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1
Chamaillé-Jammes, Simon, Hervé Fritz, and Ricardo M. Holdo. "Spatial relationship between elephant and sodium concentration of water disappears as density increases in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe." Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, no. 6 (October 29, 2007): 725–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467407004531.
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African elephants Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach) may profoundly affect vegetation and associated animal bio-diversity in savannas (Conybeare 2004, Skarpe et al. 2004). Understanding the patterns of habitat use by elephants is crucial to predict their impacts on ecosystems (Ben-Shahar 1993, Nelleman et al. 2002), particularly now that many populations are recovering from past culling events or poaching outbreaks (Blanc et al. 2007). Surface water is one of the major constraints on elephant distribution (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007, Stokke & du Toit 2002), and accordingly, elephant impacts are higher in the vicinity of water (Ben-Shahar 1993, de Beer et al. 2006). However, waterhole selection by elephant remains poorly understood. Weir (1972) showed in Hwange National Park (hereafter Hwange NP), Zimbabwe, that elephant numbers at waterholes over 24 h increased with the sodium concentration of water on nutrient-poor Kalahari sands. His work has become widely cited in elephant studies as it remains the only one, to the best of our knowledge, to have studied elephant use of waterholes in relation to the mineral concentration of water. Weir's work, however, took place when elephant densities in Hwange NP were low, likely below 0.5 elephants km−2 as estimated by aerial censuses (Williamson 1975). Since then, the elephant population has increased dramatically, particularly since the halt to culling operations in 1986 (Chamaillé-Jammes 2006, Cumming 1981). The present elephant density is much higher, estimated to be over 2 elephants km−2 (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007, in press), and is one of the highest in the world (Blanc et al. 2007). Increased density may modify ecological constraints and affect the hierarchy of habitat selection processes (Morris 2003), and the extent to which water-nutrient selection still constrains elephant distribution at high population density – when their impact on savanna vegetation is the highest – remains unknown.
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Sampson, Christie, S. L. Rodriguez, Peter Leimgruber, Qiongyu Huang, and David Tonkyn. "A quantitative assessment of the indirect impacts of human-elephant conflict." PLOS ONE 16, no. 7 (July 12, 2021): e0253784. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253784.
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Human-wildlife conflict has direct and indirect consequences for human communities. Understanding how both types of conflict affect communities is crucial to developing comprehensive and sustainable mitigation strategies. We conducted an interview survey of 381 participants in two rural areas in Myanmar where communities were exposed to human-elephant conflict (HEC). In addition to documenting and quantifying the types of direct and indirect impacts experienced by participants, we evaluated how HEC influences people’s attitudes towards elephant conservation. We found that 99% of participants suffered from some type of indirect impact from HEC, including fear for personal and family safety from elephants and fear that elephants will destroy their home. Despite experiencing moderate levels of indirect impacts from HEC at the community level, participants expressed attitudes consistent with supporting future elephant conservation programs.
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Parker, D. M., R. T. F. Bernard, and J. Adendorff. "Do elephants influence the organisation and function of a South African grassland?" Rangeland Journal 31, no. 4 (2009): 395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj08039.
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The impact of elephants (Loxodonta africana) on woody plants is well known. Elephants can be regarded as drivers of ecosystem functioning by, for example, decreasing woody plant litter accumulation through defoliation. However, their influence within grassland landscapes is, by comparison, very poorly understood. We assessed the influence of elephants on grassland functionality at three separate sites (1, high elephant density, long occupation time; 2, low elephant density, short occupation time; 3, no elephants) in the Addo Elephant National Park, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Using landscape function analysis (LFA) we described the landscape organisation of each site, and, using visual surrogates, calculated indices of landscape stability, infiltration and nutrient cycling. The number of vegetation patches/10 m of transects surveyed was higher at sites where elephant density was high (3 elephants/km2) and where elephants had been present for a long time (>70 years). However, patch size was significantly smaller when elephant density/time of occupation increased, and the proportion of bare soil was higher where elephant density and occupation time were highest. In addition, stability, infiltration and nutrient cycling indices at a site scale were significantly lower where elephants were present at high densities and after a long occupation time. However, bare soil stability was not greatly affected by elephant grazing pressure, implying that a ‘threshold of potential concern’ has not yet arisen. We conclude that the functioning of this grassland landscape is significantly altered when elephants are present. These conclusions highlight the importance of management factors such as containment and the provision of artificial water points which may be compromising the functionality of these landscapes. We recommend ongoing assessments to inform future management decisions.
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Nyhus, Philip J., Ronald Tilson, and Sumianto. "Crop-raiding elephants and conservation implications at Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia." Oryx 34, no. 4 (October 2000): 262–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3008.2000.00132.x.
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AbstractCrop raiding by wild elephants is one of the most significant sources of park–people conflict in Sumatra, Indonesia. The distribution, impact and conservation implications of elephant crop-raiding in 13 villages that border Way Kambas National Park in southern Sumatra were studied for 18 months. The data are based on rapid village and field assessments, data logs maintained by village observers and a quantitative household survey. Elephants raided crops year-round at a mean rate of 0.53 elephants per day for the entire study area. The frequency of crop raiding was related to vegetation type along the park border, the size and presence of rivers, and the distance to the park's Elephant Training Center (ETC), which houses about 150 captive elephants. Wild elephants damaged at least 450,000 sq m of corn, rice, cassava, beans and other annual crops, and close to 900 coconut, banana and other perennial trees in the area surveyed. Elephants killed or injured 24 people over a 12-year period in villages near the park. Villagers try to reduce elephant damage by guarding fields, digging trenches between the park and their fields, and modifying their cropping patterns. Elephant–human conflict decreases the probability of support from local people for conservation efforts. We suggest methods to improve the effectiveness of existing elephant trenches, the need to consider electric fences, external support to affected villages, and compensation to villagers for any damage caused.
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CAMOIN, MARGOT, ARTHUR KOCHER, PIANGJAI CHALERMWONG, SARAWUT YANGTARRA, NIKORN THONGTIP, SATHAPORN JITTAPALAPONG, and MARC DESQUESNES. "Adaptation and evaluation of an ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in elephants and its application to a serological survey in Thailand." Parasitology 145, no. 3 (September 25, 2017): 371–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182017001585.
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SUMMARYTrypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, is widespread in domestic livestock and wildlife in South East Asia. Surra can affect cattle, buffaloes, horses and also Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Despite the ‘threatened to extinction’ CITES status of elephant, surra's impact has not been thoroughly assessed yet in this species. This work offers to adapt an antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) protocol, to detect Trypanosoma evansi antibodies in elephant serum. The test was validated with 365 negative-reference samples, which allowed the determination of a 16% positive threshold. The test was applied to a serological survey including 375 individuals. The estimated global seroprevalence was 2·1% (95% CI 1·1–4·2%). Therefore, surra does not appear to be endemic in Thai domestic elephants, but occasional outbreaks were reported to our laboratory during the survey period. These outbreaks seemed to be linked to close proximity to cattle or buffaloes, and led to severe clinical signs in elephants. Frequent relapses were observed after treatment with diminazene aceturate, the only trypanocide drug currently available in Thailand. Therefore, care should be taken to keep elephants away from bovine reservoirs, and to monitor the disease in this endangered species. ELISA proved to be reliable for screening purposes as well as for post-treatment monitoring.
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Terada, Saeko, Christian Mikolo Yobo, Guy-Max Moussavou, and Naoki Matsuura. "Human-Elephant Conflict Around Moukalaba-Doudou National Park in Gabon: Socioeconomic Changes and Effects of Conservation Projects on Local Tolerance." Tropical Conservation Science 25 (January 2021): 194008292110267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/19400829211026775.
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Human-elephant conflict (HEC) poses a serious problem in Africa for both local livelihoods and elephant conservation. Elephant damage is the price local people pay for coexisting with this species, and is assumed to reduce tolerance for elephants. However, conservation-related projects, through the benefits they offer may enhance local tolerance toward elephants. This study aimed to examine how crop damage by elephants and the benefits gained from conservation activities affect local people’s tolerance toward elephants around Moukalaba-Doudou National Park in southwest Gabon based on long-term ethnographic research and interview surveys in two periods (2010 and 2019). Based on the results, crop damage by elephants had a significant negative impact on the local social economy, leading to a decrease in human population in the area and making local people highly resentful of elephants. However, in one of the villages where employment from research and conservation activities was concentrated, many acknowledged the benefits associated with wildlife and expressed high tolerance for elephants. These findings suggest that benefits from conservation activities can increase tolerance toward elephants, which is negatively affected by the crop damage they cause. However, it should also be noted that externally generated projects have limitations and drawbacks. It is important to establish a system in which the benefits of conservation are shared widely and distributed appropriately, and wherein income resources are diversified. Multisectoral interventions focusing on local socio-ecological vulnerability are needed to mitigate human-elephant conflict and advance the conservation of African elephants.
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Whitehouse, Anna M., and Graham I. H. Kerley. "Retrospective assessment of long-term conservation management of elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa." Oryx 36, no. 3 (July 2002): 243–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605302000455.
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The elephant population of South Africa's Addo Elephant National Park increased in number from 11 elephants when the park was created in 1931, to 284 elephants in 1998. We studied management records throughout this period in conjunction with demographic data, enabling retrospective assessment of the long-term impacts of management actions. Problem animal control during the 1930s left no sexually mature bulls in the population for a period of 9 years, hindering the population's initial recovery. Population growth prior to 1954 was also limited by high mortality: between 1931 and 1954 inadequate fencing allowed elephants to stray outside their protected area resulting in elephants being shot by farmers or dying from collisions with trains. Secure elephant-proof fencing was constructed in 1954. Subsequently, there was a significant decrease in mortality (from 5.0% to 1.2%) and an increase in population growth (from 3.2% to 6.1%). However, evidence suggests that confinement might have had a negative impact on survival and social behaviour of adult males. We suggest that the concepts of social carrying capacities and behavioural conservation of populations need to be incorporated into management. The case studies described here highlight the importance of treating conservation management and research as necessary partners, and monitoring should be an integral part of any management plan.
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Szott, Isabelle D., Yolanda Pretorius, Andre Ganswindt, and Nicola F. Koyama. "Physiological stress response of African elephants to wildlife tourism in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa." Wildlife Research 47, no. 1 (2020): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr19045.
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Abstract ContextWildlife tourism has been shown to increase stress in a variety of species and can negatively affect survival, reproduction, welfare, and behaviour of individuals. In African elephants, Loxodonta africana, increased physiological stress has been linked to use of refugia, rapid movement through corridors, and heightened aggression towards humans. However, we are unaware of any studies assessing the impact of tourism pressure (tourist numbers) on physiological stress in elephants. AimsWe used faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations to investigate whether tourist numbers in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa, were related to changes in physiological stress in elephants. MethodsWe repeatedly collected dung samples (n=43) from 13 individually identified elephants over 15 months. Using a generalised linear mixed model and a Kenward–Roger approximation, we assessed the impact of monthly tourist numbers, season, age, and sex on elephant fGCM concentrations. Key resultsHigh tourist numbers were significantly related to elevated fGCM concentrations. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased by 112% (from 0.26 to 0.55µgg−1 dry weight) in the months with the highest tourist pressure, compared to months with the lowest tourist pressure. ConclusionsManagers of fenced reserves should consider providing potential alleviation measures for elephants during high tourist pressure, for example, by ensuring that refuge areas are available. This may be of even higher importance if elephant populations have had traumatic experiences with humans in the past, such as poaching or translocation. Such management action will improve elephant welfare and increase tourist safety. ImplicationsAlthough tourism can generate substantial revenue to support conservation action, careful monitoring of its impact on wildlife is required to manage potential negative effects.
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Samways, Michael J., and Paul B. C. Grant. "Elephant impact on dragonflies." Journal of Insect Conservation 12, no. 5 (May 30, 2007): 493–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10841-007-9089-2.
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Johnsingh, A. J. T., and Justus Joshua. "Conserving Rajaji and Corbett National Parks – the elephant as a flagship species." Oryx 28, no. 2 (April 1994): 135–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300028453.
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One of India's five major populations of elephants lives in north-west India, where 90 per cent of the total 750 elephants occur in Rajaji and Corbett National Parks and adjacent reserve forests. This 3000-sq-km habitat is also home to many other endangered species. While the 520-sq-km core area of Corbett National Park is free from human impact, the rest of the range is subject to increasing pressures, both from the pastoral Gujjar community within the forests and villagers outside. The elephant habitat has been fragmented by hydrological development work and human-elephant conflict is increasing. The authors recommend measures that need to be implemented to ensure that the elephants and other wildlife of the area are conserved.
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Barnes, R. F. W., M. Agnagna, M. P. T. Alers, A. Blom, G. Doungoube, M. Fay, T. Masunda, J. C. Ndo Nkoumou, C. Sikubwabo Kiyengo, and M. Tchamba. "Elephants and ivory poaching in the forests of equatorial Africa." Oryx 27, no. 1 (January 1993): 27–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300023929.
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Reconnaissance surveys were made of the forests of four central African countries to establish, for the first time, the status of forest-dwelling elephants. The results, when combined with information from previous surveys in other countries, provide a picture of the elephant situation in the forest zone, and especially the impact of poaching. About one-third of the forest elephant population of central Africa is to be found in Zaire, and about one-third in Gabon. The rest are in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and Congo. It is poaching for ivory, rather than the growth of human populations, which threatens the elephants of the equatorial forests.
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PALANGPOUR, PARVIZ, GANESH K. VENAYAGAMOORTHY, and KEVIN J. DUFFY. "PREDICTION OF ELEPHANT MOVEMENT IN A GAME RESERVE USING NEURAL NETWORKS." New Mathematics and Natural Computation 05, no. 02 (July 2009): 421–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793005709001404.
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A large number of South Africa's elephants can be found on small wildlife reserves. The large nutritional demands and destructive foraging behavior of elephants can threaten rare species of vegetation. If conservation management is to protect threatened species of vegetation, knowing how long elephants will stay in one area of a reserve as well as which area they will move to next could be useful. The goal of this study was to train a recurrent neural network to predict an elephant herd's next position in the Pongola Game Reserve. Accurate predictions would provide a useful tool in assessing future impact of elephant populations on different areas of the reserve. Particle swarm optimization (PSO), PSO initialized backpropagation (PSO-BP) and PSO initialized backpropagation through time (PSO-BPTT) algorithms are used to adapt the recurrent neural network's weights. The effectiveness of PSO, PSO-BP and PSO-BPTT for training a recurrent neural network for elephant migration prediction is compared and PSO-BPTT produces the most accurate predictions at the expense of more computational cost.
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Williams, Ellen, Anne Carter, Carol Hall, and Samantha Bremner-Harrison. "Social Interactions in Zoo-Housed Elephants: Factors Affecting Social Relationships." Animals 9, no. 10 (September 29, 2019): 747. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani9100747.
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Elephants have complex social systems that are predominantly driven by ecological factors in situ. Within zoos, elephants are held in relatively static social groups and the factors observed driving social relationships in the wild are largely absent. Little research has investigated the effect of social group factors in zoos on elephant social interactions. The aim of this research was to establish whether there is a relationship between social group factors and social behaviour, in order to identify factors that make elephant herds more or less likely to be compatible. Results will facilitate recommendations for optimum social groupings for zoo elephants. Behavioural data quantifying social interactions were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 at seven UK and Irish zoos and safari parks from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants. Social interactions were split into four categories: positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical and negative non-physical. Social interactions were related to age (positive physical higher and negative non-physical lower in calves than adults), personality (elephants with higher sociability scores engaged in more positive interactions and less negative interactions), presence of calves in the herd (herds with calves had more positive non-physical), relatedness to other elephants in the herd (positive non-physical were higher when relatives were in the group and negative non-physical were higher between unrelated elephants) and species (Asian elephants engaged in more positive non-physical than African elephants). A greater understanding of factors that may contribute to the success of zoo-elephant social groups is important for individual and herd welfare as it will enable evidence-based decisions which have minimal impact on social structures to be executed. This knowledge will enable proactive management approaches to be undertaken and will thus be paramount in ensuring optimal welfare for elephant herds moving forwards.
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Wilson, Gaius, Ajay A. Desai, Dalice A. Sim, and Wayne L. Linklater. "The influence of the invasive weed Lantana camara on elephant habitat use in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India." Journal of Tropical Ecology 29, no. 3 (April 11, 2013): 199–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467413000205.
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Abstract:Invasive weeds like Lantana camara have a range of effects on animals such as elephant. These plants are not edible by the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). They also compete for space with elephant food plants and take over large areas of elephant habitat. We tested whether the addition of L. camara to a model consisting of measured environmental variables improved predictions of habitat use by elephant in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India. Elephant dung density was used to assess elephant habitat use from 62 line transects 1-km in length. Results indicated that habitat and impact of human settlements significantly influenced elephant habitat use at a landscape scale. However, we found no evidence for the hypothesis that the addition of L. camara significantly predicted elephant habitat use at the landscape level. We then tested the association of L. camara on elephant habitat use in the dry deciduous forest (DDF) where there was a significant interaction between DDF and L. camara. In the DDF, L. camara significantly predicted elephant habitat use. We conclude that while no significant effects of L. camara were seen at the level of an entire reserve, at a finer scale and in specific habitats negative effects of this invasive plant on elephant habitat use were observed.
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Houndonougbo, Juliano S. H., Valère K. Salako, Rodrigue Idohou, Fortuné A. Azihou, Achille E. Assogbadjo, and Romain Glèlè Kakaï. "LOCAL PERCEPTIONS OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ELEPHANTS AND BORASSUS AETHIOPUM MART. (ARECACEAE) IN THE PENDJARI NATIONAL PARK IN BENIN." BOIS & FORETS DES TROPIQUES 331 (July 21, 2017): 33–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.19182/bft2017.331.a31324.
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Elephants are reported to have a dramatic impact on woodyvegetation in protected areas. Careful control of elephant and wood species populations is therefore crucial to successful biodiversity management in such ecosystems. The perceptions of local people and protected areas managers could very usefully supple- ment classic ecological surveys and monito- ring to achieve this goal. This study assessed the perceptions of managers and local people regarding the causes, damage, consequences and management options of elephant pres- sure on the declining dioecious palm Boras- sus aethiopum. The study was conducted in the Pendjari National Park, which is part of the W-Arly-Pendjari transboundary complex of reserves in West Africa. Semi-structured inter- views were conducted with 53 respondents belonging to three socio-professional cate- gories: administrators, ecoguards and local professional hunters. Relative frequency of citation and the Pearson correlation were used to assess the consensus and concordance of their perceptions, respectively. The respon- dents reported a steep increase in the number of elephants in the Pendjari National Park, which they attributed to significant elephant migration from transboundary parks where poaching pressure was perceived as high. This has resulted in high pressure on tree species including B. aethiopum. Despite differences in professional outlook, consensual and concor- dant opinions were noted among administra- tors, ecoguards and local professional hunters on the relationship between B. aethiopum and elephants. A regional approach aiming to pro- tect the elephant population (low poaching) in the W-Arly-Pendjari complex and other neighbouring reserves was suggested in order to limit elephant migration.
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Vijver, Claudius A. D. M. Van De, Charles A. Foley, and Han Olff. "Changes in the woody component of an East African savanna during 25 years." Journal of Tropical Ecology 15, no. 5 (September 1999): 545–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467499001017.
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Changes in density, structure and species composition of the woody component of the two predominant savanna types in Tarangire National Park, northern Tanzania, during a period of 25 y were investigated. The park is known for its large, increasing elephant numbers and high frequency of fires. In 1996 a study on woody species density, composition and age structure, which was first performed in 1971, was repeated, using the same transects and method. Access to the original data of 1971 allowed for a full comparison of the changes and an investigation whether these could be related to changes in elephant numbers and fire frequency. The total tree density declined during the 25 y, but the decline was not evenly distributed over the different height classes. Although the density of trees taller than 5 m declined significantly, the greatest decline occurred in the density of trees shorter than 1 m. The density of trees in the intermediate height class of 1–5 m did not decline. Although damage to trees by elephants increased during the 25-y period, c. 25% showed no browse damage and, except for some severely damaged trees, elephant damage was not found to reduce tree vigour. Elephants affected the size distribution of the savanna woody component much more than the density, while the data suggest no significant effect of fire on changes in tree density. The large decline in density of small trees was attributed to a severe drought in 1993. Based on large numbers of elephants during the past decades and on relatively low elephant impact on the total tree density, the present study suggests that the current elephant number of 2300 can be sustained in the park without causing detrimental effects, provided that their current range is maintained.
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Stansfield, F. J., J. O. Nöthling, and W. R. Allen. "The progression of small-follicle reserves in the ovaries of wild African elephants (Loxodonta africana) from puberty to reproductive senescence." Reproduction, Fertility and Development 25, no. 8 (2013): 1165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rd12296.
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This study aimed to determine whether the follicle reserve in the ovary of the African elephant declines progressively after puberty and whether its depletion constrains the fertility of older females. Elephant ovaries were fixed in 4% neutral buffered formalin and small-follicle counts made using stereological protocols. Excepting a slight rise in small-follicle numbers between 16 and 25 years of age, there was a trend for follicle numbers to fall from puberty to 70 years. Reproductive status did not impact significantly on small-follicle numbers (P = 0.31). The number of early primary follicles, initially higher in number than true primary follicles, fell from post-puberty to nil at 45 years of age. Six of the seven oldest animals in the study showed signs of recent ovarian activity in the form of antral follicles, corpora lutea or large corpora nigra. The four oldest elephants (mean age 69 years) had a median small-follicle count of 11 113. In summary, it appears that the elephant ovary is capable of supplying oocytes for ovulation right up to the time of death at the age of maximum life expectancy, although the follicle reserve becomes depleted in some older elephants.
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Jadhav, Sushrut, and Maan Barua. "The Elephant Vanishes: Impact of human–elephant conflict on people's wellbeing." Health & Place 18, no. 6 (November 2012): 1356–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2012.06.019.
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Harvey, Naomi, Carolyn Daly, Natasha Clark, Eleanor Ransford, Stefanie Wallace, and Lisa Yon. "Social Interactions in Two Groups of Zoo-Housed Adult Female Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) that Differ in Relatedness." Animals 8, no. 8 (August 1, 2018): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani8080132.
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Opportunities for positive social interaction are important in captive animals, and social interactions can be used as a welfare indicator. Wild elephants live in related multigenerational herds; however, in captivity they are often managed in less related groups, which could impact the quality of their social interactions, and thus their welfare. Here, we used a limited social network analysis to investigate the social interactions in two groups of four female captive Asian elephants, one of which contained individuals that were all related to one another, whilst the other was a mix of related and unrelated individuals. Data on pairwise social interactions was collected from eight days of video footage using an all-occurrence sampling technique. More affiliative, and fewer agonistic interactions were observed in the related elephant group. Additionally, non-contact displacement was observed at a higher frequency in the related elephant group, which we theorise represents an established functioning hierarchy, avoiding the need for overt aggression over resources. Although kinship is not likely to be the only factor affecting captive elephant social behaviour, these findings support the recommendation that for optimal welfare, elephants should be managed in multigenerational family herds. Evaluations of social interactions such as those conducted here would have wider applicability for aiding the management of any captive social species to identify when groups might be incompatible.
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Midgley, Jeremy J., Kirsten Gallaher, and Laurence M. Kruger. "The role of the elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the tree squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi) in marula (Sclerocarya birrea) seed predation, dispersal and germination." Journal of Tropical Ecology 28, no. 2 (February 13, 2012): 227–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467411000654.
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The marula (Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst., Anacardiaceae) has a strongly lignified endocarp or stone which contains several seeds, each of which is within its own locule that is sealed by an individual operculum (Figure 1). The strong casing prevents germination, not by preventing the passage of water to the seeds, but by preventing oxygen from reaching the seeds (von Teichman et al. 1985). It is well known that marula fruits taken from the dung of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) have more rapid germination than those that have not been eaten by elephants (Dudley 2000, Lewis 1987). This positive impact of elephants on marula germination continues to be considered to be through acid treatment in the digestion system of the elephant (Helm et al. 2011). We hypothesize that the primary mechanism which favours germination is mastication by elephants which physically loosens the opercula, rather than digestive dissolution of the stone. If true, the relevance of this is that only elephants would be the legitimate dispersers of marula seeds, because none of the many other species that are attracted to marula fruits would have jaws powerful enough to loosen the opercula.
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Struhsaker, Thomas T., Jeremiah S. Lwanga, and John M. Kasenene. "Elephants, selective logging and forest regeneration in the Kibale Forest, Uganda." Journal of Tropical Ecology 12, no. 1 (January 1996): 45–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400009305.
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ABSTRACTThe Kibale Forest, western Uganda, is the only site where studies have compared the impact of elephants on rainforest regeneration in logged and unlogged control areas. Elephants used heavily logged areas more than lightly logged and unlogged areas. Forest gaps were used more by elephants than closed-canopy areas and large gaps more than small ones. Gaps were larger in logged than unlogged forest. There were lower densities of young trees (saplings and poles) and a higher incidence of elephant damage to them in heavily logged forest than in lightly logged and unlogged sites. Elephant use of an area and damage to young trees was inversely or unrelated to the density of young trees and directly related to the density of herbaceous tangle. Heavy logging resulted in large areas of herbaceous tangle, which attracted elephants who suppressed forest regeneration by damaging young trees and perpetuating the herbaceous tangle. The tangle directly competed with regeneration of young trees while also attracting elephants and rodents (seed and seedling predators) and facilitating increased windthrow of trees. Selective browsing of young trees by elephants affected rates of regeneration, growth form and species composition. Rather than remove elephants, a more effective and humane approach to long-term management of logging is to reduce logging offtake and incidental damage caused by timber extraction.
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Puri, Kanchan, Ritesh Joshi, and Vaibhav Singh. "Open garbage dumps near protected areas in Uttarakhand: an emerging threat to Asian Elephants in the Shivalik Elephant Reserve." Journal of Threatened Taxa 12, no. 11 (August 25, 2020): 16571–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.4392.12.11.16571-16575.
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Waste dumping sites near protected areas are a growing issue, which may affect the activities and behaviour of wildlife, more than what we notice. Here, we present two of our case studies, where Asian Elephants were found feeding at garbage dumps in Haridwar and Ramnagar forest divisions in the Shivalik Elephant Reserve in Uttarakhand State. Since garbage dumps may spread bacterial infection and induce adverse changes in the health conditions of the elephant population, we draw the attention of planners to develop a plan of action for proper disposal of the garbage through these preliminary observations, without affecting protected areas and wildlife species, including elephants. Moreover, collection of data on the presence of garbage dumps across the reserve and a study on the behavioural responses of scavenging and non-scavenging animals visiting the dumps would give us a better understanding of the level of impact of garbage dumps for disposal planning. It is to emphasize that garbage does not constitute a part of natural food for elephants. There are restrictions and guidelines in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 and Guidelines for Declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
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Booth, Vernon R., and Kevin M. Dunham. "Elephant poaching in Niassa Reserve, Mozambique: population impact revealed by combined survey trends for live elephants and carcasses." Oryx 50, no. 1 (October 15, 2014): 94–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605314000568.
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AbstractTrends in the populations of large herbivores in Niassa Reserve, Mozambique, have been monitored through biennial aerial surveys since 1998. The elephant Loxodonta africana population has been subjected to intensive illegal hunting since 2006. We used a simple population model to mimic the observed trends in the numbers of live and dead elephants to demonstrate the impact of poaching. The number of fresh or recent carcasses recorded was used in the model as an index of the annual mortality rate. A maximum likelihood analysis to compare population models revealed that the best fit to the survey estimates of both live elephants and old or very old carcasses was a model that started with 6,635 elephants in 1987. This number increased through births by 4.6% annually and decreased through deaths from natural and anthropogenic causes. In the best-fit model, the mean mortality rate in any year was 3.2 times the observed 1 + 2 carcass ratio (ratio for carcasses in age categories 1 and 2), and carcasses remained visible for a mean of 6 years. The model suggested that c. 900 elephants were poached during 2007–2010 and another c. 1,000 during 2011. Population estimates for live elephants and carcasses are now routine outcomes of aerial surveys conducted as part of the CITES programme for Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants, and our method can be applied to any population with a time series of estimates for live and dead elephants.
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Moßbrucker, Alexander Markus, Muhammad Ali Imron, Satyawan Pudyatmoko, Peter-Hinrich Pratje, and Sumardi. "Modeling The Fate of Sumatran Elephants in Bukit Tigapuluh Indonesia: Research Needs & Implications for Population Management." Jurnal Ilmu Kehutanan 10, no. 1 (August 14, 2016): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/jik.12622.
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The critically endangered Sumatran elephant persists in mainly small and isolated populations that may require intensive management to be viable in the long term. Population Viability Analysis (PVA) provides the opportunity to evaluate conservation strategies and objectives prior to implementation, which can be very valuable for site managers by supporting their decision making process. This study applies PVA to a local population of Sumatran elephants roaming the Bukit Tigapuluh landscape, Sumatra, with the main goal to explore the impact of pre-selected conservation measures and population scenarios on both population growth rate and extinction probability. Sensitivity testing revealed considerable parameter uncertainties that should be addressed by targeted research projects in order to improve the predictive power of the baseline population model. Given that further habitat destruction can be prevented, containing illegal killings appears to be of highest priority among the tested conservation measures and represents a mandatory pre-condition for activities addressing inbreeding depression such as elephant translocation or the establishment of a conservation corridor.Keywords: Elephas maximus sumatranus; population viability analysis (PVA); Asian elephant; elephant conservation; Vortex AbstractGajah Sumatera yang berstatus kritis sebagian besar bertahan dalam populasi kecil dan terisolasi membutuhkan pengelolaan intensif agar dapat tetap lestari dalam jangka panjang. Analisis Viabilitas Populasi (Population Viability Analysis, PVA) berpeluang untuk digunakan sebagai sarana evaluasi atas tujuan dan strategi konservasi yang disusun sebelum implementasi, yang akan sangat bermanfaat bagi pengelola kawasan guna mendukung pengambilan keputusan. Studi ini menggunakan PVA pada populasi lokal gajah Sumatera yang menjelajahi lanskap Bukit Tigapuluh, Sumatera, dengan tujuan utama mengeksplorasi dampak atas skenario upaya konservasi dan populasi terpilih terhadap laju pertumbuhan populasi dan probabilitas kepunahan. Uji sensitivitas menunjukkan adanya ketidakpastian atas sejumlah parameter pokok yang seharusnya diteliti untuk meningkatkan kekuatan prediksi atas baseline model populasi. Mengingat kerusakan habitat yang lebih parah dapat dicegah, untuk itu upaya penangkalan pembunuhan ilegal merupakan prioritas tertinggi di antara upaya-upaya konservasi yang sudah diuji dan menjadi prasyarat wajib untuk menjawab masalah kemungkinan dampak perkawinan sedarah (inbreeding depression) seperti translokasi gajah atau membangun koridor konservasi.
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Sintayehu, Dejene W., and Merkebu Kassaw. "Impact of land cover changes on elephant conservation in babile elephant sanctuary, Ethiopia." Biodiversity International Journal 3, no. 2 (April 16, 2019): 65–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/bij.2019.03.00129.
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Nsonsi, Félicien, Jean-Claude Heymans, Jean Diamouangana, Franck Barrel Mavinga, and Thomas Breuer. "Perceived human-elephant conflict and its impact for elephant conservation in northern Congo." African Journal of Ecology 56, no. 2 (August 18, 2017): 208–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aje.12435.
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Gnonlonfoun, Isidore, Barthélémy Kassa, Fortuné Azihou, Sylvanus Mensah, Romain Lucas Glèlè Kakaï, and Achille Ephrem Assogbadjo. "Perceived Effects of Elephants (Loxodonta africana Cuvier) Presence and Impacts on Ecosystem Services Supply in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, West Africa." Tropical Conservation Science 12 (January 2019): 194008291986597. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1940082919865979.
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Information on how biotic factors influence delivery of ecosystem services (ES) in natural systems is important for holistic landscape management. In this study, we assessed the perceived effects of elephants’ presence on ES supply in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in West Africa. A total of 112 respondents, including riparian communities and reserve officials, were interviewed. First, we used ranking techniques based on stakeholders’ perceptions to evaluate differences in perceived importance of ES. Second, we assessed the perceived impact of elephants on ES supply from both direction and intensity perspective. Third, we assessed the economic importance of threatened ESs and elephants’ damages related economic losses incurred by households. Twenty-seven ES were enumerated, 13 provisioning ES, 12 cultural ES, and two from the regulating and maintenance ES category. Provisioning ES were perceived as the most important although not significantly different from other categories. PES were also found to be most affected negatively by elephants’ impacts. However, elephants’ presence increased supply of cultural ES. The average cost of the losses due to elephants’ negative impacts ranged from $174.80 to $586.05 per year and per victim household. These results were discussed in relation to management actions necessary to facilitate coexistence between elephant and local populations.
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Jesus, Sónia A., Marcus G. Doherr, and Thomas B. Hildebrandt. "Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Impact in the European Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Population: Are Hereditability and Zoo-Associated Factors Linked with Mortality?" Animals 11, no. 10 (September 27, 2021): 2816. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11102816.
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EEHV is a ubiquitous virus, which most likely has co-evolved with elephants and is shed by healthy individuals and maintained in the herds. Yet, the factors determining calf susceptibility to the virus remain unknown. Here, we explored the impact of EEHV-HD in the European captive Asian elephant population in a retrospective statistical study spanning the last 35 years. We show that EEHV-HD was implicated in more than half of all deaths recorded in calves older than one months old. Moreover, the median age across EEHV-HD fatalities was significantly lower compared to other death causes. Finally, we investigated if heredity and zoo-associated factors could be linked to a higher susceptibility of calves to this disease. We used a univariable logistic regression model to evaluate if either fathers, mothers, or zoos could, separately, be considered as risk factors to the development of the disease. Afterwards, we used a two multivariable model, combining: (1) fathers and zoos, and (2) mothers and zoos. Overall, we found that two fathers, one mother, and four zoos had three or more times higher risk of their calves becoming sick when compared to all others, pointing us to the presence of a management or environmental element, which can have paternal and maternal influence and leads to calf susceptibility or resistance to EEHV-HD.
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Ben-Shahar, Raphael. "ELEPHANT DENSITY AND IMPACT ON KALAHARI WOODLAND HABITATS." Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 53, no. 2 (January 1998): 149–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00359199809520383.
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Guldemond, Robert A. R., Andrew Purdon, and Rudi J. van Aarde. "A systematic review of elephant impact across Africa." PLOS ONE 12, no. 6 (June 7, 2017): e0178935. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178935.
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Kongsawasdi, Siriphan, Janine L. Brown, Khajohnpat Boonprasert, Pornsawan Pongsopawijit, Kittichai Wantanajittikul, Siripat Khammesri, Tanapong Tajarernmuang, Nipaporn Thonglorm, Rungtiwa Kanta-In, and Chatchote Thitaram. "Impact of Weight Carriage on Joint Kinematics in Asian Elephants Used for Riding." Animals 11, no. 8 (August 17, 2021): 2423. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11082423.
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Background: Elephants in Thailand have changed their roles from working in the logging industry to tourism over the past two decades. In 2020, there were approximately 2700 captive elephants participating in activities such as riding and trekking. During work hours, riding elephants carry one or two people in a saddle on the back with a mahout on the neck several hours a day and over varying terrain. A concern is that this form of riding can cause serious injuries to the musculoskeletal system, although to date there have been no empirical studies to determine the influence of weight carriage on kinematics in elephants. Methods: Eight Asian elephants from a camp in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, aged between 21 and 41 years with a mean body mass of 3265 ± 140.2 kg, were evaluated under two conditions: walking at a normal speed without a saddle and with a 15% body mass load (saddle and two persons plus additional weights). Gait kinematics, including the maximal angles of fore- and hindlimb joints, were determined using a novel three-dimensional inertial measurement system with wireless sensors. Results: There were no statistical differences between movement angles and a range of motion of the fore- and hindlimbs, when an additional 15% of body mass was added. Conclusion: There is no evidence that carrying a 15% body mass load causes significant changes in elephant gait patterns. Thus, carrying two people in a saddle may have minimal effects on musculoskeletal function. More studies are needed to further test longer durations of riding on different types of terrain to develop appropriate working guidelines for captive elephants. Nevertheless, elephants appear capable of carrying significant amounts of weight on the back without showing signs of physical distress.
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Kendall, Rebecca, Lauren Howard, Nic Masters, and Robyn Grant. "THE IMPACT OF ELEPHANT ENDOTHELIOTROPIC HERPESVIRUS ON THE CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) POPULATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM AND IRELAND (1995–2013)." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 47, no. 2 (June 2016): 405–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2015-0217.1.
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Glaeser, Sharon S., Katie L. Edwards, Nadja Wielebnowski, and Janine L. Brown. "Effects of physiological changes and social life events on adrenal glucocorticoid activity in female zoo-housed Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)." PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 6, 2020): e0241910. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241910.
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Ensuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species and includes breeding of individuals managed under human care. Understanding how factors in the captive environment affect individual animal wellbeing can be aided by long-term monitoring of biological functioning. This study involved longitudinal assessments (4 to 28 years) of reproductive and adrenal hormones in zoo-housed female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (age range 4 to ~71 years) to elucidate patterns in adrenal glucocorticoid (GC) activity in association with reproductive and demographic factors, and examine individual response to major social changes. Concentrations of serum and urinary cortisol covaried more consistently with physiological changes (ovarian cycle phase, puberty, pregnancy, lactational anestrus, and age) than with social life events (births, deaths, and facility transfers). Cortisol fluctuated across the ovarian cycle with mean concentrations being higher in the follicular than in the luteal phase, and concentrations were highest in lactational anestrous compared to all other reproductive states. The elephants in this study exhibited substantial individuality in adrenal GC response to major social change, reinforcing the need to assess welfare on an individual basis and to consider factors influencing the impact of perceived stressors, such as social relationships, social support, temperament, and life history. Outcomes from this study deepen our understanding of Asian elephant physiology and highlight the importance of taking intrinsic patterns of hormone secretion into account when evaluating the impact of external factors. Finally, a better understanding of the impact of social change and resiliency in response to real and perceived stressors allows us to improve social management to enhance welfare in both captive settings and free-ranging environments.
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Selier, Sarah-Anne Jeanetta, Rob Slotow, and Enrico Di Minin. "The influence of socioeconomic factors on the densities of high-value cross-border species, the African elephant." PeerJ 4 (October 27, 2016): e2581. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2581.
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Unprecedented poaching levels triggered by demand for ivory in Far East Asia are threatening the persistence of African elephantLoxodonta africana. Southern African countries make an important contribution to elephant conservation and could soon become the last stronghold of elephant conservation in Africa. While the ecological factors affecting elephant distribution and densities have extensively been accounted for, there is a need to understand which socioeconomic factors affect elephant numbers in order to prevent conflict over limited space and resources with humans. We used elephant count data from aerial surveys for seven years in a generalized linear model, which accounted for temporal correlation, to investigate the effect of six socioeconomic and ecological variables on the number of elephant at the country level in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area (GMTFCA). Important factors in predicting elephant numbers were the proportion of total land surface under cultivation, human population density and the number of tourists visiting the country. Specifically, elephant numbers were higher where the proportion of total land surface under cultivation was the lowest; where population density was the lowest and where tourist numbers had increased over the years. Our results confirm that human disturbance is affecting elephant numbers, but highlight that the benefits provided by ecotourism could help enhance elephant conservation. While future studies should include larger areas and more detailed data at the site level, we stress that the development of coordinated legislation and policies to improve land-use planning are needed to reduce the impact of increasing human populations and agriculture on elephant.
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Kumar, Rohit, Ramratan ., Anupam Kumar, and Rajinder Singh Smagh. "Mechanical Properties for Elephant Dung and its Utilization as a Raw Material Composites Sheet: A Study." Asian Journal of Engineering and Applied Technology 10, no. 1 (May 5, 2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.51983/ajeat-2021.10.1.2720.
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Elephant dung is an excellent source of cellulosic fiber that is a basic requirement for paper making. But they contributed to very small percentage production of elephant dung. So, researchers are trying to find a new area of utilization of elephant dung fiber pulp as in reinforcement’s polymer composite. In this experiment element dung fiber pulp in the natural fiber component chemically treated with alkaline and soda AQ solution in this study, it has been aimed to use elephant dung fiber pulp in composite material and to study mechanical properties of the produced material. The produced composite samples were then characterized using tensile test, Izod impact test, thickness test. The fracture surface of the polymer composite sample was also inspected with the help of SEM. The content of elephant dung fiber pulp is varied (35%, 45%, 55%) weight percentage whereas the epoxy resin is varied (50%, 40%, 30%) percentage is kept constant 15% in hardener. The entire sample has been tested in a universal testing machine as per ASTM standard for tensile strength and impact strength. It is observed that composite with 35% fiber pulp is having the highest tensile strength of 4mm 6.445 Mpa and 8mm 11.80 Mpa. The impact strength of composite with 35% fiber pulp washes highest than 45% to 55% dung fiber pulp. This produces composite sheet will be used for the surfboards, sporting goods, building panel this not only reduces the cost but also save from environmental pollution.
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Head, Josephine S., Martha M. Robbins, Roger Mundry, Loïc Makaga, and Christophe Boesch. "Remote video-camera traps measure habitat use and competitive exclusion among sympatric chimpanzee, gorilla and elephant in Loango National Park, Gabon." Journal of Tropical Ecology 28, no. 6 (November 2012): 571–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467412000612.
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Abstract:Species commonly exist in sympatry, yet ecological studies are often based on a single species approach while ignoring the impact of sympatric competitors. Over 13 mo we used 24 remote video-camera traps to monitor habitat use of sympatric chimpanzee, gorilla and elephant in four different habitat types in Loango National Park, Gabon. Habitat use by each species was predicted to vary according to seasonal changes in food availability and precipitation. Increased interspecific competition between the three species was expected at times of reduced resource availability, leading to exclusion of the inferior competitor. Supporting the predictions, species abundance per habitat showed seasonal variation: all three species responded positively to increased fruit availability in all habitats, but the response was only significant for gorilla in mature forest and elephant in coastal forest. Responses to rainfall varied, with the chimpanzee responding negatively to rainfall in swamp forest, the gorilla responding positively to rainfall in coastal and secondary forest, and the elephant responding positively to rainfall in mature forest. Elephant presence resulted in competitive exclusion of the apes under certain conditions: the chimpanzee was excluded by the elephant where fruit availability was low, whereas the gorilla was excluded by the elephant in areas of low herb density despite high fruit availability. Our results emphasize the value of applying a multi-species, longer-term approach to studying variation in habitat use among sympatric species and highlight the impact competitors can exert on one another's distribution.
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Fernandez, Eduardo J., Bruce Upchurch, and Nancy C. Hawkes. "Public Feeding Interactions as Enrichment for Three Zoo-Housed Elephants." Animals 11, no. 6 (June 6, 2021): 1689. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11061689.
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The past few decades have seen increased interest in studies examining the welfare of elephants and animal–visitor interactions. One understudied area for both pursuits is the impact of public feeding interactions. Our study examined the effects of public feedings on the general activity of three zoo-housed elephants. Prior to public feedings, we developed and assessed a 21-behavior ethogram split into six classes of behavior. Comparisons between the elephants demonstrated that only one of the elephants engaged in stereotypies with regularity (>30%), and that the stereotypies occurred in place of most foraging. During public feedings, we compared the general activity of each elephant independently and across both public feeding and nonpublic feeding days, as well as the general activity before, during, and after a public feeding. Public feedings increased social activity and decreased stereotypies when compared with nonpublic feeding days for two of the elephants. In addition, all three elephants showed increased foraging and decreased inactivity in the period after a public feeding session. These results demonstrate that public feedings can be a useful tool for enriching the welfare of zoo-housed elephants and are among the first sets of data to demonstrate positive welfare outcomes associated with public feedings.
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Jakob-Hoff, Kingan, Fenemore, Schmid, Cockrem, Crackle, Bemmel, Connor, and Descovich. "Potential Impact of Construction Noise on Selected Zoo Animals." Animals 9, no. 8 (July 31, 2019): 504. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani9080504.
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In anticipation of a major construction project in an urban New Zealand zoo, a study was initiated to assess the response to construction noise of selected animal species (elephant, giraffe, emu and alligator) previously observed to be sensitive to this kind of noise. The overall aim was to detect any signs of aversive responses to this noise to enable keepers to recognize these and take any necessary mitigating actions during the construction period. The experimental approach involved the creation of acoustic maps of each focal animal enclosure, a series of 90-min video recordings of the animals’ behavior in response to ambient noise (control) and amplified broadcast of pre-recorded continuous and intermittent construction noise. Concentration of fecal corticosterone metabolites was also measured for the emus. Key findings were that giraffes, elephants and emus appeared to show an increase in behaviors that could indicate stress or agitation including vigilance and locomotion and may prefer quieter regions of their enclosure during sound exposure. Giraffes also increased close contact with conspecifics when exposed to construction noise. While alligators did not show clear evidence of noise-related stress, our findings indicated that all focal species showed some behavioral responses to recorded construction noise.
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Sarwanto, Doso, and Sari Eko Tuswati. "Pertumbuhan Rumput Gajah Kerdil (Pennisetum purpureum ‘Mott’) di Lahan Terbuka Bekas Penambangan Batu Kapur Kawasan Karst Gombong Jawa Tengah." Biosfera 34, no. 3 (October 13, 2017): 131. http://dx.doi.org/10.20884/1.mib.2017.34.3.502.
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The negative impact of limestone mining on a karst area around Gombong is the destruction of ecosystem. Ecosystem’s destruction will decrease the variety, productivity, quality and continuity of indigenous livestock forages. The aim of this research is to know the growth rate of Dwarf Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum 'Mott') in the post mining limestone with various methods of planting. The method used in this research is an experimental method in an open field that was used for limestone mining by using Completed Random Design. The treatment consists of 4 kinds of planting methods with 4 repetitions, while the research treatment used in this experiment is the RG (the field with Dwarf Elephant Grass); RGL (the field with Dwarf Elephant Grass + peanut legume); RGK (the field with Dwarf Elephant Grass + goat’s compost 1,5 kg/m2) and RGKL (the field with Dwarf Elephant Grass + peanut legume + goat’s compost 1,5 kg/m2). The parameter used for the research is the growth rate which includes the plant’s height, the length of the leaves, and also the width of Dwarf Elephant Grass’s leaves (Pennisetum purpureum ‘Mott’) until the 8th week.The result of this research shows that the use of goat’s compost 1,5 kg/m2 and planting of peanut can give significant results to the growth of Dwarf Elephant Grass in open field that was used for limestone mining.
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Chatterjee, Baijayanti. "Khedas in South-Eastern Bengal: Colonialism and Wildlife 1765–1810." Global Environment 14, no. 2 (June 1, 2021): 215–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3197/ge.2021.140201.
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This article examines the colonial impact on wildlife in the region of Bengal in the late eighteenth century. Taking the English East India Company's engagement with the Indian elephant as a point of entry into colonial environmental practices, the article focuses on the kheda or elephant-catching operations in the three districts of Sylhet, Chittagong and Tipperah. Unlike the tiger, which was classified as dangerous and decimated during the colonial era, the elephant was less liable to be killed on account of its military utility, but was caught and domesticated in large numbers. The article argues that the EIC, following pre-colonial traditions and Mughal practices, attempted to control the channels of supply of the animal in the three above-mentioned areas, but in doing so they were perennially dependent on local agency and native expertise. Depending on the native tracksmen, elephant-keepers and traders, the EIC officials acquired their knowledge on the elephant and the Indian environment largely through indigenous collaboration and initiated global transfers of knowledge between the coloniser and colonised environments.
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Von Gerhardt, K., A. Van Niekerk, M. Kidd, M. Samways, and J. Hanks. "The role of elephantLoxodonta africanapathways as a spatial variable in crop-raiding location." Oryx 48, no. 3 (February 13, 2014): 436–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003060531200138x.
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AbstractShort-range elephantLoxodonta africanamovements were examined in a heterogeneous landscape mosaic of settlements, crop fields and remnant forest in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia. We explored the penetration of the landscape through the use of permanent pathways and determined the impact of pathway use on crop-raiding location. Pathways were linear, devoid of vegetation and maintained by repeated movement. Functional connectivity of pathways was not species-specific, and pathways were used by various species. Elephants travelled in single file at night and we recorded selective pathway use: females selected pathways away from settlements to access water, whereas males used pathways among settlements to launch crop raids. Proximity of raided fields to the nearest pathway was the only significant spatial variable explaining crop-raiding location. Bulls were responsible for all crop-raiding incidents. We conclude that (1) pathways were the most significant spatial variable influencing which fields were raided, (2) crop-raiding from pathways may maximize foraging efficiency by reducing time spent and distance travelled while foraging, (3) pathways may facilitate penetration of the matrix by connecting predictable resources (crops) with preferred shelter areas, crossing points at roads and preferred drinking spots, and (4) access to the Kwandu River is restricted by settlements, predictably resulting in human–elephant conflict. By highlighting the relevance of pathways for movement of elephants we show that an understanding of the use of pathways is important for land-use planning in conservation landscapes, specifically with regard to human–elephant conflict. We also argue for the need to more fully explore pathway occurrence and use at larger spatial scales.
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Reid, Andrew. "Archaeological ivory and the impact of the elephant in Mawogola." World Archaeology 47, no. 3 (April 20, 2015): 467–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2015.1029592.
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Neupane, Bijaya, Binod Khatiwoda, and Subash Budhathoki. "Effectiveness of Solar-powered Fence in Reducing Human - Wild Elephant Conflict (HEC) in Northeast Jhapa District, Nepal." Forestry: Journal of Institute of Forestry, Nepal 15 (July 31, 2018): 13–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/forestry.v15i0.24917.
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Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) is a product of complex interaction between human and elephant that represents the detrimental impact for both. This study was aimed to assess the effectiveness of 17 km solar-powered electric fence installed in 2015 in north-eastern part of Jhapa district (Bahundangi VDC) against transboundary herds of wild elephants (150-200) that annually enters into Nepal from India and caused HEC. For this study, the detailed information on HEC incidents (human casualty and injury, crop and property damage) before and after the fence installation was collected. Affected wards within Bahundangi VDC were purposively selected for households survey (N=100), consultations and group discussions (N=5) and participatory field observations. We encountered poor maintenance and care of the electric fence and in some places covered by grasses and climbers questioning its sustainability. In-spite of it, the number of incidents of HEC sharply reduced by 96.13%. Before the fence (in 2014), the estimated economic loss per household per year in the VDC was 103 USD (crop=95 USD and property=8 USD). Remarkably, there was reduction in economic loss of crop and property damage by 93% and 96% respectively. Besides, chi-square test of independence showed that there was significant difference in damages among the 4 affected wards of Bahundangi VDC with respect to paddy crop but not with maize crop, cowshed and other properties. After the fence installation, only few elephants accidently entered in some areas by breaking the solar fence and caused few incidents of crop and property damages. From the overall evaluation, solar fence was found effective in reducing HEC by protecting human lives, crops and properties.
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Li, Wenwen, Yang Yu, Peng Liu, Ruchun Tang, Yunchuan Dai, Li Li, and Li Zhang. "Identifying climate refugia and its potential impact on small population of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in China." Global Ecology and Conservation 19 (July 2019): e00664. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00664.
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Rajapakse, R. P. V. J., S. P. Lawton, K. J. K. Karunathilake, B. V. P. Perera, N. T. B. Nguyen, and T. H. Le. "Molecular characterization of Fasciola jacksoni from wild elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) of Sri Lanka: a taxonomic evaluation." Parasitology 146, no. 10 (June 24, 2019): 1247–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182019000519.
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AbstractFasciola jacksoni is a significant contributor to the health and mortality of Asian elephants, particularly those in Sri Lanka. Despite the impact of fascioliasis on elephant populations, it is a neglected veterinary disease with limited taxonomic understanding. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of F. jacksoni were carried out to evaluate its suggested basal position in the Fasciolidae. Adult worms were collected during post-mortem of elephants, and eggs were collected from living elephants in National parks across Sri Lanka. Using the mitochondrial genes nicotinamide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (cox1), and a partial 28S ribosomal DNA (28S rDNA), DNA sequences were generated from the F. jacksoni adult and egg material. Maximum likelihood (ML) phylogenetic analyses did not resolve F. jacksoni to be basal to the Fasciolidae. Furthermore, the ML analyses showed that the genus Fasciola was not monophyletic and that F. jacksoni was a sister species to the deer liver fluke Fascioloides magna. A clear framework is required to determine the taxonomic status of F. jacksoni and this current study provides the first detailed application of molecular techniques from multiple hosts across Sri Lanka with the production of reference DNA sequences for this important parasite.
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Chakanyuka, Tatenda Leopold. "CITES and the African Elephant." Chinese Journal of Environmental Law 4, no. 1 (June 3, 2020): 44–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24686042-12340049.
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Abstract This article focuses on the impact of the ban of international trade of the ivory of the African elephant under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. This species is overpopulated in some countries and threatened in other countries. Overall, its current population and the level of decline suggest a species that is endangered. The population disparities have created misunderstandings in terms of how to address the issues. Controversy has surrounded the two instances of legal sales of ivory, and the continuing ban on ivory trade from 1989 has contributed to animosity between pro-ban Western ‘conservationists’ and anti-ban African countries, with accusations of ‘ecological imperialism’ being levelled at some of the protagonists. The article observes that the vast global ivory market has largely been sustained by countries that have failed to effectively enact laws and/or enforce them, as well as failing to deal with corruption and illegal markets within their jurisdictions. It is argued that identifying such culprit countries and their role in promoting elephant poaching and ivory trade, and identifying the reasons behind the poaching and illegal trade, is crucial in reducing the incidence of poaching. The article argues that with a better understanding of the illegal trade, CITES can take deliberate steps to assist countries involved in the ivory trade where they need that support.
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Cook, R. M., F. Parrini, L. E. King, E. T. F. Witkowski, and M. D. Henley. "African honeybees as a mitigation method for elephant impact on trees." Biological Conservation 217 (January 2018): 329–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.11.024.
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Sach, Fiona, Ellen S. Dierenfeld, Simon C. Langley-Evans, Michael J. Watts, and Lisa Yon. "African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) as an example of a herbivore making movement choices based on nutritional needs." PeerJ 7 (February 1, 2019): e6260. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6260.
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Background The increasing human population and global intensification of agriculture have had a major impact on the world’s natural ecosystems and caused devastating effects on populations of mega-herbivores such as the African savanna elephants, through habitat reduction and fragmentation and increased human–animal conflict. Animals with vast home ranges are forced into increasingly smaller geographical areas, often restricted by fencing or encroaching anthropogenic activities, resulting in huge pressures on these areas to meet the animals’ resource needs. This can present a nutritional challenge and cause animals to adapt their movement patterns to meet their dietary needs for specific minerals, potentially causing human–animal conflict. The aim of this review is to consolidate understanding of nutritional drivers for animal movement, especially that of African savanna elephants and focus the direction of future research. Peer reviewed literature available was generally geographically specific and studies conducted on isolated populations of individual species. African savanna elephants have the capacity to extensively alter the landscape and have been more greatly studied than other herbivores, making them a good example species to use for this review. Alongside this, their movement choices, potentially linked with nutritional drivers could be applicable to a range of other species. Relevant case study examples of other herbivores moving based on nutritional needs are discussed. Methods Three databases were searched in this review: Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar, using identified search terms. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined and applied as required. Additional grey literature was reviewed as appropriate. Results Initial searches yielded 1,870 records prior to application of inclusion and exclusion criteria. A less detailed review of grey literature, and additional peer-reviewed literature which did not meet the inclusion criteria but was deemed relevant by the authors was also conducted to ensure thorough coverage of the subject. Discussion A review of peer reviewed literature was undertaken to examine nutritional drivers for African elephant movement, exploring documented examples from free-ranging African savanna elephants and, where relevant, other herbivore species. This could help inform prediction or mitigation of human–elephant conflict, potentially when animals move according to nutritional needs, and related drivers for this movement. In addition, appropriate grey literature was included to capture current research.
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Van Valkenburgh, Blaire, Matthew W. Hayward, William J. Ripple, Carlo Meloro, and V. Louise Roth. "The impact of large terrestrial carnivores on Pleistocene ecosystems." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 4 (October 26, 2015): 862–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1502554112.
Full textAbstract:
Large mammalian terrestrial herbivores, such as elephants, have dramatic effects on the ecosystems they inhabit and at high population densities their environmental impacts can be devastating. Pleistocene terrestrial ecosystems included a much greater diversity of megaherbivores (e.g., mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths) and thus a greater potential for widespread habitat degradation if population sizes were not limited. Nevertheless, based on modern observations, it is generally believed that populations of megaherbivores (>800 kg) are largely immune to the effects of predation and this perception has been extended into the Pleistocene. However, as shown here, the species richness of big carnivores was greater in the Pleistocene and many of them were significantly larger than their modern counterparts. Fossil evidence suggests that interspecific competition among carnivores was relatively intense and reveals that some individuals specialized in consuming megaherbivores. To estimate the potential impact of Pleistocene large carnivores, we use both historic and modern data on predator–prey body mass relationships to predict size ranges of their typical and maximum prey when hunting as individuals and in groups. These prey size ranges are then compared with estimates of juvenile and subadult proboscidean body sizes derived from extant elephant growth data. Young proboscideans at their most vulnerable age fall within the predicted prey size ranges of many of the Pleistocene carnivores. Predation on juveniles can have a greater impact on megaherbivores because of their long interbirth intervals, and consequently, we argue that Pleistocene carnivores had the capacity to, and likely did, limit megaherbivore population sizes.
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Clegg, Bruce W., and Timothy G. O’Connor. "Determinants of seasonal changes in availability of food patches for elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a semi-arid African savanna." PeerJ 5 (June 20, 2017): e3453. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3453.
Full textAbstract:
Loss of biodiversity caused by impact of elephants (Loxodonta africana) on African woodlands may require a management response, but any action should be based on an understanding of why elephants choose to utilise trees destructively. Comprehension of elephant feeding behaviour requires consideration of the relative value of the plant groups they may potentially consume. Profitability of available food is partly determined by the time to locate a food patch and, therefore, as a foundation for understanding the influence of food availability on diet selection, key controls on the density of grass, forb, and browse patches were investigated across space and time in a semi-arid African savanna. Density of food patches changed seasonally because plant life-forms required different volumes of soil water to produce green forage; and woody plants and forbs responded to long-term changes in soil moisture, while grasses responded to short-term moisture pulses. Soil texture, structure of woody vegetation and fire added further complexity by altering the soil water thresholds required for production of green forage. Interpolating between regularly-timed, ground-based measurements of food density by using modelled soil water as the predictor in regression equations may be a feasible method of quantifying food available to elephants in complex savanna environments.