Academic literature on the topic 'Elephants'

Many elephant populations across Africa were or are being devastated by poaching and habitat loss, making population and range size for the species important issues of conservation concern in elephant ranging areas, including Tarangire National Park (TNP). Poaching and/or overhunting are known to have direct effects on the demography of elephant populations. The current understanding of the indirect effects of poaching on the sociality and demography of elephant populations is relatively poor, both at the group and an individual level. In this thesis the importance of genetic relatedness (as influenced by poaching) on sociality and demography of the female elephants was studied, using a combination of genetic, observation of behaviour and two decades of demography data collected from the northern subpopulation of TNP. I investigated and characterized the relatedness categories within elephant groups. Using a conceptual model for group size analysis in aggregation economies, I hypothesized that elephant populations subject to social disruptions due to poaching would exhibit characteristics of the free entry model, whereas more stable, closed populations would better fit the group-controlled model. I present a rare quantitative analysis of genetic relatedness and group size patterns among groups of adult female elephants in two wild populations: one in Tarangire National Park (TNP), Tanzania, and another in Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), South Africa. I demonstrate that the group size in African elephant populations is governed by genetic relatedness, and that poaching/overhunting has a significant influence upon the apparent group formation and size in elephants. I then focused on the effect of relatedness on agonistic interactions between adult females. I hypothesized that individual-based aggressive interactions among adult female African elephants would vary according to degree of kinship, with closely related dyads showing less aggression towards each other in resource-limited environments, thereby leading to indirect fitness benefits for individuals. As predicted, females did not show agonistic interactions to their close kin most often, and the frequency and intensity of aggressive interactions was inversely related to the degree of relatedness of the interactants. The effect of group relatedness and structure on reproductive success of individual female African elephant in TNP was also investigated. Adult female reproductive success was significantly influenced by within- group relatedness and structure. Higher reproductive success (with higher frequency of calf production and survival and more female calves produced) were more evident in the closely related groups than groups with low relatedness, suggesting that females from genetically disrupted groups are less likely to be reproductive than those in closely related groups. The possibility of negative effects of poaching on the subsequent generation of poached adult females and the alternative of a positive demographic response through reduced density was assessed by analysing the demographic patterns of the first generation (F1) females of prime-aged adult female African elephants in TNP using within- group relatedness and size. I also compared vital rate (age of first birth and interbirth interval) responses of first generation (F1) cows from Tarangire (poached) elephants with other females from poached (Northern Luangwa National Park, Zambia) and unpoached (Amboseli National Park, Kenya and Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa) populations. Group relatedness had no significant effect on sex ratio of the F1 cows‟ calves. There was a significant difference between the mean age of first birth and interbirth interval of F1 cows from the two (poached, Tarangire and unpoached, Amboseli National Park) elephant populations, suggesting that elephant populations reduced by poaching to low levels show an increase vigour through release from density constraints. Based on these results, the broader implications of secondary effects of poaching on elephant populations are critically evaluated. Also the importance of understanding the consequences of these effects is highlighted in light of other elephant conservation and management approaches. This understanding is useful in making conservation and management decisions for elephants and other biodiversity.

Relatively little is known about the vocal repertoire of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and a categorization of basic call types and modifications of these call types by quantitative acoustic parameters is needed to examine acoustic variability within and among call types, to examine individuality, to determine communicative function of calls via playback, to compare species and populations, and to develop rigorous call recognition algorithms for monitoring populations. This study defines an acoustic repertoire of Asian elephants based on acoustic parameters, compares repertoire usage among groups and individuals, and validates structural distinction among call types through comparison of manual and automated classification methods. Recordings were made of captive elephants at the Oregon Zoo in Portland, OR, USA, and of domesticated elephants in Thailand. Acoustic and behavioral data were collected in a variety of social contexts and environmental noise conditions. Calls were classified using perceptual aural cues plus visual inspection of spectrograms, then acoustic features were measured, then automated classification was run. The final repertoire was defined by six basic call types (Bark, Roar, Rumble, Bark, Squeal, Squeal, and Trumpet), five call combinations and modifications with these basic calls forming their constituent parts (Roar-Rumble, Squeal-Squeak, Squeak train, Squeak-Bark, and Trumpet-Roar), and the Blow. Given the consistency of classifications results for calls from geographically and socially disparate subject groups, it seems possible that automated call detection algorithms could be developed for acoustic monitoring of Asian elephants.

Internationally, the interest and participation in animal-based tourism is increasing. Extensive research on welfare issues has been conducted in various industries involving animals; however, the number of studies concerning animal welfare in tourism are considerably less. Beyond the zoo setting, research into the welfare standards at captive wildlife tourism attractions, such as elephant tourism venues (ETVs), are further limited. The welfare standards at ETVs particularly warrant attention due to the mistreatment of elephants that is common in the industry and because of the high popularity of these venues. In south-east Asia, Thailand has one of the largest numbers of ETVs and, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, experienced significant growth in international tourism likely due to the numerous opportunities for close interactions with elephants, which is a significant motivation for many tourists. Interest in animal welfare in wildlife tourism is becoming increasingly important beyond scientific and academic discussions, particularly as tourists are increasingly observant and critical of captive animals’ health and well-being. Tourists’ opinions and preferences may also have significant influence over the way venue operators manage their animals and represent their business, as consumer satisfaction and preference can be integral in influencing and solidifying change in user-driven industries such as tourism. Key gaps in knowledge exist in the above areas in relation to the elephant tourism industry in Thailand. The first stage in addressing these gaps involved assessing the welfare standards of 12 ETVs in Chapter 2 using information available online which allowed me to gain insights into the material available to prospective travellers, how they may use this information to choose a venue to visit, and, consequently, how their experience at the venue may not match their expectations. Based on these results, the ETVs were ranked from highest to lowest welfare standards. Next, I undertook a systematic quantitative literature review in Chapter 3 to gather and explore which indicators of welfare in captive Asian elephants have been investigated in recent years. This review further identified knowledge gaps, presented suggestions for future research, and explored in-depth the studies during the data synthesis. Twenty-three indicators of welfare were identified in this review, and others were notably absent from current research. Nine environmental, eight physical, four physio-psychological, and two behavioural welfare indicators were identified. Most research between 2015 and 2020 focussed on the diet of captive elephants and cases of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus, followed by research into the provision of elephant health care and the duration of work for elephants involved in tourism activities. Chiang Mai, Thailand was identified as an appropriate region to first establish proper management guidelines and find solutions for these issues, becoming an example for other Asian elephant range countries to follow. Many recent studies have assessed captive elephant welfare, involving invasive, time-intensive procedures, such as the collection of blood samples or urine/faeces for glucocorticoid metabolite analysis. However, few studies have proposed a method for assessing captive elephant welfare, and for those which have, their methods were either developed for use in zoos, or focussed on a single aspect or type of welfare indicator. Using the knowledge gained in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 developed the Rapid Elephant Welfare Assessment Method (REWAM) which involved the creation of specific welfare criteria to better represent the conditions found in elephant tourism venues. The REWAM is a new method for evaluating captive elephant welfare in tourism venues by exploring the relationships between living conditions (the factors contributing to welfare) and welfare indicators (the results or products of the living conditions). The REWAM differs from other welfare assessment methods as it is observation-based and does not require the collection of physical samples or laboratory analysis. This reduces cost and time spent in-field and does not require contact with the animal. Chapter 5 applied the REWAM in a case study at 12 ETVs in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and aimed to explore the relationships between living conditions and welfare indicators, and to rank the ETVs assessed in this study based on their overall scores. The three highest-ranking ETVs offered observation only activities or elephant walks and activities such as feeding and bathing. Areas requiring significant improvement, and which therefore should be the focus of future research, include enclosure size, stimulation of natural behaviours and provision of a social environment, and the presence (and, therefore, the cause) of stereotypic behaviour. Due to the increased demand and interest for animals in tourism, further research is required regarding animal welfare considerations by tourists. Chapter 6 found that participant age was the clearest indicator for the type of venue participants were likely to visit and that home location and welfare standards at venues had the greatest effect on attitudes post-visit. Results suggest elephant welfare can be an important factor for some tourists; therefore, efforts should be made to increase public awareness of the issues within elephant tourism venues which could lead to positive attitude and behaviour change. Chapter 7 found that tourists visited riding and non-riding ETVs for similar reasons, primarily due to recommendations from friends and reviews, and because the venue had a good reputation. Tourist preference for higher welfare standards was observed at venues where participants directly observed poor treatment of the elephants. Tourist satisfaction may be impacted by higher elephant welfare standards; therefore, tourists have the ability to influence the elephant tourism industry by demanding better living conditions for elephants and only financially supporting ETVs with higher welfare standards. Finally, the welfare standards at 12 ETVs were assessed in Chapter 8 using the REWAM developed in Chapter 4. Based on these results, the ETVs were ranked from highest to lowest welfare standards. The rankings from Chapters 2 and 8 were compared and, consequently, the data collection methods were compared. This highlighted the differences between the perceived versus actual welfare standards at each ETV which misleads consumers and can lead to low tourist satisfaction. Overall, the findings of this research further our understanding regarding the complex issues within the elephant tourism industry and provide important theoretical and practical implications to improve the welfare of captive elephants living in tourism venues.<br>Thesis (PhD Doctorate)<br>Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)<br>School of Environment and Sc<br>Full Text