Academic literature on the topic 'Endomembrane system'

The membrane system of a eukaryotic cell is a large and complex system handling the transport, exchange and degradation of many kinds of material. Recent research shows that double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) mediated gene silencing (RNA interference) is a membrane related process. After long dsRNA is processed to small interfering RNA (siRNA) by Dicer, the guide strand and passenger strand are separated in the RNA induced silencing complex (RISC) by Argonaute. The process of loading siRNA into RISC has been suggested to occur at the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER).The components of RISC also associate with late endosomes/multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Furthermore, disturbing the balance between late endosomes/MVBs and lysosomes has been shown to affect the efficiency of silencing. We use the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as our model organism to study two questions: how does membrane transport affect RNAi and spreading of RNAi from the recipient cells to other tissues (systemic RNAi); and how does RNA transport contribute to the multigenerational silencing induced by dsRNA (RNAi inheritance)? Using SID-5, a protein required for efficient systemic RNAi, as bait in a yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screen, we got 32 SID-5 interacting candidate proteins. Two of these are the SNARE protein SEC-22 and the putative RNA binding protein C12D8.1. In two additional Y2H screens, we found that SID-5 interacts with multiple syntaxin SNAREs, including SYX-6, whereas SEC-22 only interacts with SYX-6. SNAREs usually function in vesicle fusion processes. We found the two SNARE proteins SEC-22 and SYX-6 to be negative regulators of RNAi and to localize to late endosomes/MVBs. In addition, loss of sid-5 leads to an endosome maturation defect. Finally, we found that the putative RNA binding protein C12D8.1 negatively regulates RNAi inheritance and that C12D8.1 mutant animals show impaired RNAi upon targeting a new gene. Taken together, the results presented in this thesis provide us with more evidence for the connection of the membrane transport system and RNAi. The identification of a putative negative regulator of RNAi inheritance further enriches this research field.

The chloroplast is the organelle within a plant cell where photosynthesis takes place. This organelle originates from a cyanobacterium that was engulfed by a eukaryotic cell. During the transition from endosymbiont to organelle most of the cyanobacterial genes were transferred to the nuclear genome of the host cell, resulting in a chloroplast with a much reduced genome that requires massive import of gene products (proteins) back to the organelle. The majority of these proteins are translated in the cytosol as pre-proteins containing targeting information that directs them to a translocon complex in the chloroplast envelope, the Toc-Tic system, through which these proteins are transported. We have identified a protein in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, CAH1, that is trafficked via the endomembrane system (ER/Golgi apparatus) to the chloroplast instead of using the Toc-Tic machinery. This transport is partly mediated by canonical vesicle trafficking elements involved in ER to Golgi transport, such as Sar1 and RabD GTPases. Analysis of point mutated variants of CAH1 showed that both N-linked glycans and an intra-molecular disulphide bridge are required for correct folding, trafficking and function of the protein. Since chloroplasts lack N-glycosylation machinery, we propose that a route for chloroplast proteins that require endomembrane-specific post-translational modifications for their functionality exists as a complement to the Toc-Tic system. We also show that mutant plants with disrupted CAH1 gene expression have reduced rates of CO2 uptake and accumulate lower amounts of starch compared to wild-type plants, indicating an important function of the CAH1 protein for the photosynthetic capacity of Arabidopsis. Further study of CAH1 will not only be important to reveal its role in photosynthesis, but characterization of this novel protein pathway to the chloroplast can also shed light on how the plant cell evolved and clarify the purpose of keeping several chloroplast import pathways working in parallel. In addition, knowledge about this pathway could increase the opportunities for using plants as bio-factories for production of recombinant glycoproteins, which make up the vast majority of the bio-pharmaceutical molecules.<br>Kloroplasten är den organell i växtcellen där fotosyntesen sker. Denna organell härstammar från en cyanobakterie som togs upp av en eukaryot cell. Under omvandlingen från endosymbiont till organell har de flesta av den ursprungliga cyanobakteriens gener flyttats över till växtcellens eget kärngenom, vilket resulterat i en kloroplast som endast kan producera ett fåtal av de proteiner den behöver och som istället kräver att en mängd genprodukter (proteiner) transporteras tillbaka till organellen. De flesta av dessa proteiner syntetiseras i cytosolen som polypeptider innehållande en speciell signal för kloroplasten, och tranporteras över kloroplastens dubbelmembran (envelop) med hjälp av ett specifikt importsystem (Toc-Tic). Vi har identifierat ett protein i modellväxten Arabidopsis thaliana (CAH1) som istället för att använda Toc-Tic tranporteras via det endomembrana systemet (ER/Golgi). Transporten sker delvis med hjälp av faktorer involverade i normal vesikeltransport, t.ex. Sar1 och RabD GTPaser (mellan ER och Golgi). Genom att uttycka och analysera punktmuterade varianter av CAH1 har vi kunnat visa att både sockergrupper kopplade till proteinet, samt en intern svavelbrygga, är nödvändiga för korrekt veckning, transport och funktion av proteinet. Då kloroplasten saknar eget maskineri för att koppla sådana sockergrupper till proteiner så föreslår vi att anledningen till att denna rutt existerar, som ett komplement till Toc-Tic, är för att proteiner beroende av denna typ av modifiering ska kunna finnas i kloroplasten. Vi visar också att muterade växter som inte kan uttrycka genen som kodar för CAH1 uppvisar lägre upptag av CO2, samt ackumulerar mindre stärkelse än vildtypplantor, vilket antyder att CAH1 har en viktig funktion för den fotosyntetiska förmågan hos Arabidopsis. För att kunna fastställa den exakta funktionen för CAH1 kommer ytterliga studier att vara nödvändiga. En fördjupad karaktärisering av transportvägen som CAH1 följer till kloroplasten kan dessutom ge kunskap om hur växtcellen uppkom, samt besvara varför flera importvägar arbetar till synes parallellt med varandra. Kunskap om denna transportväg kan även bidra med användbar information i försöken att nyttja växter till att uttrycka rekombinanta N-glykosylerade proteiner, t. ex. antikroppar och vacciner.

Endocytosis is both an ancient and a diverse feature of the eukaryotic cell. Studying how it evolved can provide insight into the nature of the last common eukaryotic ancestor, and the diversification of eukaryotes into the known extant lineages. In this thesis, I present two studies on the evolution of endocytosis. In the first part of the thesis I report results from a large-scale, phylogenetic and comparative genomic study of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). The CME pathway has been studied to a great level of detail in yeast to mammal model organisms. Several protein families have now been identified as part of the complex set of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions which mediate endocytosis. To investigate how such complexity evolved, first, I defined the modular nature of the CME interactome (CME-I) by literature review, and then I carried out a systematic phylogenetic and protein domain architecture analysis of the proteins involved. These data were used to construct a model of the evolution of the CME-I network, and to map the expansion of the network's complexity to the eukaryotic tree of life. In the second part of the thesis, I present results from evolutionary and functional studies of the eisosome, a protein complex which has been proposed to regulate the spatial distribution of endocytosis in S. cerevisiae. The phylogeny of eisosomes components Pil1 and Lsp1 reported here, suggests that eisosomes are likely to have originated at the base of the fungi, and then diversified significantly via multiple gene duplications. I thus studied the localisation and function of Pil1 and Lsp1 homologues in Magnaporthe oryzae to investigate the role of eisosomes in filamentous fungi. Results suggests that eisosomes are linked with septal formation and integrity in M. oryzae, and that the septal specific Pil2 paralogue was lost in budding yeasts. Together, the data presented in this thesis describe the evolutionary history of a complex biological system, but also highlights the problem of asymmetry in the understanding of endocytic diversity in the eukaryotes.