Journal articles on the topic 'Encylopedias'

The recent publication of The Cambridge Encylopedia of the World's Ancient Languages provides an occasion for assessing the present state of our knowledge of ancient languages. Any assessment, however, will inevitably be influenced by methodology and point of view, depending upon whether the reader is a linguist or a philologist. The present author would broadly define the difference in the following way, at least as far as ancient languages are concerned: linguists tend to focus on the rules of language and general theories about language which can be generated from these rules, while philologists, although concerned with formal grammar, tend to scrutinize the textual evidence upon which a grammar is based. These two approaches are sometimes difficult to reconcile.

Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is the developmental restructuring of somatic cells towards the embryogenic pathway and forms the basis of cellular totipotency in angiosperms. With the availability of full-length cDNA sequences from Knowledge-based Oryza Molecular Biological Encylopedia (KOME), we identified the leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLK) genes from rice (Oryza sativa), which also encompasses genes involved in regulating somatic embryogenesis. Eight out of eleven of the rice SERK and SERL (SERK-like) genes have the TIGR annotation as (putative) brassinosteroid insensitive 1-associated receptor kinase (precursor). Real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis was undertaken to quantify transcript levels of these 11 genes. Most of these genes were upregulated by brassinosteroids although only a few of these displayed auxin induction. The expression profile of these genes is nearly uniform in the zygotic embryogenic tissue, but the expression pattern is more complex in the somatic embryogenic tissue. It is likely that OsSERKs and OsSERLs may be involved in somatic embryogenesis and also perform a role in morphogenesis and various other plant developmental processes. Functional validation of these somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinase genes may help in elucidating their precise functions in regulating various facets of plant development.

Yezid Sayigh's encylopedic history focuses on the role that the idea of armed struggle played in the Palestinian national movement as it evolved over the past half-century. His central thesis is that “armed struggle provided the political impulse and organisational dynamic in the evolution of Palestinian national identity and in the formation of parastatal institutions and a bureaucratic elite, the nucleus of government” (p. vii). The concept of armed struggle reforged Palestinian national identity, mobilized Palestinians, provided political legitimization to the Palestinian movement, made the Palestinians a distinct political actor in relation to the Arab states, helped to create institutions that could form the basis of a government, and established a well-defined political elite. Thus, even though Palestinian leaders never transformed the armed struggle into a people's war along the lines of Algeria or Vietnam, and never liberated any part of Palestine by force, armed struggle served other important, statist functions.

<abstract> <p>Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is one of the most malignant skin cancers and remains a health concern worldwide. Pyroptosis is a newly recognized form of programmed cell death and plays a vital role in cancer progression. We aim to construct a prognostic model for SKCM patients based on pyroptosis-related genes (PRGs). SKCM patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) were divided into training and validation cohorts. We used GSE65904 downloaded from GEO database as an external validation cohort. We performed Cox regression and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression to identify prognostic genes and built a risk score. Patients were divided into high- and low-risk groups based on the risk score. Differently expressed genes (DEGs), immune cell infiltration and immune-related pathways activation were compared between the two groups. We established a model containing 4 PRGs, i.e., GSDMA, GSDMC, AIM2 and NOD2. The overall survival (OS) time was significantly different between the 2 groups. The risk score was an independent predictor for prognosis in both the uni- and multi-variable Cox regressions. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses showed that DEGs were enriched in immune-related pathways. Most types of immune cells were highly expressed in the low risk group. All immune pathways were significantly up-regulated in the low-risk group. In addition, low-risk patients had a better response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Our novel pyroptosis-related gene signature could predict the prognosis of SKCM patients and their response to immune checkpoint inhibitors.</p> </abstract>

Low-grade glioma (LGG), a common primary tumor, mainly originates from astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Increasing evidence has shown that peroxisomes function in the regulation of tumorigenesis and development of cancer. However, the prognostic value of peroxisome-related genes (PRGs) in LGG has not been reported. Therefore, it is necessary to construct a prognostic risk model for LGG patients based on the expression profiles of peroxisome-related genes. Our study mainly concentrated on developing a peroxisome-related gene signature for overall survival (OS) prediction in LGG patients. First, according to these peroxisome-related genes, all LGG patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database could be divided into two subtypes. Univariate Cox regression analysis was used to find prognostic peroxisome-related genes in TCGA_LGG dataset, and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator Cox regression analysis was employed to establish a 14-gene signature. The risk score based on the signature was positively associated with unfavorable prognosis. Then, multivariate Cox regression incorporating additional clinical characteristics showed that the 14-gene signature was an independent predictor of LGG. Time-dependent ROC curves revealed good performance of this prognostic signature in LGG patients. The performance about predicting OS of LGG was validated using the GSE107850 dataset derived from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Furethermore, we constructed a nomogram model based on the gene signature and age, which showed a better prognostic power. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses showed that neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction and phagosome were enriched and that the immune status was decreased in the high-risk group. Finally, cell counting kit-8 (CCK8) were used to detect cell proliferation of U251 and A172 cells. Inhibition of ATAD1 (ATPase family AAA domain-containing 1) and ACBD5 (Acyl-CoA binding-domain-containing-5) expression led to significant inhibition of U251 and A172 cell proliferation. Flow cytometry detection showed that ATAD1 and ACBD5 could induce apoptosis of U251 and A172 cells. Therefore, through bioinformatics methods and cell experiments, our study developed a new peroxisome-related gene signature that migh t help improve personalized OS prediction in LGG patients.

Abstract Background Salt-alkali stress represents one of the most stressful events with deleterious consequences for plant growth and crop productivity. Despite studies focusing on the effects of salt-alkali stress on morphology and physiology, its molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we employed RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) to understand how Na2CO3 stress inhibits rice seedling growth. Results Na2CO3 stress significantly inhibited the growth of rice seedlings. Through RNA-seq, many differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were shown to be potentially involved in the rice seedling response to salt-alkali stress. After 1-day and 5-day treatments, RNA-seq identified 1780 and 2315 DEGs in the Na2CO3-treated versus -untreated rice seedling shoots, respectively. According to the gene ontology enrichment and the Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes annotation of DEGs, the growth-inhibition processes associated with salt-alkali stress involve a myriad of molecular events, including biosynthesis and metabolism, enzyme activity, and binding, etc. Conclusion Collectively, the transcriptome analyses in the present work revealed several potential key regulators of plant response to salt-alkali stress, and might pave a way to improve salt-alkali stress tolerance in rice.

BackgroundThis study aims to identify the differentially expressed (DE) non-coding ribose nucleic acids (ncRNAs), messenger RNA (mRNA) expression profiles, and competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA)-related regulatory networks in invasive and non-invasive nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs).MethodsA full-transcriptome sequencing of invasive and non-invasive NFPAs is carried out to evaluate the expression profiles of circular RNAs (circRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and mRNA expression profiles.ResultsThe screening criteria resulted in 118 DEcircRNAs (88 up-regulated and 30 down-regulated), 105 DElncRNAs (68 up-regulated and 37 down-regulated), 43 DEmiRNAs (22 up-regulated and 21 down-regulated), and 268 DEmRNAs (194 up-regulated and 74 down-regulated). Accordingly, a ceRNA regulatory network related to invasive NFPA is constructed. Further, the Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses showed that circRNAs and lncRNAs in the network are related to chromatin remodeling, participating in the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) and calcium signaling pathways. Hsa-miR-1248 showed exceptional connectivity in the ceRNA regulatory network, which could be closely related to the invasiveness of NFPAs.ConclusionsTogether, these findings clarified the regulatory mechanisms of invasive and non-invasive NFPAs, providing innovative research avenues and therapeutic targets for invasive NFPAs.

Abstract Background The pathogen of banana Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense race 4(Foc4) infects almost all banana species, and it is the most destructive. The molecular mechanism of the interactions between Fusarium oxysporum and banana still needs to be further investigated. Methods We use both the interolog and domain-domain method to predict the protein–protein interactions (PPIs) between banana and Foc4. The predicted protein interaction sequences are encoded by the conjoint triad and autocovariance method respectively to obtain continuous and discontinuous information of protein sequences. This information is used as the input data of the neural network model. The Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) neural network five-fold cross-validation and independent test methods are used to verify the predicted protein interaction sequences. To further confirm the PPIs between banana and Foc4, the GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomics) functional annotation and interaction network analysis are carried out. Results The experimental results show that the PPIs for banana and foc4 predicted by our proposed method may interact with each other in terms of sequence structure, GO and KEGG functional annotation, and Foc4 protein plays a more active role in the process of Foc4 infecting banana. Conclusions This study obtained the PPIs between banana and Foc4 by using computing means for the first time, which will provide data support for molecular biology experiments.

AbstractIn previous studies, CST has been identified as having an immunostimulatory effect on Caenorhabditis elegans and macrophage of rats. Here, we further investigated its immunomodulatory effects on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). LPS‐stimulated PBMCs inflammatory model was established. Flow cytometry was applied to measure phagocytosis of PBMCs. Cytokine mRNA and protein expression levels of LPS‐stimulated PBMCs with or without CST were measured by qRT‐PCR and ELISA. The transcriptomic profile of CST‐treated PBMCs was investigated by RNA‐sequencing. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were applied to find potential signalling pathways. PBMCs showed a significant increase in phagocytic activity at 6 h after being incubated with CST at the concentration of 10 μg/mL. In the presence of LPS, CST maintained and promoted the expression of TNF‐α and chemokine CCL24. The content of pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as IL‐1β, IL‐6 and IFN‐γ, which were released from LPS‐stimulated PBMCs, was reduced by CST at 6 h. Anti‐inflammatory cytokines, such as IL‐4, IL‐13 and TGF‐β1, were significantly increased by CST at 24 h. A total of 277 differentially expressed immune‐related genes (DEIRGs) were detected and cytokine‐cytokine receptor interaction was highly enriched. CST presented obvious anti‐inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects in LPS‐induced PBMCs inflammatory model not only by improving the ability of PBMCs to clear pathogens but also by decreasing pro‐inflammatory cytokines and increasing anti‐inflammatory cytokines. And the mechanism may be related to cytokine‐cytokine receptor interaction.

AbstractOvarian cancer (OC) is a highly malignant gynaecological tumour that has a very poor prognosis. Pyroptosis has been demonstrated in recent years to be an inflammatory form of programmed cell death. However, the expression of pyroptosis-related genes in OC and their correlations with prognosis remain unclear. In this study, we identified 31 pyroptosis regulators that were differentially expressed between OC and normal ovarian tissues. Based on these differentially expressed genes (DEGs), all OC cases could be divided into two subtypes. The prognostic value of each pyroptosis-related gene for survival was evaluated to construct a multigene signature using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort. By applying the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression method, a 7-gene signature was built and classified all OC patients in the TCGA cohort into a low- or high-risk group. OC patients in the low-risk group showed significantly higher survival possibilities than those in the high-risk group (P < 0.001). Utilizing the median risk score from the TCGA cohort, OC patients from a Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) cohort were divided into two risk subgroups, and the low-risk group had increased overall survival (OS) time (P = 0.014). Combined with the clinical characteristics, the risk score was found to be an independent factor for predicting the OS of OC patients. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses indicated that immune-related genes were enriched and that the immune status was decreased in the high-risk group. In conclusion, pyroptosis-related genes play important roles in tumour immunity and can be used to predict the prognosis of OCs.

Background: Endometrial cancer ranked fourth in women cancers worldwide. SUMOylation is a process of post-translational modification and some evidences indicate that SUMOylation may influence the occurrence and development of cancer. Until now, the prognostic value of SUMOylation-related genes in endometrial cancer remains unclear. Therefore, we aimed at explore the prognostic value of SUMOylation-related genes in endometrial cancer in this study. Methods: The transcriptome of endometrial cancer from TCGA database were downloaded and then differentially expressed SUMOylation-related genes were extracted. The risk model was constructed with the use of the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator Cox regression. Samples were divided into low-risk and high-risk group based on the risk score. Survival analysis and Cox analysis were performed between groups. A validation cohort from Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center were obtained to verify the model. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses were conducted based on differentially expressed genes between groups. Results: Samples in low-risk group possess better outcome than in high-risk group. (P<0.001) The results of univariate (P<0.001) and multivariate (P=0.018) analysis showed that the risk score was independently correlated to worse outcome for patients with endometrial cancer. In Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center validation cohort, the low-risk group possessed better survival outcome than the high-risk group (P=0.0393). Functional analysis demonstrated that most of the immune cell infiltration levels and immune pathways activity in low-risk group were higher than in high-risk group. Conclusions: In short, the SUMOylation-related signature had good predictability in endometrial cancer and SUMOylation-related genes play important roles in tumour immunity. Also, our study might have some merits in elucidating potential mechanism of SUMOylation in endometrial cancer.

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), a malignancy with high incidence and mortality rates worldwide, contains multiple genomic and epigenomic abnormalities. And the useful tumor markers associated with these abnormalities need further investigation. Whereas apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death, the expression of apoptosis-related genes in LUAD and its relationship with prognosis is unclear. In the present study, we identified 64 differentially expressed apoptosis-related genes (DEARGs) that were differentially expressed between LUAD tissue and normal lung tissue. Based on these DEARGs, all LUAD cases were classified into two subtypes using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort to assess the prognostic value of apoptosis-related genes for survival. An 11-gene signature was established by applying the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) Cox regression method to construct a multigene prediction model and classify all LUAD patients in the TCGA cohort into high or low AS-score groups. Patients in the low AS-score group had significantly higher survival and prognosis than those in the high AS-score group. Taking the median risk score of the AS-score, LUAD patients in the GSE68465 cohort were divided into two risk groups, low and high. The overall survival (OS) time was longer in the low AS-score group. Combined with clinical characteristics, the AS-score was an independent predictor of LUAD patients. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encylopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses showed that the differential genes between the two groups were mainly enriched in cellular immunity. Further analysis revealed higher immune checkpoint protein expression and higher tumor mutational burden (TMB) in the high AS-score group, suggesting better efficacy of immunotherapy in the high AS-score group than the low AS-score group. And the high AS-score group was better in chemotherapy and targeted therapy efficiency. In conclusion, the AS-score constructed based on apoptosis-related genes can predict the prognosis of LUAD patients and provide some guidance for the antitumor treatment of LUAD patients.

IntroductionIn the year 2000, a group of likeminded individuals got together and convened the first annual World Barista Championship in Monte Carlo. With twelve competitors from around the globe, each competitor was judged by seven judges: one head judge who oversaw the process, two technical judges who assessed technical skills, and four sensory judges who evaluated the taste and appearance of the espresso drinks. Competitors had fifteen minutes to serve four espresso coffees, four cappuccino coffees, and four “signature” drinks that they had devised using one shot of espresso and other ingredients of their choice, but no alcohol. The competitors were also assessed on their overall barista skills, their creativity, and their ability to perform under pressure and impress the judges with their knowledge of coffee. This competition has grown to the extent that eleven years later, in 2011, 54 countries held national barista championships with the winner from each country competing for the highly coveted position of World Barista Champion. That year, Alejandro Mendez from El Salvador became the first world champion from a coffee producing nation. Champion baristas are more likely to come from coffee consuming countries than they are from coffee producing countries as countries that produce coffee seldom have a culture of espresso coffee consumption. While Ireland is not a coffee-producing nation, the Irish are the highest per capita consumers of tea in the world (Mac Con Iomaire, “Ireland”). Despite this, in 2008, Stephen Morrissey from Ireland overcame 50 other national champions to become the 2008 World Barista Champion (see, http://vimeo.com/2254130). Another Irish national champion, Colin Harmon, came fourth in this competition in both 2009 and 2010. This paper discusses the history and development of coffee and coffee houses in Dublin from the 17th century, charting how coffee culture in Dublin appeared, evolved, and stagnated before re-emerging at the beginning of the 21st century, with a remarkable win in the World Barista Championships. The historical links between coffeehouses and media—ranging from print media to electronic and social media—are discussed. In this, the coffee house acts as an informal public gathering space, what urban sociologist Ray Oldenburg calls a “third place,” neither work nor home. These “third places” provide anchors for community life and facilitate and foster broader, more creative interaction (Oldenburg). This paper will also show how competition from other “third places” such as clubs, hotels, restaurants, and bars have affected the vibrancy of coffee houses. Early Coffee Houses The first coffee house was established in Constantinople in 1554 (Tannahill 252; Huetz de Lemps 387). The first English coffee houses opened in Oxford in 1650 and in London in 1652. Coffee houses multiplied thereafter but, in 1676, when some London coffee houses became hotbeds for political protest, the city prosecutor decided to close them. The ban was soon lifted and between 1680 and 1730 Londoners discovered the pleasure of drinking coffee (Huetz de Lemps 388), although these coffee houses sold a number of hot drinks including tea and chocolate as well as coffee.The first French coffee houses opened in Marseille in 1671 and in Paris the following year. Coffee houses proliferated during the 18th century: by 1720 there were 380 public cafés in Paris and by the end of the century there were 600 (Huetz de Lemps 387). Café Procope opened in Paris in 1674 and, in the 18th century, became a literary salon with regular patrons: Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Condorcet (Huetz de Lemps 387; Pitte 472). In England, coffee houses developed into exclusive clubs such as Crockford’s and the Reform, whilst elsewhere in Europe they evolved into what we identify as cafés, similar to the tea shops that would open in England in the late 19th century (Tannahill 252-53). Tea quickly displaced coffee in popularity in British coffee houses (Taylor 142). Pettigrew suggests two reasons why Great Britain became a tea-drinking nation while most of the rest of Europe took to coffee (48). The first was the power of the East India Company, chartered by Elizabeth I in 1600, which controlled the world’s biggest tea monopoly and promoted the beverage enthusiastically. The second was the difficulty England had in securing coffee from the Levant while at war with France at the end of the seventeenth century and again during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13). Tea also became the dominant beverage in Ireland and over a period of time became the staple beverage of the whole country. In 1835, Samuel Bewley and his son Charles dared to break the monopoly of The East India Company by importing over 2,000 chests of tea directly from Canton, China, to Ireland. His family would later become synonymous with the importation of coffee and with opening cafés in Ireland (see, Farmar for full history of the Bewley's and their activities). Ireland remains the highest per-capita consumer of tea in the world. Coffee houses have long been linked with social and political change (Kennedy, Politicks; Pincus). The notion that these new non-alcoholic drinks were responsible for the Enlightenment because people could now gather socially without getting drunk is rejected by Wheaton as frivolous, since there had always been alternatives to strong drink, and European civilisation had achieved much in the previous centuries (91). She comments additionally that cafés, as gathering places for dissenters, took over the role that taverns had long played. Pennell and Vickery support this argument adding that by offering a choice of drinks, and often sweets, at a fixed price and in a more civilized setting than most taverns provided, coffee houses and cafés were part of the rise of the modern restaurant. It is believed that, by 1700, the commercial provision of food and drink constituted the second largest occupational sector in London. Travellers’ accounts are full of descriptions of London taverns, pie shops, coffee, bun and chop houses, breakfast huts, and food hawkers (Pennell; Vickery). Dublin Coffee Houses and Later incarnations The earliest reference to coffee houses in Dublin is to the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85). Public dining or drinking establishments listed in the 1738 Dublin Directory include taverns, eating houses, chop houses, coffee houses, and one chocolate house in Fownes Court run by Peter Bardin (Hardiman and Kennedy 157). During the second half of the 17th century, Dublin’s merchant classes transferred allegiance from taverns to the newly fashionable coffee houses as places to conduct business. By 1698, the fashion had spread to country towns with coffee houses found in Cork, Limerick, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Wexford, and Galway, and slightly later in Belfast and Waterford in the 18th century. Maxwell lists some of Dublin’s leading coffee houses and taverns, noting their clientele: There were Lucas’s Coffee House, on Cork Hill (the scene of many duels), frequented by fashionable young men; the Phoenix, in Werburgh Street, where political dinners were held; Dick’s Coffee House, in Skinner’s Row, much patronized by literary men, for it was over a bookseller’s; the Eagle, in Eustace Street, where meetings of the Volunteers were held; the Old Sot’s Hole, near Essex Bridge, famous for its beefsteaks and ale; the Eagle Tavern, on Cork Hill, which was demolished at the same time as Lucas’s to make room for the Royal Exchange; and many others. (76) Many of the early taverns were situated around the Winetavern Street, Cook Street, and Fishamble Street area. (see Fig. 1) Taverns, and later coffee houses, became meeting places for gentlemen and centres for debate and the exchange of ideas. In 1706, Francis Dickson published the Flying Post newspaper at the Four Courts coffee house in Winetavern Street. The Bear Tavern (1725) and the Black Lyon (1735), where a Masonic Lodge assembled every Wednesday, were also located on this street (Gilbert v.1 160). Dick’s Coffee house was established in the late 17th century by bookseller and newspaper proprietor Richard Pue, and remained open until 1780 when the building was demolished. In 1740, Dick’s customers were described thus: Ye citizens, gentlemen, lawyers and squires,who summer and winter surround our great fires,ye quidnuncs! who frequently come into Pue’s,To live upon politicks, coffee, and news. (Gilbert v.1 174) There has long been an association between coffeehouses and publishing books, pamphlets and particularly newspapers. Other Dublin publishers and newspapermen who owned coffee houses included Richard Norris and Thomas Bacon. Until the 1850s, newspapers were burdened with a number of taxes: on the newsprint, a stamp duty, and on each advertisement. By 1865, these taxes had virtually disappeared, resulting in the appearance of 30 new newspapers in Ireland, 24 of them in Dublin. Most people read from copies which were available free of charge in taverns, clubs, and coffee houses (MacGiolla Phadraig). Coffee houses also kept copies of international newspapers. On 4 May 1706, Francis Dickson notes in the Dublin Intelligence that he held the Paris and London Gazettes, Leyden Gazette and Slip, the Paris and Hague Lettres à la Main, Daily Courant, Post-man, Flying Post, Post-script and Manuscripts in his coffeehouse in Winetavern Street (Kennedy, “Dublin”). Henry Berry’s analysis of shop signs in Dublin identifies 24 different coffee houses in Dublin, with the main clusters in Essex Street near the Custom’s House (Cocoa Tree, Bacon’s, Dempster’s, Dublin, Merchant’s, Norris’s, and Walsh’s) Cork Hill (Lucas’s, St Lawrence’s, and Solyman’s) Skinners’ Row (Bow’s’, Darby’s, and Dick’s) Christ Church Yard (Four Courts, and London) College Green (Jack’s, and Parliament) and Crampton Court (Exchange, and Little Dublin). (see Figure 1, below, for these clusters and the locations of other Dublin coffee houses.) The earliest to be referenced is the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85), with Solyman’s (1691), Bow’s (1692), and Patt’s on High Street (1699), all mentioned in print before the 18th century. The name of one, the Cocoa Tree, suggests that chocolate was also served in this coffee house. More evidence of the variety of beverages sold in coffee houses comes from Gilbert who notes that in 1730, one Dublin poet wrote of George Carterwright’s wife at The Custom House Coffee House on Essex Street: Her coffee’s fresh and fresh her tea,Sweet her cream, ptizan, and whea,her drams, of ev’ry sort, we findboth good and pleasant, in their kind. (v. 2 161) Figure 1: Map of Dublin indicating Coffee House clusters 1 = Sackville St.; 2 = Winetavern St.; 3 = Essex St.; 4 = Cork Hill; 5 = Skinner's Row; 6 = College Green.; 7 = Christ Church Yard; 8 = Crampton Court.; 9 = Cook St.; 10 = High St.; 11 = Eustace St.; 12 = Werburgh St.; 13 = Fishamble St.; 14 = Westmorland St.; 15 = South Great George's St.; 16 = Grafton St.; 17 = Kildare St.; 18 = Dame St.; 19 = Anglesea Row; 20 = Foster Place; 21 = Poolbeg St.; 22 = Fleet St.; 23 = Burgh Quay.A = Cafe de Paris, Lincoln Place; B = Red Bank Restaurant, D'Olier St.; C = Morrison's Hotel, Nassau St.; D = Shelbourne Hotel, St. Stephen's Green; E = Jury's Hotel, Dame St. Some coffee houses transformed into the gentlemen’s clubs that appeared in London, Paris and Dublin in the 17th century. These clubs originally met in coffee houses, then taverns, until later proprietary clubs became fashionable. Dublin anticipated London in club fashions with members of the Kildare Street Club (1782) and the Sackville Street Club (1794) owning the premises of their clubhouse, thus dispensing with the proprietor. The first London club to be owned by the members seems to be Arthur’s, founded in 1811 (McDowell 4) and this practice became widespread throughout the 19th century in both London and Dublin. The origin of one of Dublin’s most famous clubs, Daly’s Club, was a chocolate house opened by Patrick Daly in c.1762–65 in premises at 2–3 Dame Street (Brooke). It prospered sufficiently to commission its own granite-faced building on College Green between Anglesea Street and Foster Place which opened in 1789 (Liddy 51). Daly’s Club, “where half the land of Ireland has changed hands”, was renowned for the gambling that took place there (Montgomery 39). Daly’s sumptuous palace catered very well (and discreetly) for honourable Members of Parliament and rich “bucks” alike (Craig 222). The changing political and social landscape following the Act of Union led to Daly’s slow demise and its eventual closure in 1823 (Liddy 51). Coincidentally, the first Starbucks in Ireland opened in 2005 in the same location. Once gentlemen’s clubs had designated buildings where members could eat, drink, socialise, and stay overnight, taverns and coffee houses faced competition from the best Dublin hotels which also had coffee rooms “in which gentlemen could read papers, write letters, take coffee and wine in the evening—an exiguous substitute for a club” (McDowell 17). There were at least 15 establishments in Dublin city claiming to be hotels by 1789 (Corr 1) and their numbers grew in the 19th century, an expansion which was particularly influenced by the growth of railways. By 1790, Dublin’s public houses (“pubs”) outnumbered its coffee houses with Dublin boasting 1,300 (Rooney 132). Names like the Goose and Gridiron, Harp and Crown, Horseshoe and Magpie, and Hen and Chickens—fashionable during the 17th and 18th centuries in Ireland—hung on decorative signs for those who could not read. Throughout the 20th century, the public house provided the dominant “third place” in Irish society, and the drink of choice for itd predominantly male customers was a frothy pint of Guinness. Newspapers were available in public houses and many newspapermen had their own favourite hostelries such as Mulligan’s of Poolbeg Street; The Pearl, and The Palace on Fleet Street; and The White Horse Inn on Burgh Quay. Any coffee served in these establishments prior to the arrival of the new coffee culture in the 21st century was, however, of the powdered instant variety. Hotels / Restaurants with Coffee Rooms From the mid-19th century, the public dining landscape of Dublin changed in line with London and other large cities in the United Kingdom. Restaurants did appear gradually in the United Kingdom and research suggests that one possible reason for this growth from the 1860s onwards was the Refreshment Houses and Wine Licences Act (1860). The object of this act was to “reunite the business of eating and drinking”, thereby encouraging public sobriety (Mac Con Iomaire, “Emergence” v.2 95). Advertisements for Dublin restaurants appeared in The Irish Times from the 1860s. Thom’s Directory includes listings for Dining Rooms from the 1870s and Refreshment Rooms are listed from the 1880s. This pattern continued until 1909, when Thom’s Directory first includes a listing for “Restaurants and Tea Rooms”. Some of the establishments that advertised separate coffee rooms include Dublin’s first French restaurant, the Café de Paris, The Red Bank Restaurant, Morrison’s Hotel, Shelbourne Hotel, and Jury’s Hotel (see Fig. 1). The pattern of separate ladies’ coffee rooms emerged in Dublin and London during the latter half of the 19th century and mixed sex dining only became popular around the last decade of the 19th century, partly infuenced by Cesar Ritz and Auguste Escoffier (Mac Con Iomaire, “Public Dining”). Irish Cafés: From Bewley’s to Starbucks A number of cafés appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, most notably Robert Roberts and Bewley’s, both of which were owned by Quaker families. Ernest Bewley took over the running of the Bewley’s importation business in the 1890s and opened a number of Oriental Cafés; South Great Georges Street (1894), Westmoreland Street (1896), and what became the landmark Bewley’s Oriental Café in Grafton Street (1927). Drawing influence from the grand cafés of Paris and Vienna, oriental tearooms, and Egyptian architecture (inspired by the discovery in 1922 of Tutankhamen’s Tomb), the Grafton Street business brought a touch of the exotic into the newly formed Irish Free State. Bewley’s cafés became the haunt of many of Ireland’s leading literary figures, including Samuel Becket, Sean O’Casey, and James Joyce who mentioned the café in his book, Dubliners. A full history of Bewley’s is available (Farmar). It is important to note, however, that pots of tea were sold in equal measure to mugs of coffee in Bewley’s. The cafés changed over time from waitress- to self-service and a failure to adapt to changing fashions led to the business being sold, with only the flagship café in Grafton Street remaining open in a revised capacity. It was not until the beginning of the 21st century that a new wave of coffee house culture swept Ireland. This was based around speciality coffee beverages such as espressos, cappuccinos, lattés, macchiatos, and frappuccinnos. This new phenomenon coincided with the unprecedented growth in the Irish economy, during which Ireland became known as the “Celtic Tiger” (Murphy 3). One aspect of this period was a building boom and a subsequent growth in apartment living in the Dublin city centre. The American sitcom Friends and its fictional coffee house, “Central Perk,” may also have helped popularise the use of coffee houses as “third spaces” (Oldenberg) among young apartment dwellers in Dublin. This was also the era of the “dotcom boom” when many young entrepreneurs, software designers, webmasters, and stock market investors were using coffee houses as meeting places for business and also as ad hoc office spaces. This trend is very similar to the situation in the 17th and early 18th centuries where coffeehouses became known as sites for business dealings. Various theories explaining the growth of the new café culture have circulated, with reasons ranging from a growth in Eastern European migrants, anti-smoking legislation, returning sophisticated Irish emigrants, and increased affluence (Fenton). Dublin pubs, facing competition from the new coffee culture, began installing espresso coffee machines made by companies such as Gaggia to attract customers more interested in a good latté than a lager and it is within this context that Irish baristas gained such success in the World Barista competition. In 2001 the Georges Street branch of Bewley’s was taken over by a chain called Café, Bar, Deli specialising in serving good food at reasonable prices. Many ex-Bewley’s staff members subsequently opened their own businesses, roasting coffee and running cafés. Irish-owned coffee chains such as Java Republic, Insomnia, and O’Brien’s Sandwich Bars continued to thrive despite the competition from coffee chains Starbucks and Costa Café. Indeed, so successful was the handmade Irish sandwich and coffee business that, before the economic downturn affected its business, Irish franchise O’Brien’s operated in over 18 countries. The Café, Bar, Deli group had also begun to franchise its operations in 2008 when it too became a victim of the global economic downturn. With the growth of the Internet, many newspapers have experienced falling sales of their printed format and rising uptake of their electronic versions. Most Dublin coffee houses today provide wireless Internet connections so their customers can read not only the local newspapers online, but also others from all over the globe, similar to Francis Dickenson’s coffee house in Winetavern Street in the early 18th century. Dublin has become Europe’s Silicon Valley, housing the European headquarters for companies such as Google, Yahoo, Ebay, Paypal, and Facebook. There are currently plans to provide free wireless connectivity throughout Dublin’s city centre in order to promote e-commerce, however, some coffee houses shut off the wireless Internet in their establishments at certain times of the week in order to promote more social interaction to ensure that these “third places” remain “great good places” at the heart of the community (Oldenburg). Conclusion Ireland is not a country that is normally associated with a coffee culture but coffee houses have been part of the fabric of that country since they emerged in Dublin in the 17th century. These Dublin coffee houses prospered in the 18th century, and survived strong competition from clubs and hotels in the 19th century, and from restaurant and public houses into the 20th century. In 2008, when Stephen Morrissey won the coveted title of World Barista Champion, Ireland’s place as a coffee consuming country was re-established. 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