decline had been more severe in the section of the GSA outside the ISA. In these areas the bushbuck numbers had dropped to only 2% of the former level. The adult sex. ratio was biased towards. females, as found in other studies. 'The incidence of juvenile sightings increased in October and November. The known individuals showed that there was no lack of breeding success in the ISA.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg 1993
This study was carried out along the Chobe liver front region in Northern Botswana. Bushbuck numbers had reportedly declined along the river front (Gibson 1990). The decline was probably related to the vegetation change which had occurred due to the heavy utilisation by elephant. The aims of this study were[ Abbreviation abstract. Open document to view full version]
GR2016

ABSTRACT This study investigated factors governing selective impacts of elephants on different tree species, size classes, and plant parts in different areas at different times of the year in the elephant range of northern Botswana. Differential impacts on woody vegetation by different age/sex classes of elephant were considered. Also, environmental factors fortuitously identified to have direct influence on habitat resources, spatial distribution of elephant and the manner in which they interacted with woody vegetation were studied. These environmental factors included frost, fire and drought. Plant-based and animal-based data collection methods were used. The plant-based observation method involved an assessment of woody species impacts by sampling on foot, areas indicated by fresh tracks of actively feeding elephants. The animal-based observation method involved focal animal sampling whereby the feeding activities of the closest readily visible and actively feeding elephant were recorded. Due to safety problems and impassable terrain, much of the data for this study was collected from the plant-based method. Elephant favoured the intermediate height categories, but were not narrowly selective for plant height class within these categories. In fact, they generally subsisted on commonly available shrub species and were quite narrowly selective for a few woody plant species, with only fairly minor seasonal changes in the diet of woody species included in the diet during the cool-dry and wet seasons. The favoured shrub species included Baphia massaisensis, Bauhinia petersiana, Grewia monticola and Diplorhyncus condylocarpon. No clear distinction could be made with respect to differences in impacts between cow and bull herds on the commonly utilized shrub species. However, bulls appeared to have greater impact than cows with respect to severe impacts such as snapping of trunks, digging and uprooting plants. The major factors found to influence elephant impacts on woody vegetation were season and height class. Thus, the impacts tended to be species and size class specific and varied seasonally. Also, availability of alternative food types in a feeding patch appeared to influence acceptability of woody species by elephant during the hot-dry season when the diet of elephant was widened to include more woody species. This study found no evidence of a relationship between acceptance and availability of woody species. Elephant impacts on woody vegetation were considered to be severe if feeding events involved snapping of tree trunks, debarking, uprooting or pushing over. Severe elephant impacts on canopy trees appeared to be caused by a ‘restriction’ in the shrub layer food. The findings of this study, although not replicated suggested a linkage of severe elephant impacts on canopy trees to episodic or occurrence of drought, frost and fire events. As elephant normally subsist on the shrub layer, severe impacts on canopy trees may be induced by non availability of this food base as a result of localised over utilization in drought years and impacts of fire and frost. The study confirmed finding of other studies that elephant showed a relative dependence on leaves and shoots; stems and bark for a given season. However, important factors highlighted by the study are that in any given season, one or two woody species dominated by being included either jointly or alternately in elephant diet. Furthermore, an interesting observation on elephant feeding habits was that for some species, they discarded leaves in the process of consuming stems. The study indicated that the long term consequence of elephant-vegetation interaction in northern Botswana is unclear but some management and research options were suggested. These aspects could be integrated into a long term modelling framework to assist in monitoring and decision making. A useful and interactive modelling approach could be a long term rule based qualitative model development which can continually be updated to incorporate new experience and knowledge.

In May 1994 IFAW funded the relocation of 50 elephants from the Kruger National Park to Welgevonden Private Game Reserve in the Northern Province, South Africa. Impact by the elephants on the vegetation of this reserve has since become a concern. The aim of this study was to quantify impact by the elephants on the woody vegetation by investigating vegetation and habitat use by elephant bachelor and breeding groups. This was determined by comparing resource use between sexes within seasons, and within sexes between seasons. Data were collected at two ecological scales: feeding patch scale and habitat scale. Feeding data were collected from 202 food plots, defined from 161 elephant sightings. In the dry season, when resources are often limited, no difference in feeding patch use was found between bachelor groups and breeding groups. This may suggest a lack of inter-sexual competition and could therefore suggest that the elephant population is currently below carrying capacity. Three habitat types are available to the elephants: plateau, hillslope and valley bottom. Both bachelor groups and breeding groups preferred valley bottom in comparison with habitat availability, in both seasons. When sexes were compared within seasons, in the dry season, bachelor groups used valley bottom more and breeding groups used hillslope more.
Dissertation (MSc (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2006.
Zoology and Entomology
unrestricted

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of SCience University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg for the Degree of Master of Science
This study of the impact of elephants, Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach), in private reserves ln South Africa's lowveld region aimed to determine the sizes and species of woody plants most often affected by elephants and the proportion and severity of elephant impact on the marula tree Sclerocarya birrea. The study was conducted in three parts: vegetation quadrats in areas where elephants had been foraging, direct observation of the feeding behaviour of hand-raised elephants, and transects to sample S. birrea across the study areas. To distinguish preferences, the frequency of elephant impact on each species was compared with the frequency with which it was encountered by the elephants. In the vegetation quadrats, I found that uprooting and leaf stripping were infrequent in all sizes of stems, Main stem breakage affected stems lese than 30 cm in diameter whereas branch breakage and bark stripping increased with increasing size. Favoured species were Combretum collinum, Acacia gerrardii, Albizia harveyl sclerocarya birrea, Dalbergia metenoxyton, and Pterocarpus rotundifolius. Notable among neglected species were Acacia toriifis, Tettnmelle prunioides, and Terminalia sericea which are favoured food items for elephants elsewhere. Other common species which were not selected by elephants were Acacia exuvielis, Cassine transvaalensis, Ehretia emoene, Euclea netalensis and Securinega virosa. Behavioural observation revealed that hand-raised elephants favoured eating Sclerocarya birrea, Combretum epiculeium, and Acacla nigrescens. The elephants stripped bark from A. nigrescens and S. birrea. Assessment of rnarula trees revealed that elephant impact killed fewer than 2% of stems during the preceding season. Fewer than 24% of trees had current season breakage or bark removal. Main stem breakage Was found in stems smaller than 40 ern in diameter. Ring barking was concentrated on the larger size classes, while the smaller size classes escaped any detectable form of elephant impact.
Andrew Chakane 2018

碩士
東吳大學
音樂學系
95
The history of the development of Taiwan’s baseball, as an exercise, has been more than a hundred years. However, there hasn’t been any nonverbal or any other kind of record on the cheer music during the ball games. Thus, this essay will firstly confirm, by researching and organizing the sources of baseball history, the beginning of Taiwan’s baseball cheer music. And to build up a complete system and chart for the development of Taiwan’s baseball cheer music. Secondly, this study has compiled ninety-eight songs of live cheer music from Brothers-Elephants and Sinon-Bulls’ games in Taipei area in the second half of the 2004 season (the 15th year of Chinese Professional Baseball League). Data were being analyzed and sorted in this essay based on style and performing methods. Taiwan’s baseball cheer music can now be organized and displayed systematically in front of the readers. This study, in the end, will also show the correlations between the cheer music, the fans’ interest, the excitement of the game, and team’s momentum among team members based on the survey result of 49 players from both teams and 196 fans who participated the game.