Academic literature on the topic 'Endoparasitism. eng'

Nematodes are the most plentiful animals on earth, commonly found in soil or water, including oceans. Some species of nematodes are parasites of plants and animals. Plant-parasitic nematodes are non-segmented microscopic, eel-like round worms, obligate parasite possess stylets that live in soil causing damage to plants by feeding on roots or plant tissues. Plant-parasitic nematodes feed on roots, either within the root, some nematodes feed leaves. These nematodes cause breakdown of resistance to fungal diseases in fruit crops. Plant-parasitic nematodes living host tissue to feed on to grow and reproduce. Nematode life cycle consists of an egg, 4 pre-adult stages (juveniles) and an adult, life cycle depending on the species and the temperature. Nematodes do not move long distances (less than 6 inches per year). They are usually transported over long distances on machinery, in nursery stock, transplants, seeds, or by animals, moves soil, water and wind. They acquire nutrients from plant tissues by needle-like feeding structure (stylet/spear). Nematodes can be classified into three groups depending on feed on the plants such as ectoparasitic nematodes are always remaining outside the plant root tissues. Migratory endoparasitic nematodes move through root tissues sedentary endoparasitic nematodes penetrate young roots at or near the growing tip. They steal nutrients, disrupt water and mineral transport, and provide excellent sites for secondary pathogens (fungus and bactria) to invade the roots and decay. Several nematode species that cause problems in fruit orchards that are major limiting factors in fruit crop production cause extensive root necrosis resulting in serious economic losses. The root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.), burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) and citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipentrans) are the major nematode pests that infect fruit crops. Parasitic nematodes that can damage tree fruit roots. Many kinds of nematodes have been reported in and around the roots of various fruit crops, only few are cause serious damage, including Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), Lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus species), Ring nematodes (Mesocriconema spp) are cigar-shaped that are strictly ectoparasitic, Dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp) are relatively large ectoparasites that feed near root tips, Sting nematodes (Belonolaimus species) are ectoparasitic, Citrus nematodes (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) are sedentary semi-endoparasites. Nematodes reduce yield without the production of any noticeable above ground symptoms. Typical above ground symptoms of nematode infections stunting, yellowing and wilting. Major nematodes associated in large number of vegetables crops in India such as root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.), lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus sp.), reniform nematodes (Rotylenchulus sp.) lance nematodes (Hoplolaimus spp.), stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus spp.) etc. Root-knot nematodes are important pests of vegetables belonging to solanaceous (brinjal, tomato, chili), cucurbitaceous (biter ground, cucumber, pumpkin, bottle gourd) leguminous (cowpea, bean, pea), cruciferous cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, brussels, sprout), okra and several other root and bulb crops (onion, garlic, lettuce, celery, carrot, radish). Four species (M. incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria and M. hapla) are more than 95% of the root-knot nematode population worldwide distribution. Stem and Bulb nematode (Ditylenchus spp.) commonly attacks onion, garlic, potato, pea and carrot etc. The nematodes spread from one area to another mainly through infested planting materials, water drains from infested areas into irrigation system, soil that adheres to implements, tyres of motor vehicles and shoes of plantation workers. Management recommendation through bio-pesticides, cultural practices, enrichment of FYM, Neem cake and other organic amendments.