Academic literature on the topic 'Encyclopædia Britannica'

Sa svrhom što potpunijega razumijevanja i donošenja bitnih navedenih zaključaka o općenitome predmetnom pitanju mrežnih priručničkih izdanja, ovaj rad, oprimjeren provedbom i ishodom postupka kakvoćnoga istraživanja Encyclopædije Britannice, daje njezin kraći razvojni pregled i opis glavnih značajka njezinih odabranih izdanja, uz njihovu usporedbu s drugim sličnim priručnicima. Uvodni dio stoga sažeto iznosi gotovo desetljetnu povijest postupnoga Britanničina prijelaza u mrežno okruženje. Raščlanjujući njezine sastavnice, Macropaediju, Micropaediju i Propaediju, i njezino uredničko usmjerenje, središnji pak dio podrobnije razmatra Britanničin put od knjižnične police do računalnoga zaslona te ju dovodi u poredbeni suodnos s ostalim priopćilima na zahtjevnome poslovnom tržištu, poglavito s Wikipedijom. Time je također zaključno ukazano i na neke mogućnosti uporabe takvih suvremenih mrežnih priručničkih sadržaja, koji obavijesnim i priopćajnim proširenjem dosadašnjih granica nedvojbeno postavljaju i nove sustavske razvojne zadatke.

Though digital media have unquestionably affected the features and functions of modern encyclopedias, such works also continue to be shaped by factors thoroughly conventional by the end of the historical Enlightenment. As William Smellie, editor of the first Encyclopædia Britannica (1768-71) wrote, “utility ought to be the principal intention of every publication. Wherever this intention does not plainly appear, neither the books nor their authors have the smallest claim to the approbation of mankind.” The “instructional designers” and “user-experience specialists” of the online Britannica are the inheritors of all those authors and editors who before and after Smellie’s time devised different plans and methods intended to maximize the utility of their works. The definition of utility and with it the nature of encyclopedic knowledge continues to change both because of and despite technological difference; if digitization has in some ways advanced the ideals of Enlightenment encyclopedias, then it has in other ways allowed for the re-inscription of certain flaws and limitations that encyclopedias like the Britannica were specifically designed to overcome. By examining not only what one might read in the encyclopedia but also the ways in which one might read it, this article demonstrates the extent to which the notion of encyclopedic utility depends on historical context.

The article considers the linguistic specifics of modeling the image of Taras Shevchenko in foreign media. The author's attention is focused on the great image-forming potential of this iconic, precedent for Ukrainian culture personality and the importance of its correct presentation in the modern media space. It is determined that Ukrainians themselves are the main creators of image texts about Kobzar in the world media. Thus, three main channels of image information about Shevchenko abroad are analyzed: (1) cultural diplomacy as a part of the "soft power" policy; (2) the Ukrainian diaspora, which addresses the figure of Kobzar in the media; (3) information resources of world encyclopedic publications dedicated to the poet. Thus, the study of the linguistic and image specifics of the representation of Shevchenko in the foreign media proves that a great deal of image-making work in this aspect is carried out by cultural diplomacy, which represents Ukraine and its national cultural products in the world information space. Thanks to the efforts of cultural diplomacy, Shevchenko is known and appreciated abroad, as evidenced by the activities of Ukrainian embassies. In the context of linguistic imageology, the information presented by Ukrainian embassies is unambiguously of image nature, which confirms the use of effective linguistic means of image modeling: metaphors, personifications, emotionally-evaluative lexemes, epithet forms of the word, which verbalize positive author's assessment of the covered information. An equally important linguistic tool for modeling the poet's image is the use of creolized media texts that have great suggestive properties and significant image potential. In addition, Shevchenko's positive image abroad is successfully constructed by the media resources of the Ukrainian diaspora. The author's attention in this research context is attracted by the leading Canadian and Australian media. From the standpoint of linguistic imageology, effective means of forming the image of Kobzar in the considered foreign media are emotional and evaluative lexemes with elements of hyperbole, paraphrase with a positive semantics, the use of oxymoron etc. The article emphasizes that Shevchenko's positive image abroad is created not only at the textual level, but also at the extralinguistic level, which is realized in the annual holding of numerous mass events related to the celebration of Shevchenko's days. In turn, a high assessment of the poet's work and his role in Ukrainian cultural life is found in world encyclopedic publications: Encyclopædia Britannica, Oxford World Encyclopedia, bibliographic fund of The Library of Congress etc. Thus, the study convinces that Taras Shevchenko is a bright image figure of modern foreign media space, which forms not only internal but also external image of Ukraine. That is why its correct presentation in world media should be one of the priorities of the national image strategy.

Dialogue has been part of the movement of the Church in understanding its faith in the context of the present situation where she is now living, and that is the world. She is now in a world where everyone has found through their expression of faith in different religions, which resembles a similarity in values and faith. So the Church formulated elements wherein they can share their differences and similarities to adhere to the prayer of Jesus to the Father that “all may be in one”; yet we face the fact that this is no longer important because of the theological components that are present. In an attempt to revitalize this ecumenism, the research incorporates the existential philosophical method of Gabriel Marcel, the primary and secondary reflection. The researcher plans to achieve this by first exposing Gabriel Marcels Existential Phenomenological Method. Second, exposing some themes of the Church in doing Ecumenical Dialogue, and lastly to emerge the two to form a new perspective in Ecumenical Dialogue. In spiritual ecumenism, dialogues of love, truth, and life are all possible if only we open our minds to what is essential (primary reflection) in these elements and make them our individual values (secondary reflection). References “Articles A-Z | 1914-1918-Online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1).” Encyclopedia.1914-1918-Online.net, encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/pdf/1914-1918-Online-post-war_societies_france-2015-01-22.pdf.. Accessed 22 Nov. 2022.“Catechism of the Catholic Church.” Vatican.va, 1992, www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_INDEX.HTM.College, Newman Theological. “The Challenges of Ecumenism.” Faith Seeking Understanding, 29 Aug. 2017, ntcpresident.wordpress.com/2017/08/29/the-challenges-of-ecumenism/. Accessed 13 Dec. 2022.“Color Photos of the French Army during the Great War, 1914-1918 - Rare Historical Photos.” Https://Rarehistoricalphotos.com/, 28 July 2021, rarehistoricalphotos.com/color-photos-french-army-great-war/#:~:text=The%20Great%20War%20ended%20at.. Accessed 13 Dec. 2022.“Document of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, “the Bishop and Christian Unity: An Ecumenical Vademecum.”” Press.vatican.va, 12 Apr. 2020, press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2020/12/04/201205a.html. Accessed 13 Dec. 2022.“Ecumenical | USCCB.” Www.usccb.org, www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-interreligious-affairs/ecumenical.“Effects of World War I on France.” SchoolWorkHelper, schoolworkhelper.net/effects-of-world-war-i-on-france/.. Accessed 13 Dec. 2022.Husserl, Edmund, and Dorion Cairns. Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology. Dordrecht, Springer-Science + Business Media, B.V, 1960.Marcel, Gabriel | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. iep.utm.edu/marcel/.. Accessed 13 Dec. 2022.Ogundele, Adesewa Christiana. ““An Essay on Gabriel Marcel’s Existentialism.”” ResearchGate, 8 Sept. 2018.Pope Francis. “Evangelii Gaudium: Apostolic Exhortation on the Proclamation of the Gospel in Today’s World (24 November 2013) | Francis.” Www.vatican.va, 24 Nov. 2013, www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/apost_exhortations/documents/papa-francesco_esortazione-ap_20131124_evangelii-gaudium.html.Pope John Paul II. “To Representatives of the Ecumenical Commissions of the Episcopal Conferences and of the Synods of the Eastern Catholic Churches (May 15, 1993) | John Paul II.” Www.vatican.va, 15 May 1933, www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1993/may/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19930515_ecumenical-commissions.html. Accessed 13 Dec. 2022.Secretariat for Non-Christians. The Attitude of the Church toward Followers of Other Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission. 10 May 1984, www.cam1.org.au/Portals/66/documents/Dialogue-Mission-1984.pdf.Sweetman, Brendan. “Gabriel Marcel | French Philosopher and Author.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 Dec. 2018, www.britannica.com/biography/Gabriel-Honore-Marcel.Treanor, Brian, and Brendan Sweetman. “Gabriel (-Honoré) Marcel (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” Stanford.edu, 2016, plato.stanford.edu/entries/marcel/.“Unitatis Redintegratio.” Www.vatican.va, 21 Nov. 1964, www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_unitatis-redintegratio_en.html.Wyatt, C.S. Gabriel Marcel Creative Existentialism. 25 Apr. 2022, www.tameri.com/csw/exist/marcel.shtml..

Computational Thinking (CT) is a set of logical-operational cognitive skills or processes of reasoning, based on Computer Science. Abstraction, pattern recognition, algorithmic reasoning, and decomposition are examples of some of these skills that form the four pillar of CT. Some researchers have considered these skills as useful, and even mandatory to to cognitive development of the schoolchildren. In this paper, we present practical aspects and the possible contributions of CT in the development of competence of reading and interpreting English texts. Didactic interventions were carried out in high school classes of a public school, supported by the Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) approach, in which the students used their own smartphones. During these interventions, the students developed concept maps and podcasts, performed online exercises and the traditional exam, all of that composed the set of evaluation instruments. It was possible to understand that the CT skills are intrinsically present and contributed to the development of the reading and writing skills in English. According to testimonials, we highlight that the BYOD approach provided new conceptions and perspectives on the use of electronic equipment in function of the students’ learning.ResumoO Raciocínio Computacional (RC) é um conjunto de habilidades ou processos cognitivos lógico-operacionais de raciocínio, fundamentadas na Ciência da Computação. Abstração, reconhecimento de padrões, raciocínio algorítmico e decomposição são exemplos de algumas dessas habilidades que formam os quatro pilares do RC. Alguns pesquisadores consideram essas habilidades úteis, e até mesmo fundamentais, para o desenvolvimento cognitivo dos estudantes. Nesse sentido, este relato de experiência tem por objetivo apresentar aspectos práticos e possíveis contribuições do RC no desenvolvimento da competência de leitura e interpretação de textos de diferentes naturezas na disciplina de língua inglesa. Para isso, realizaram-se intervenções didáticas em uma turma do ensino médio de uma escola pública, apoiadas na abordagem Bring Your Own Device ou, simplesmente, BYOD, em que os estudantes usaram seus próprios aparelhos celulares. Durante o desenvolvimento das intervenções, os estudantes construíram mapas conceituais e podcasts, realizarem exercício online e a tradicional prova, os quais compuseram o conjunto de instrumentos avaliativos do bimestre. Por meio dessas intervenções, foi possível identificar como as habilidades do RC estiveram intrinsecamente presentes e contribuíram para o desenvolvimento da competência de leitura e escrita em língua inglesa, elencada pelos Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais. Conforme relatos, além da articulação didática com o RC, a abordagem BYOD proporcionou à professora e aos estudantes novas concepções e perspectivas sobre o uso de equipamentos eletrônicos em função da aprendizagem deles mesmos.Palavras-chave: Raciocínio computacional, Ensino de inglês, Mobile learning, Educação em computação.Keywords: Computational thinking, English teaching, Mobile learning, Computer science education.ReferencesALBERTA Education. School Technology Branch. Bring your own device: a guide for schools. 2012. Disponível em:http://education.alberta.ca/admin/technology/research.aspx. Acesso em: 01 fev. 2017.ALLAN, Walter; COULTER, Bob; DENNER, Jill; ERICKSON, Jeri; LEE, Irene; MALYN-SMITH, Joyce; MARTIN, Fred. Computational thinking for youth. White Paper for the ITEST Learning Resource Centre na EDC. Small Working Group on Computational Thinking (CT), 2010. Disponível em: http://stelar.edc.org/publications/computational-thinking-youth. Acesso em: dez 2017.ARAÚJO, Ana Liz; ANDRADE, Wilkerson; GERRERO, Dalton Serey. Pensamento Computacional sob a visão dos profissionais da computação: uma discussão sobre conceitos e habilidades. In: Anais dos Workshops do VI Congresso Brasileiro de Informática na Educação. v. 4, n 1, 2015. p. 1454-1563.ARMONI, Michal. Computing in schools: On teaching topics in computer science theory. ACM Inroads, v. 1, n. 1, p. 21-22. 2010. DOI=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1721933.1721941BARBOSA, Márcio Lobo; ALVES, Álvaro Santos; JESUS, José Carlos Oliveira; BURNHAM, Teresinha Fróes. Mapas conceituais na avaliação da aprendizagem significativa. In: Anais do XVI Simpósio Nacional de Ensino de Física, v. 14, 2005, p. 1-4.BELL, Tim; WITTEN, Ian; FELLOWS, Mike. Ensinando Ciência da Computação sem o uso do computador. Computer Science Unplugged, 2011.BOCCONI, Stefania; CHIOCCARIELLO, Augusto; DETTORI, Giuliana; FERRARI, Anusca; ENGELHARDT, Katja. Developing computational thinking in compulsory education Implications for policy and practice. European Commission, JRC Science for Policy Report. 2016.BRASIL, Ministério da Educação. Secretaria da Educação Básica. PCN+ ensino médio: Orientações educacionais complementares aos parâmetros curriculares nacionais, Brasília: MEC. 2002. Disponível em: http://portal.mec.gov.br/seb/arquivos/pdf/linguagens02.pdf. Acesso em: set 2017.BRASIL. Ministério da Educação (MEC). Base Nacional Comum Curricular. 2017. Disponível em: http://basenacionalcomum.mec.gov.br/. Acesso em: set 2017.BRITANNICA, Encyclopaedia. Phenol: Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2012. Disponível em: https://www.britannica.com/. Acesso em: 01 fev. 2017.BROOKSHEAR, J-Glenn. Ciência da Computação: uma visão abrangente. Porto Alegre, Bookman Editora, 2005.CHARLTON, Patricia; LUCKIN, Rosemary. Computational thinking and computer science in schools. What The Research Says’ Briefing, v. 2. 2012. [s.p.]CHIOFI, Luiz Carlos; OLIVEIRA, Marta Regina Furlan de. O uso das tecnologias educacionais como ferramenta didática no processo de ensino e aprendizagem. In: Anais da III Jornada de Didática - Jornada de Didática: Desafios para a Docência e II Seminário de Pesquisa do CEMAD. Londrina, 2014. [s.p.]COMPUTER AT SCHOOL. Computational Thinking: a guide for teachers. Hodder Education - the educational division of Hachette UK Digital Schoolhouse, 2015. Disponível em: https://community.computingatschool.org.uk/resources/2324/single. Acesso em: 01 set 2017.CORREIA, Paulo Rogério Miranda; SILVA, Amanda Cristina; ROMANO JÚNIOR, Jerson Geraldo. Mapas conceituais como ferramenta de avaliação na sala de aula. Revista Brasileira de Ensino de Física, v. 32, n. 4, p. 4402-4408. 2010.COSTA, Giselda dos Santos. Mobile learning: explorando potencialidades com o uso do celular no ensino-aprendizagem de língua inglesa como língua estrangeira com alunos da escola pública. 2013. 201f. Tese (Doutorado em Letras). Faculdade de Letras. Universidade Federal de Pernambuco. Recife. 2013.CSIZMADIA, Andrew; SENTANCE, Sue. Teachers’ perspectives on successful strategies for teaching Computing in school. In: IFIP TCS. 2015. Disponível em: <http://community.computingatschool.org.uk/files/6769/original.pdf>. Acesso em março 2018.CSIZMADIA, Andrew; CURZON, Paul; DORLING, Mark; HUMPHREYS, Simon; NG, Thomas; SELBY, Cynthia; WOOLLARD, John. Computational thinking: A guide for teachers. Computing at Schools, 2015. Disponível em: https://community.computingatschool.org.uk/files/8550/original.pdf>. Acesso em: 26 out. 2017.DIAS, Reneildes; JUCÁ, Leina; FARIA, Raquel. High Up: ensino médio. Cotia, SP: Macmillan, 2013.GOOGLE FOR EDUCATION. What is Computational Thinking? Computational Thinking for Educators. 2015. Disponível em: <https://computationalthinkingcourse.withgoogle.com/unit?lesson=8&unit=1. Acesso em: set 2017.LEE, Irene; MARTIN, Fred; DENNER, Jill; COULTER, Bob; ALLAN, Walter; ERICKSON, Jeri; MALYN-SMITH, Joyce; WERNER, Linda. Computational thinking for youth in practice. ACM Inroads, v. 2, n. 1, 2011. p. 32-37.LIUKAS, Linda. Hello Ruby: adventures in coding. New York: Feiwel & Friends, 2015.LU, Zhao.; YING, Lu. Application of Podcast in Teaching and Learning Oral English for Non-English Majors. In: International Conference on Computational and Information Sciences, Shiyang, 2013. p. 1935-1938. doi: 10.1109/ICCIS.2013.506MANNILA, Linda; VALENTINA, Dagiene; DEMO, Barbara; GRGURINA, Natasa; MIROLO, Claudio; ROLANDSSON, Lennart; SETTLE, Amber. Computational thinking in K-9 education. In: Proceedings of the working group reports of the 2014 on innovation & technology in computer science education conference. ACM, 2014. p. 1-29.MOREIRA, Antonio Marco. Mapas conceituais e aprendizagem significativa (concept maps and meaningful learning). Cadernos do Aplicação, v. 11, n. 2, 1998. p. 143-156.NCSEC. Team 11 in 2000. Concept map. 2000. National Computation Science Education Consortium Disponível em: <http://www.ncsec.org/team11/ Rubric Concep tMap.doc>. Acesso em: set. 2017.NOVAK, Joseph. D. Meaningful learning: The essential factor for conceptual change in limited or inappropriate propositional hierarchies leading to empowerment of learners. Science education, Wiley Online Library, v. 86, n. 4, 2002. p. 548-571.NOVAK, Joseph. Learning creating and using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. [S.l.]: Routledge, 2010.PAIVA, Luiz Fernando; FERREIRA, Ana Carolina; ROCHA, Caio; BARRETO, Jandiaci; MELHOR, André; LOPES, Randerson; MATOS, Ecivaldo. Uma experiência piloto de integração curricular do raciocínio computacional na educação básica. In: Anais dos Workshops do Congresso Brasileiro de Informática na Educação, v. 4, 2015. p. 1300-1309.RACHID, Laura. Cenário da educação básica no Brasil é alarmante, aponta Ideb. Revista Educação. São Paulo, 04 set. 2018. Disponível em: http://www.revistaeducacao.com.br/cenario-da-educacao-basica-no-brasil-e-alarmante/. Acesso em: 26 de setembro de 2018.RODRIGUEZ, Carla; ZEM-LOPES, Aparecida Maria; MARQUES, Leonardo; ISOTANI, Seiji. Pensamento Computacional: transformando ideias em jogos digitais usando o Scratch. In: Anais do Workshop de Informática na Escola. p. 62-71. 2015.SILVA, Edson Coutinho. Mapas conceituais: propostas de aprendizagem e avaliação. Administração: Ensino e Pesquisa, [S.l.], v. 16, n. 4, p. 785-815, dez. 2015. ISSN 2358-0917. Disponível em: <https://raep.emnuvens.com.br/raep/article/view/385/196>. Acesso em: 06 nov. 2017. doi: https://doi.org/10.13058/raep.2015.v16n4.385.SILVA, Edson Coutinho. Mapas Conceituais: Modelos de Avaliação. Concept Mapping to Learn and Innovate. In: Proc. of Sixth Int. Conference on Concept Mapping. Santos, Brazil. 2014.WING, Jannette. Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, v. 49, n. 3, p. 33-35, 2006.WING, Jannette. Computational thinking and thinking about computing. Philosophical transactions of the royal society of London A: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences, v. 366, n. 1881, 2008. p. 3717-3725.XU, Zhichang. Problems and strategies of teaching English in large classes in the People's Republic of China. In: Expanding Horizons in Teaching and Learning. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Teaching Learning Forum. 2001. p. 7-9.ZORZO, Avelino Francisco; RAABE, André Luís Alice; BRACKMANN, Christian Puhlmann. Computação: o vetor de transformação da sociedade. In: FOGUEL, D.; SCHEUENSTUHL, M. C. B. Desafios da Educação Técnico-Científica no Ensino Médio. Rio de Janeiro: Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 2018. p. 154-163.e3116073

In this research paper, I have studied about the historical study of the role of feudalism in the history of the world, the objectives of the study, research methodology, results and conclusions. The term 'feudalism' has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relations of medieval Europe. It is derived from the German word 'feud' meaning a piece of land and refers to a society that developed in central France and later also in England and southern Italy. The period from 600 AD to 1500 AD has been given the noun of Middle Ages or Medieval period in European history. Many social and economic changes took place during this period, especially in Western Europe. Feudalism (English: thomankonspeu feudalism) was a practice in England and Europe during the Middle Ages. There were several categories of these feudatories whose top position was the king. Below him there were various categories of feudal lords and the lowest level were peasants or slaves. It was an association of protectors and subordinates. The king was considered the master of all the land. The feudatories owed allegiance to the king, equipped an army to protect him, and received land from the king in return. The feudatories were not entitled to buy and sell land. In the early period, feudalism rendered commendable service to the society by making proper arrangements for local security, agriculture and justice. Later on, personal war and personal selfishness became the aim of the feudatories. during the medieval period. Western Europe developed a social system that was very different from the rest of the world. This is known as 'feudalism'. Feudalism was such a new social and economic system that prevailed in Western Europe during the medieval period (600-1500 AD) and later in other parts of Europe. Under this. The division of classes in the society was rigid, politically there was no central power and village-based economy prevailed. Thus the village-based economy was virtually self-sufficient and the surplus production was very low, which reduced the scope for trade. Therefore, the decline of trade and cities has been seen as a feature of it. Due to the absence of a central political power under feudalism, political supremacy was maintained by a number of feudal lords who controlled political, social and economic affairs. At this time the king was not very powerful. Samant used to exploit the farmers. In addition, the influence of the Church in Europe extended beyond religious matters. The rise of resourceful new cities, the invention of gunpowder, and the rise of patriotism in place of local royalism led to the disappearance of feudalism. Feudalism in Europe generally developed under these conditions. After the breakup of the Roman Empire, it was taken over by the uncivilized tribes of Western Europe – Frank, Lombard and Goth etc. These marauding castes gave a completely new look to the society and the government. By the fifth century the Roman Empire was unable to defend itself. The villages of Italy had become unsafe due to the invasion of German barbarians, because the government was not able to provide protection, as a result of which the people had to compromise with the powerful class for their protection. This powerful class later became the basis of feudalism. Encyclopædia Britannica has also given special emphasis on the need for security. According to him, “The feeling of security was predominant in the birth of feudalism. To get rid of the possible foreign invasion and the uncontrolled demands of the government officials, the need of such a power was being felt, which could provide them security at any cost.
 Abstract in Hindi Lanaguage:
 इस शोध पत्र में मैंने विश्व के इतिहास में सामंतवाद की भूमिका का ऐतिहासिक अध्ययन, अध्ययन के उद्देस्य, अनुसन्धान पद्धति, परिणाम और निष्कर्ष के बारे अध्ययन किया है। इतिहासकारों द्वारा ’सामंतवाद’ शब्द का प्रयोग मध्यकालीन यूरोप के आर्थिक विधिक, राजनीतिक और सामाजिक संबंधों का वर्णन करने के लिए किया जाता रहा है। यह जर्मन शब्द ’फ़्यूड’ से बना है जिसका अर्थ एक भूमि का टुकड़ा है और यह एक ऐसे समाज को इंगित करता है जो मध्य फ्रांस और बाद में इंग्लैंड और दक्षिणी इटली में भी विकसित हुआ। 600 ई. से 1500 ई. तक की अवधि को यूरोपीय इतिहास में मध्य युग या मध्यकाल की संज्ञा दी गयी है। विशेष रूप से पश्चिमी यूरोप में इस अवधि के दौरान कई सामाजिक और आर्थिक परिवर्तन हुए। सामंतवाद (अंग्रेज़ीः थ्मनकंसपेउ फ़्यूडलिज़्म) मध्यकालीन युग में इंग्लैंड और यूरोप की प्रथा थी। इन सामंतों की कई श्रेणियाँ थीं जिनके शीर्ष स्थान में राजा होता था। उसके नीचे विभिन्न कोटि के सामंत होते थे और सबसे निम्न स्तर में किसान या दास होते थे। यह रक्षक और अधीनस्थ लोगों का संगठन था। राजा समस्त भूमि का स्वामी माना जाता था। सामंतगण राजा के प्रति स्वामिभक्ति बरतते थे, उसकी रक्षा के लिए सेना सुसज्जित करते थे और बदले में राजा से भूमि पाते थे। सामंतगण भूमि के क्रय-विक्रय के अधिकारी नहीं थे। प्रारंभिक काल में सामंतवाद ने स्थानीय सुरक्षा, कृषि और न्याय की समुचित व्यवस्था करके समाज की प्रशंसनीय सेवा की। कालांतर में व्यक्तिगत युद्ध एवं व्यक्तिगत स्वार्थ ही सामंतों का उद्देश्य बन गया। मध्यकाल के दौरान । पश्चिमी यूरोप में ऐसी सामाजिक व्यवस्था विकसित हुई जो शेष विश्व से बहुत भिन्न थी। इसे ’सामंतवाद के नाम से जाना जाता है। सामंतवाद ऐसी नई सामाजिक और आर्थिक व्यवस्था थी जो मध्यकाल (600-1500 ईस्वी) में पश्चिमी यूरोप में तथा आगे चलकर यूरोप के अन्य भागों में प्रचलित हुई। इसके अंतर्गत. समाज में वर्गों का विभाजन कठोर था, राजनीतिक रूप से देखें तो यहाँ कोई केंद्रीय शक्ति नहीं थी और ग्राम आधारित अर्थव्यवस्था का प्रचलन था। इस प्रकार ग्राम आधारित अर्थव्यवस्था वस्तुतः आत्मनिर्भर थी और अधिशेष उत्पादन बहुत कम था जिससे व्यापार की संभावना न्यून हो गयी थी। अतः व्यापार एवं शहरों के पतन को इसकी एक विशेषता के रूप में देखा गया है। सामंतवाद के अंतर्गत केंद्रीय राजनीतिक शक्ति के अभाव के कारण बहुत सारे सामंतों का राजनीतिक वर्चस्व कायम था जो राजनीतिक, सामाजिक एवं आर्थिक मामलों को नियंत्रित करते थे। इस समय राजा बहुत शक्तिशाली नहीं था। सामंत किसानों का शोषण करते थे। इसके अतिरिक्त, यूरोप में चर्च का प्रभाव धार्मिक मामलों से परे भी विस्तृत था। साधन-संपन्न नए शहरों के उत्थान, बारूद के आविष्कार, तथा स्थानीय राजभक्ति के स्थान पर राष्ट्रभक्ति के उदय के कारण सामंतशाही का लोप हो गया।.यूरोप में सामंतवाद का विकास सामान्यतः इन परिस्थितियों में हुआ। रोमन साम्राज्य के टूटने के बाद उस पर पश्चिमी यूरोप की असभ्य जातियां-फ्रैंक लोम्बार्ड तथा गोथ इत्यादि ने अधिकार कर लिया। इन लुटेरी जातियों ने समाज और सरकार को सर्वथा नवीन रूप दिया। पांचवीं शताब्दी तक रोमन साम्राज्य अपनी रक्षा करने में असमर्थ हो चुके थे। जर्मन की बर्बर जातियों के आक्रमण के कारण इटली के गांव असुरक्षित से हो गए थे, क्योंकि सरकार सुरक्षा करने में समर्थ नहीं थी जिसके परिणामस्वरूप जनता ने अपनी सुरक्षा के लिए शक्तिशाली वर्ग से समझौता किया। यही शक्तिशाली वर्ग आगे चलकर सामंतवाद के आधार बने। इनसाइक्लोपीडिया ब्रिटेनिका में भी सुरक्षा की आवश्यकता पर विशेष बल दिया गया है। उसके अनुसार ‘‘सामंतवाद के जन्म में सुरक्षा की भावना प्रधान थी। संभावित विदेशी आक्रमण तथा सरकारी अफसरों की अनियंत्रित मांगों से छुटकारे के लिए एक ऐसी सत्ता की आवश्यकता अनुभव की जा रही थी, जो उन्हें किसी भी कीमत पर सुरक्षा प्रदान कर सके।’’
 Keywords: राजनीतिक और सामाजिक संबंध, व्यक्तिगत युद्ध, सामाजिक और आर्थिक व्यवस्था, राजनीतिक वर्चस्व, राष्ट्रभक्ति, परिणामस्वरूप, शक्तिशाली वर्ग।

Amory Blaine inherited from his mother every trait, except the stray inexpressible few, that made him worth while. His father, an ineffectual, inarticulate man with a taste for Byron* and a habit of drowsing over the Encyclopædia Britannica, grew wealthy...

Virtual reality (2007), or VR, is defined in the Encyclopædia Britannica as: the use of computer modeling and simulation that enables a person to interact with an artificial threedimensional (3D) visual or other sensory environment. VR applications immerse the user in a computergenerated environment that simulates reality through the use of interactive devices, which send and receive information and are worn as goggles, headsets, gloves, or body suits.

Abstract This chapter examines the globalization of Stewart’s educational doctrine. Considered by contemporaries to be his magnum opus, the two completed parts of Stewart’s preliminary Dissertation, exhibiting a general view of the progress of metaphysical, ethical, and political philosophy (1816, 1822) refashioned the revised fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica as a vehicle for his system of moral education. The final volume of his Elements published in 1827 and The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man (1828) completed this system of cultivating moral and intellectual character in the science of applied ethics. Having already received reports that his elementary introduction to the science of mind reformed moral education in Europe, Britain, and America, Stewart sought to widen this moral empire of the mind in his final publications. The moral edification of autodidacts in a globalizing knowledge economy became Stewart’s objective during the final years of his life in the Athens of the North after the Scottish Enlightenment.