Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'English as a second language; Pedagogy'

The purpose of this study is to investigate sixth form students’ pronunciation, and their exposure to English during their English lessons in school. The focus of the study is to investigate whether or not the students have problems with pronouncing the contrastive consonant phonemes that do not exist, or are rarely used in the Swedish language (i.e /z/). In order to investigate the students’ pronunciation, questionnaires were handed out, followed by a reading exercise that was recorded. Also, a questionnaire was handed out to the students’ teachers in order to investigate their thoughts about the importance of teaching pronunciation. The participating students and teachers in this essay were chosen from a school in the south-west part of Sweden. The results in this essay show that the majority of the students participating had difficulties pronouncing the English consonant phonemes which do not exist, or are rarely used, in Swedish i.e /z/, /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. Furthermore, the results in this essay show that the students are more likely to pronounce English words with consonant phonemes similar to those used in Swedish.

Gender dominance has been the focus of research in recent years. However, this research was conducted in countries with less progressive stances towards gender equality than Sweden. This paper focuses on gender equality in the Swedish high school English as a second language classroom.  A mix of quantitative research, empirical analyses using modern technology and qualitative interviews were conducted. This approach focused upon students’ views regarding gender and speech dominance and how these views correlate with the views of the teachers. Furthermore, the quantitative amount of spoken language output was measured to confirm informants’ views about speech dominance. Three informant groups were interviewed and observed. For a myriad of reasons, it was impossible to come to a definite conclusion regarding speech and gender equality. However, it is clear that floor-time is a vital factor for students’ learning, meaning that it is important that second language teachers are aware of the issues raised.

This thesis tests the hypothesis that a whole language approach to ESL (English As A Second Language) pronunciation with emphasis on suprasegementals through the use of linguistic mimicry is more effective than a focus on segmentals in improving native speakers perceptions of accent and comprehensibility of ESL students' pronunciation of English. The thesis is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 2 is a discussion of the factors that affect the degree of foreign accent in second language acquisition. Chapter 3 gives a background on current ESL pedagogy followed by a description of the linguistic mimicry approach used in this research in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 and 6 are discussion of Materials and Methods and Conclusions and Implications.

This project offers methods for English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) undergraduate students to improve their English skills following a lexical approach to language incorporating the methodology of corpus linguistics research.

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to analyze the impact of the policies of the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) on the teaching and learning of 10 Latino English language learners (ELLs) in an urban high school in Virginia. Using ethnographic methodology, the researcher examined the nexus of the policy of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (2001) with the pedagogy of the English as a Second Language (ESL) and content area teachers, and the practices employed by teachers to enable students to acquire a second language in an academic setting. This enabled the researcher to examine the contextual framework of a large urban school and factors converging to help Latino ELLs learn academic English to succeed in high school. By reviewing the policy, pedagogy, and practices used in this school, I observed the connectedness of an entire school and the relationships fostered by students and faculty to support a learning climate for ELLs. The findings of this study show that the sociocultural environment and the educational experiences play a significant role in the adaptive process of learning a second language for Latino English language learners. Pedagogy that was built on respect for the Latino English language learnersâ cultural identity, linguistic abilities, and critical thinking skills helped learners become actively engaged, and facilitated learning in the second language that was academically rigorous. The practices of caring teachers enabled them to serve as advocates for ELLs, helped forge relationships of respect and trust, and encouraged Latino ELLs to succeed academically as they navigated the high school environment.
Ph. D.

Teaching & Learning
Ed.D.
One issue that faces second language (L2) teachers when they use task-based language teaching (TBLT) is how they should integrate focus on form into goal-oriented, meaning-focused tasks. This issue is particularly relevant to Japanese secondary school teachers, who need to prepare students for entrance examinations that heavily emphasize grammar. Researchers have proposed various ways to address this issue, one of which is shifting task modality from speaking to writing (Richards, 2002; Skehan, 1998). Studies have shown that learners engage in negotiation of form (i.e., an interactional sequence in which learners attempt to resolve a linguistic problem in their output) more frequently when they are required to produce written output (Adams, 2006; Niu, 2009). Another way of promoting focus on form during task-based interaction is to have learners use their first language (L1) to negotiate forms. Research has demonstrated that the use of metalanguage enables learners to discuss forms in detail and helps them maintain their attention on the forms (Fortune, 2005; Fortune & Thorp, 2001). Learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) typically develop explicit knowledge of English through the medium of L1 metalanguage. Thus, it is assumed that EFL learners will negotiate forms more frequently and effectively if teachers allow them to speak their L1 during task work. This study investigated the effectiveness of the two manipulations—shifting production modality to writing and having learners use their L1—in facilitating negotiation of form during task work. First-year university students in two EFL classes at a university in Tokyo participated in two data collection sessions. In the first session, both classes completed a picture story jigsaw task and then wrote the story in pairs. In the second session, both classes completed another picture story jigsaw task and then orally narrated the story in pairs. In both sessions, one class was instructed to speak English only during the post-task while the other class was allowed to speak their L1 (Japanese). Students’ interactions were transcribed, and language-related episodes (LREs) were identified in the transcripts. LREs refer to interactional sequences in which the learners question or correct the use of an L2 item in their own or each other’s utterance (Swain & Lapkin, 1998; Williams, 1999). When all LREs were identified, they were classified according to focus, outcome, and L1 use. Then, to investigate the effect of modality, the writing post-task and the speaking post-task were compared in terms of the frequency, focus, and outcome of LREs. To investigate the effect of L1 use, the English-only (EO) class and the English/Japanese (EJ) class were compared in terms of the frequency, focus, and outcome of LREs. In addition, to study the effect of L1 use further, the texts that students composed in pairs on the writing post-task were analyzed, and the two classes were compared in terms of the accuracy of the compositions and types of errors they made. Finally, LREs in which students used Japanese (L1 Use) and LREs in which they used English exclusively (L2 Only) were compared in terms of metalanguage use and length. The comparison between the two post-tasks showed that the writing post-task generated significantly more LREs than the speaking post-task, and this result was consistent for both classes. Regarding the focus and outcome of LREs, significant differences between the two modes were found only with the EJ class. On the writing post-task, EJ pairs focused on lexis, grammar, and discourse almost evenly and resolved 70-80% of LREs successfully. On the speaking post-task, however, they focused predominantly on lexis and resolved less than 50% of LREs successfully. The comparison between the two classes revealed that the EO class generated significantly more LREs than the EJ class on both post-tasks. For the focus and outcome of LREs, significant differences between the two classes were found for the speaking post-task, but not for the writing post-task. On the speaking post-task, EO pairs focused equally on lexis and grammar and resolved about 80% of LREs successfully, while EJ pairs focused mostly on lexis and resolved only 50% of LREs successfully. As for the compositions they wrote, the study found no significant difference between the two classes, either in terms of accuracy or error types. The comparison between LREs in the two L1 use categories revealed that students used metalanguage in only 35% of LREs in the L2 Only category. This made a clear contrast to LREs in the L1 Use category. In this study, all L1 utterances in LREs were regarded as metalanguage use. Thus, all LREs in the L1 Use category contained, by definition, at least one instance of metalanguage use. The comparison also indicated that LREs in the L1 Use category were significantly longer than LREs in the L2 Only category. In the L1 Use category, LREs that contained L1 and L2 metalanguage use were significantly longer than those that only contained L1 metalanguage use. In the L2 Only category, LREs that contained L2 metalanguage use were significantly longer than those that contained no metalanguage use. However, there was no significant difference in length between LREs that only contained L1 metalanguage use and those that only contained L2 metalanguage use. The study demonstrates that shifting modality from speaking to writing in the post-task stage is an effective means to incorporate focus on form into task cycles. Researchers argue that written production is more conducive to learning than oral production because forms are visually salient and remain permanently (Adams, 2006; Swain & Lapkin, 2001; Williams, 2012). The results imply that, on collaborative writing tasks, these features of writing help learners notice problems in their output and initiate negotiation to resolve them. As for L1 use, the study shows that allowing learners to use the L1 can reduce, rather than increase, the opportunity for focus on form. When learners have their L1 available, they might use it for addressing non-linguistic issues that they cannot easily handle in the L2, such as working out story details and identifying contents of pictures. As a result, they might negotiate forms less frequently. The study also indicates that making the L1 available while learners write together does not necessarily help them produce more accurate texts. This means that the L1 has some impact on the frequency, focus, and outcome of negotiation, but this impact might not be so strong as to affect the task product. Thus, learners in the study negotiated forms less frequently when they were allowed to speak the L1, and this might be because the L1 directed their attention to non-linguistic aspects of the task. Another explanation for this finding is that the L1 enabled learners to discuss one form longer, and this made it difficult for them to negotiate many forms in a given time. The latter explanation was supported by the comparison between the two L1 use categories: LREs in the L1 Use category were significantly longer than LREs in the L2 Only category. Closer examination of individual LREs in the two categories revealed that the difference in length came from differences in metalanguage use. By definition, all LREs in the L1 Use category contained at least one instance of L1 metalanguage use. The analysis revealed that L1 metalanguage in these LREs tended to involve Technical Metalanguage, such as grammatical terms, grammatical rules, and word definitions, and using Technical Metalanguage, learners often justified their choices or compared alternative candidates. In contrast, only 35% of LREs in the L2 Only category contained any use of L2 metalanguage, and the L2 metalanguage mostly consisted of simple response tokens such as yes and OK. Fortune (2005) and Fortune and Thorp (2001) emphasized the importance of Technical Metalanguage in negotiation of form. They argued that this type of metalanguage enables learners to articulate their explicit knowledge and discuss forms in detail, and thereby helps them engage in negotiation deeply. This study provides support to their argument and has shown that an important role of the L1 in EFL learners’ negotiation of form is to facilitate the use of Technical Metalanguage. Using L1 Technical Metalanguage, EFL learners can negotiate individual forms at length and maintain their attention on the forms. L1 Technical Metalanguage also helps them verbalize their explicit knowledge and share it with their peers. Through these, they can resolve linguistic problems collaboratively and scaffold each other’s learning.
Temple University--Theses

In the society of today English-speaking skills are essential, and the school should prepare students to live, work and participate actively in society. However, speaking English does pose a challenge for some students due to speaking anxiety, which can have a negative impact on their development. One possible strategy to counteract this is implementing drama techniques in the foreign language classroom. This study examines two classes of Swedish secondary and upper-secondary school students’- and teachers’ perceptions of the ability to speak in English, of using drama techniques in the second language classroom to overcome students’ speaking anxiety, and other possible benefits of using creative drama in the language classroom. Data are collected through student questionnaires and teacher interviews. The results and findings reveal that reluctant speakers are found in the examined classes. The study also reveals that the teachers, and a majority of the students, perceive creative drama as being beneficial for the taciturn students in overcoming their speaking anxiety. In addition, creative drama is perceived by the students and the teachers as having additional benefits such as improved language skills and self-confidence. Moreover, this study shows that drama pedagogy has the potential of developing a more accepting classroom atmosphere, in which both students and teachers can have some fun.

Master of Arts
Modern Languages
Mary T. Copple
Due to the fact that some English as a foreign language students lack motivation to learn English, this report will discuss how to promote their motivation by structuring appropriate lesson plans; giving students authentic L2 input; designing meaningful and communicative activities; choosing the right type of question to create learning opportunities; and using the guided inductive instructional approach for grammar teaching. Also, it will discuss how to prepare to be a 21st century teacher. The second part of this report contains detailed lesson plans for a unit on pets in which pedagogical theory is put into practice. This unit is mainly designed for low intermediate level English learners. The objectives of this lesson plan not only aim for improving students’ English language skills but also developing their animal and environmental protection awareness.

There are numerous methods of teaching English as a second language to pupils in the lower grades of elementary school. Previous research indicates that some teaching methods are successful among children in pre-school and older pupils, but few studies have investigated their effects on 6-8-year-old pupils. The aim of this study is to compare two teaching methods, TPRS and Reading Aloud, to decide which one is more effective in second language vocabulary learning. Previous research in the field is presented and compared to the results of this study. This case study was conducted in an elementary school in Sweden, with 12 pupils in their first year of compulsory school and 13 pupils in their second year of compulsory school. The results suggest that TPRS as a teaching method is more effective than reading aloud when it comes to second language vocabulary learning. Further research suggestions are also presented in this essay.

This dissertation seeks to understand college writing-center work between peer tutors and college students—called peer tutoring. Specifically, this study explores peer tutoring between deaf peer tutors and deaf tutees as they discuss academic writing. Further, this study investigates how deaf peer tutors and deaf tutees who are bilingual users of American Sign Language (ASL) and English use strategies to support the learning of academic writing during a tutorial session in a writing center. My review of the writing-center literature shows that research on the topic of a deaf peer tutor (DPT) and a deaf tutee (DT) as a pair is limited. While the literature on deaf tutees is expanding, the research studies on deaf peer tutors remain little understood. In fact, the literature on the retention rate of deaf college students remains low and persistent (Marschark & Hauser, 2008). I conducted a qualitative case study to explore the DPT-DT interaction in a writing-center setting with a theoretical framework of (1) sociocultural, (2) ASL/English bilingual, and (3) Deaf Critical (DeafCrit) theories. The analytical framework contains an early form of grounded theory analysis and a four-layer discourse analysis, which highlights the micro and macro views of the DPT-DT interaction. One of the three main findings shows that the study participants relied on visual discourse markers, consisting of signed modality and peripheral communication, which clearly supports deaf-student learning of academic writing in English. Another finding reveals that tutors offered many `explaining incidents' compared to the other five means of assistance: giving feedback, questioning, giving hints, modeling, and instructing. Finally, the third finding relates to the participants' lived experiences of audism during their school years where they experienced limited access to learning English incidentally—a form of oppression. This research effort has the potential to promote writing support for deaf students and writing-center practices for hearing and deaf tutors who are interested in working with deaf students. Further, this research effort has the potential to improve the retention rate for deaf college students and to increase career opportunities for deaf peer tutors in the writing-center field.

Keywords: Academic writing, writing center, peer tutoring, deaf college students, discourse markers, sociocultural theories, ASL/English bilingual theory, DeafCrit

This dissertation emerged at the intersection of collaboration, immigration issues, and language practices. Third-grade students started the school year with much difficulty to engage in academic content and language learning, mainly due to a lack of self-regulation which greatly affected the classroom dynamics. Drawing from Freire (1970, 1993), I believe in the importance of the process of conscientization, which is the critical understanding of the context around us and growing in awareness through reflection and transformative action, and the notion of critical literacy as the "reading of the word and the world" (Freire & Macedo, 1987). The purpose of the study was to set conditions for students to engage in language learning in a collaborative participatory democracy classroom environment. The following general question guided but did not limit my study: How can I, as a teacher-researcher, and my third-grade students work so students become biliterate through collaboration and translanguaging practices? Participatory Action Research (PAR)/Research As Praxis (RAP) philosophy was both the methodology of the study and a fundamental part of my pedagogy. Two transformations: responsibility `conciencia ' (consciousness) and language events progressed in three stages: the beginning-of-the-year stage; the settling-in-and-soaking-in stage; and the common-motto-and-`mismo-barco' (in the same boat) stage. As a result, both students and I were transformed. Students advanced in behavioral and emotional self-awareness, guiding dialogue, making group decisions, and solving conflicts. In their process of becoming biliterate, students stopped making translations and overcame the fear of speaking in English. They started using English and translanguaging practices as an authentic type of communication using their whole linguistic repertoire. I stood up for a symmetrical students-teacher relationship by democratically promoting participation without guiding and consciously balancing power relations permitting a more student-led classroom assembly time and conflicts solved by students. Some lessons I learned were: overcoming an initial naïve thinking about participation, transforming to create the conditions for student participation in conflict resolution and decision-making, how I released myself from being the power figure and educated to make a good use of the power to participate democratically in conflict resolution and decision-making, the process of civic education, and biliteracy and translanguaging.

With an increasing concern in the American school system being the significant growth in the number of bilingual students, the communication between teacher and student, and student to student, has become a focus of attention. The purpose of the present study was to draw on Sullivan’s (2012) dialogical approach and Bakhtin’s theoretical framework on the concept of dialogism, using Bakhtin’s notions of utterance as the unit of analysis. Bakhtin’s (1986) primary (oral speech genres) and secondary genres (narrative texts) were applied to analyze the growth of oral language and meaning-making during interactive read-alouds when carefully scaffolded open-ended questions were utilized. The study approached the field through an individual and collective case study with two dual language learners (Ballantyne et al., 2008) in a kindergarten classroom. Participants’ utterances were collected using videotaped and audiotaped sessions and were analyzed by applying Cazden’s IRE (2001) protocol and a writing protocol. The findings suggested that Bakhtin’s ideas of author/hero, double-voicing, and elements of carnivalesque matter in the narrative texts read during interactive read-alouds. The findings also determined that Bakhtin’s concepts of (a) One Utterance, (b) Multiple Utterances, (c) Double-voicing, and (d) Revoicing emerged from the dataset. The triangulation of data sources confirmed the importance of teachers examining the texts to be used during read-alouds, and the importance of creating a dialogical atmosphere that generates multiple utterances from its participants and increases oral language skills and meaning-making.

Although many aspects of English as a second language (ESL) academic writing instruction have been well researched, Leki, Cumming, and Silva (2008) note that, "There have been surprisingly few research-based descriptions of L2 writing classroom instruction" (p. 80). Although research related to the use of critical and feminist pedagogy in ESL is increasing, Kumaradivelu (2006) notices that it is still not clear how the critical awakening “…has actually changed the practice of everyday teaching and teacher preparation” (p. 76). The purpose of this study was to provide an individual response to the gaps identified by both sets of authors by investigating how critical and feminist theories could be utilized to develop an orientation to interactions in the everyday practices of an ESL academic writing classroom. In order to achieve this purpose, an autoethnographic study of an eight-week ESL academic writing course in an Intensive English Program (IEP) was conducted. The participants in this study included the teacher-researcher and seven learners. The data collected included the following: lesson plans, instructional materials, teacher field notes, teacher reflexive journal, transcripts of everyday class interactions, transcripts of multiple interviews with learners, learner written reflections, and learners’ written assignments for the course. Analysis of findings revealed that the critical and feminist theories selected for the course were realized even though there were some internal and external obstacles. Learners experienced positive shifts in their feelings about the topic of academic writing and their own abilities as academic writers. Learners’ written texts also reflected positive shifts with respect to the teacher’s goals for learners. These findings suggest that critical and feminist theories can be enacted in everyday classrooms and can be helpful with regard to improving teachers’ and learners’ experiences of everyday ESL academic writing classrooms.

English language teaching and learning receive considerable attention in Saudi Arabian schools as seen in existing efforts of development. A primary purpose of this study is to participate in these efforts of development through the application of a modern constructivist instructional practice for English language teaching and learning on the intermediate school level. This study, in part, strives to determine whether or not the adoption of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) would be a more effective means of increasing the students' reading comprehension achievement scores when compared to the traditional teaching method of the English language that involves (among other things) prompting and drilling of students. This study also strives to gain issues and insights that accompany the application of TBLT through constant comparison and contrast with those that accompany the traditional teaching method.

This mixed-method study is quasi-experimental that uses a pretest and posttests for collecting quantitative data, and classroom observation and researcher log for collecting qualitative data. The study involved 122 participants divided into treatment and control groups. The treatment group has received ten weeks of English language instruction via the TBLT method while the control group has received ten weeks of English language instruction via the traditional teaching method. The independent variable is the use of TBLT in the classroom and the effect/dependent variable is the students' reading comprehension achievement scores.

A Two-Factor Split Plot analysis with the pretest as the covariate is used for analyzing the quantitative data. Analysis of qualitative data included synthesis, rich, and detailed description for classroom observation and grounded theory for researcher log data. The findings show that teaching via the TBLT method has significantly helped students increase their reading comprehension achievement scores more than that of the traditional teaching method of the English language. The findings also suggest that the TBLT method, as a constructivist practice, is a better way for English language teaching and has involved practices that are desired in a modern educational context when compared to the traditional teaching method of the English language.

The purpose of incorporating digital educational games in educational settings is to engage the students' desire to learn. The aim of the syllabus for upper secondary school, as expressed by Skolverket (2011) is to support the students for lifelong learning and in order to do so, motivation is needed. However, a problematic gap can be found between “games” and “formal education” which are two different concepts which cross paths in this study. One path shows the foundation of the Swedish steering documents, and the other displays the motivational aspects of implementing digital educational games in educational settings. This qualitative research uses questionnaire surveys with structured questions and semi-structured follow-up interviews via email in order to examine to what degree digital educational games can be implemented in the English 6 classroom. It investigates the effectiveness of digital educational games in regard to English teaching and teachers’ attitudes and beliefs. The results display different approaches teachers could take when incorporating digital educational games in their classroom but also show significant factors such as teachers' experiences in the digital classroom. The research concludes that digital educational games can be used to encourage student motivation and in the teaching practices of upper secondary school teachers in Malmö. This is therefore an important area that should be further researched to ensure that teachers receive sufficient guidance and experience for using digital educational games in the English classroom.

This study investigated the barriers and facilitators to general teacher implementation of Project GLAD (Guided Language Acquisition Design) through the framework of expectancy-value theory. This research was a modified replication of a study by Foley (2011) which investigated the factors that impeded or supported teacher implementation of a different instructional innovation using expectancy-value theory as the theoretical framework. Quantitative data was gathered for this study through an online survey emailed to grade PreK-12 teachers throughout the United States that were trained in Project GLAD. Valid responses to the survey were provided by 173 teachers. The scaled independent variables studied were teacher self-reported perceptions of expectancy, value, cost, and certain types of support surrounding their use of Project GLAD. As in the study by Foley (2011) additional demographic and training independent variables were studied from teacher self-reported data on the survey including the level of Project GLAD training, the recency of Project GLAD training, current grade level taught, years teaching at current grade level, and old degree versus recent degree. The scaled dependent variable studied was teacher general implementation of Project GLAD in their instruction. Data from survey responses was analyzed using descriptive, linear, and multiple linear regression methodology. Teacher levels of expectancy, value and training were found significant positive predictors of general teacher implementation of Project GLAD. Similar to the study by Foley (2011), the findings indicate that increasing the level of particular types of school support to teachers, including coaching and earning higher certifications in Project GLAD will increase their levels of Project GLAD implementation. Areas recommended for further research include teacher implementation of specific Project GLAD strategies, the particular types of support that facilitate implementation, and specific barriers and facilitators to implementation at the secondary grade levels. The use of observational and qualitative methodologies to confirm and expand the findings of this study is also recommended.

Recently, it has been admitted by many researchers that students today are "digital natives" who already utilize several different technologies everyday with different purposes. Furthermore, while there is a plethora of research about learners' perceptions in language pedagogy, there is a paucity of information and research that could move beyond generic perception studies especially regarding new technologies. Accordingly, educators are still concerned not only with how to encourage EFL learners to adopt emerging technologies that could be invaluable in their language learning processes, but also with how to keep students interested in what they are learning. Thus, an understanding beyond students' perceptions with a purposive focus on their approach to technology by also exploring factors that have an influence on their adoption of emerging technologies is the key to knowing how to motivate students to integrate new technologies, and how to keep students interested in the learning process. Therefore, the purpose of this study was three-fold: to identify language learners' approaches to technologies; to examine their attitude toward emerging technologies with a focus on their familiarity, actual use, intentions and perceptions; and finally to analyze the factors and relationships among these factors that best predict language learners' intentions and decisions to use emerging technologies. The study specifically aimed to explore the following emerging technologies: (a) social networking, (b) mobile learning, and (c) digital games as major emerging technologies of today with also a focus on other emerging technologies: (a) augmented reality, (b) wearable technologies, (c) virtual assistants, (d) massive online open courses, (e) 3D printing and (f) online language learning platforms. This mixed methods study benefitted from multiple disciplines, and presented several different perspectives to achieve its aim. The data were obtained through a survey, open-ended questions, and semi-structured interviews. The quantitative data were analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics. In addition, structural equation modeling was utilized and path analysis was employed to draw on two complementary frameworks: innovation diffusion theory (Rogers, 2003), especially its application in technology adopter categories (TACI) (Dugas, 2005), and the decomposed theory of planned behavior (DTPB) (Taylor & Todd, 1995), which was adapted for this research. The qualitative data was analyzed through thematic content analysis, and used to triangulate and affirm what the quantitative data was showing. The findings indicated that technology adopter categories were normally distributed among EFL learners at a public and a private university in Turkey. Although most EFL learners were quite familiar and confident with major emerging technologies, they were not very familiar with minor emerging technologies. As for an awareness of the benefits of all listed emerging technologies, the study revealed that EFL learners' awareness is quite high; however, it was also found that participants' intention to use these emerging technologies and their actual use were very low. Finally, the results showed that the adapted DTPB was useful in explaining much of the variance in the intention to integrate technology into language learning processes by EFL learners, and attitude was the most important predictor and factor of behavioral intention. Given these findings, this research aims to contribute to the literature in innovation diffusion, user adoption and language pedagogy by offering several theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical implications and directions for future research and applications.

In Brazil, English is studied from first grade of elementary school. For some reason after eleven years of study, students in general have problems communicating orally and in writing. Swedish students, on the other hand, seem to be able to communicate quite proficiently in English, even though it is also considered to be foreign language learning. The purpose of this comparative study is to discover what differs in the Brazilian and Swedish learning and teaching that makes the Swedish results superior. The purpose was to compare English learning as a foreign language in Sweden and in Brazil, and questionnaires were distributed to teacher and students. Of the many possibilities raised as hypotheses for the effective English learning in Sweden, teacher’s educational background, working hours per week, number of students per teacher, were found to be more problematic in Brazil, according to the teachers’ questionnaire. When it comes to students, it appears that Brazilian students show a lack of commitment to their learning tasks and awareness of the importance of learning English. In addition, several social aspects have to be taken into account when judging the educational situation of a country, but the importance of a good education can never be overlooked.

This case study investigated the multimodal accommodations that content teachers make in order to dually support linguistic and conceptual development for English language learning students. Data from digitally recorded classroom observations, teacher interviews, student work, and questionnaires were collected from the participating math and science teachers. The data were analyzed from the theoretical framework of an ecological -semiotic perspective of language teaching and learning (van Lier, 2004), and is theoretically tied to communication accommodation theory and multimodal communication theory as well. Findings suggest that (1) the inclusion of ELs into mainstream math and content classes encourages teacher to use more multimodal strategies; (2) teachers use multimodal accommodations to converge with their students' language proficiencies, in an effort to make content more comprehensible, accessible, and engaging; (3) multimodal tutoring is a form of interactional scaffolding, which works to support meaning, but that needs to be diminished over time; (4) multimodal accommodations do not work in isolation, but are instead used in combination to support student semiosis; and, (5) multimodal accommodation serves to mediate math and science content material, but "emergence," or language production, needs to be supported by content teachers as well. Implications can be made from this study in both theory and practice. Details and context are added to both multimodal communication theory and communication accommodation theory, as the two are merged in this study to create opportunities for student semiosis. In practice, this study suggests that content teachers will need training in methods and theory of second language acquisition to support the content-based language learning that occurs in mainstream classes that include ELs.  

The purpose of the present study is to expand our current understanding of second language classroom discourse by exploring how four English as a second language (ESL) teachers working in an intensive English program structurally organize classroom language lessons through the use of language; how students and teachers perceive the functions of the various stages in a lesson; how teachers prepare for their language lessons; and how various discourses and texts in this teaching context influence teachers‘ spoken discourse in the classroom. In order to carry out the exploratory study of language lessons, a multidimensional genre-oriented approach is utilized that is sensitive to both textual and contextual analyses of language lessons. The findings suggest that despite the spontaneous nature of classroom settings and sometimes improvised nature of classroom teaching, experienced ESL teachers have generated and internalized schemata of language lessons, which consists of a stable schematic structure and linguistic patterns that are recognizable by both teachers and students. However, rather than viewing a language lesson as a distinctive genre, the study suggests that it might be described more precisely as a sub-genre of the classroom discourse genre proper that shares broad communicative purposes with other classroom discourse sub-genres, although also maintaining its own distinct characteristics. Further, the analysis indicates that seven resources appear to interact in dynamic, dialogic, and complex ways as experienced teachers set about constructing lessons that are goal-oriented, activity-driven, cohesive, and meaningful for both themselves and their students. Finally, the results demonstrate that experienced teachers integrate various material resources in the classroom that influence their talk; consequently, a language lesson can be regarded as both a process and a product that is highly multimodal, multimedial, and intertextual. The study concludes with implications for genre studies, classroom discourse studies, and second language teacher education, and with suggestions for future research.

In light of the paradigm shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered instruction occurring globally, the need for committed teachers is critical. Due to the influx of foreign nationals securing positions in the U.S. educational system, the teacher workforce has become more diverse. This diversity manifests a broad range of beliefs and values in regard to the teaching and learning process that are culturally inherited by an individual. Hence, "cultural incongruence" between the teacher and school organization is more likely to occur. A lack of understanding of how the cultural and educational aspects of normative commitment influences teachers' implementation of learner-centered instructional practices can lead to school systems experiencing organizational conflict.

Six multicultural English-as-a-second language teachers, three males and three females, representing six countries were purposely selected to participate in the study. The normative commitment survey from Meyer and Allen (2009) Three Component Model of Organizational Commitment, professional performance documents and a semi structured interview served as the data collection methods. The interview data was analyzed using Laughlin et al. (2006) to the start coding process. The information gathered from the surveys and professional review documents was triangulated with the interview data to evaluate consistencies or inconsistencies amongst the sources. The data yielded six reoccurring themes throughout the study. (1) Cultural Congruence, (2) Cultural Incongruence, (3) Paradigm Shifts in Teacher Training, (4) Pedagogical Identity Manifestation, and (5) Societal Obligation. Further, the findings of this study can contribute to the development of cultural educational training with a focus on instructional methodology for school districts with high English-as-a-second language populations. These findings can also be used in the hiring process in order to evaluate potential organizational congruence.

[ES] La instrucción de género denominada narrativa personal de no ficción o memorias, junto con el método de enseñanza Harkness en la expresión escrita del español como lengua extranjera, demostrará en el contexto particular de una universidad americana en España y en Estados Unidos un desarrollo superior de esta habilidad y desempeño. A la autora de esta tesis le gustaría contribuir a una tan esperada presencia de la escritura del español como L2 en la literatura de investigación. Este estudio trata de desarrollar en las clases de ELE para estudiantes americanos nuevos métodos que logren despertar el deseo, ya que no existe en este contexto la necesidad, de aprender español. A partir de la experiencia en la enseñanza del español a estudiantes universitarios y de secundaria estadounidenses, por un lado, en Estados Unidos como requisito obligatorio por parte de la universidad para el crédito en lenguas extranjeras y, por otro lado, en programas académicos estadounidenses de inmersión en España (en ambos casos siguiendo los libros y el método impuesto por las universidades) es común que estudiantes y profesores estén insatisfechos. La intención es demostrar que con la pedagogía Harkness y la enseñanza de la expresión escrita a través del género ensayo personal, es posible crear un currículo académico donde se obtienen claras mejoras en el aprendizaje final. Además, crea un ambiente donde los estudiantes están motivados y felices de aprender un segundo idioma. Se podría llevar a cabo la construcción de género y de la pedagogía basada en el género en un primer plano socio-contextual, de manera que permitan a los alumnos de ELE ver el contenido en términos de lenguaje desde el principio, en lugar de tener que integrarlos más tarde. Los programas de estudios universitarios de ELE tienen a su disposición la configuración de su destino, la calidad de su programa y el de los aprendizajes de sus alumnos. El objetivo se habrá logrado si el estudio ha convencido a los lectores de que los programas universitarios de ELE pueden revitalizarse aplicando una orientación humanística, al mismo tiempo, basada en el lenguaje.
[CA] L'orientació cap al gènere denominat non-fiction de la narrativa personal o Memoirs juntament amb el mètode Harkness d'ensenyament en l'expressió escrita d'ELE, en el context particular d'una Universitat Americana a Espanya i als Estats Units, demostrarà un desenvolupament més elevat de aquesta habilitat i del seu rendiment. L'autora d'aquesta tesi desitjaria contribuir a una llargament esperada presència de l'escriptura de l'espanyol com a L2 en la literatura d'investigació. Aquest estudi tracta de desenvolupar en les classes d'ELE per a estudiants americans nous mètodes que aconsegueixin despertar el desig, ja que no existeix en aquest context la necessitat, d'aprendre espanyol. Basat en l'experiència en ensenyar a estudiants universitaris americans espanyol, d'una banda, als Estats Units com a requeriment obligatori per part de la universitat de crèdit en llengües estrangeres i, de l'altra, en programes acadèmics americans d'immersió a Espanya (en els dos casos seguint els llibres i el mètode que imposen les universitats) és comú el desistiment i descontentament per part dels estudiants i professors. La intenció és demostrar que amb el mètode d'ensenyament Harkness juntament amb l'ensenyament de l'expressió escrita a través del gènere de l'assaig personal és possible crear un contingut acadèmic on no només s'obtenen clares millores de l'aprenentatge final, sinó que s'arriba a crear un ambient on els estudiants estan motivats i contents d'aprendre una segona llengua. Es podria dur a terme la construcció de gènere i de la pedagogia basada en el gènere en un primer pla soci-contextual, de manera que permetin als alumnes d'ELE veure el contingut en termes de llenguatge des del principi, en lloc d'haver de integrar-los posteriorment. S'haurà obtingut l'objectiu si l'estudi obté lectors convençuts que es poden revitalitzar programes universitaris d'ELA mitjançant l'aplicació d'una orientació humanista, a el mateix temps, basada en el llenguatge.
[EN] The gender instruction called the non-fiction personal narrative or memoirs, together with the Harkness method of teaching in the written expression of Spanish as a Foreign Language, will demonstrate in the particular context of an American University in Spain and in the US a higher development of this ability and performance. The author of this thesis would like to contribute to a long-awaited Spanish writing presence as L2 in the research literature. This study tries to develop in SFL classes for American universities and students' new methods that manage to awaken the desire since there is no need in this context to learn Spanish. Based on the experience in teaching Spanish to American university and high school students, on the one hand, in the United States as a mandatory requirement by the university for credit in foreign languages and, on the other hand, in American academic programs of immersion in Spain (in both cases following the books and the method imposed by the universities) it is common for students and teachers to be dissatisfied. The intention is to demonstrate that with the Harkness pedagogy and the teaching of written expression through the personal essay genre, it is possible to create an academic curriculum where clear improvements are obtained in the final learning. Besides, it creates an environment where students are motivated and happy to learn a second language. The construction of gender and gender-based instruction could be carried out in a socio-contextual foreground to allow SFL students to see the content in terms of language from the beginning, rather than having to integrate them later. SFL's university study programs have at their disposal shaping their destiny, the quality of their program, and that of their students' learning. The objective will have been achieved if the study has convinced readers that SFL university programs can be revitalized by applying a humanistic, at the same time, language-based orientation.
García Montes, P. (2021). Application of Genre and the Harkness Pedagogy for the Advanced Development of Writing Skills in Spanish in Foreign Language Courses [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/171795
TESIS

The prevalence of the English language has enhanced the importance of both understanding and being able to communicate in English in different manners, such as orally. As this has become an important skill to master in school, it was of interest to research upper secondary school teachers’ beliefs and experiences concerning what constitutes pedagogically effective oral production assignments in the classroom, how the participating teachers work to reduce students’ anxiousness towards oral production in English, and how they plan and work towards a classroom climate that enhances students’ motivation towards oral production. It also becomes of interest to compare previous research and concepts to see whether misconceptions and mismatches exist and potentially suggest implications for professional development. To understand teachers’ experiences and beliefs, a qualitative semi-structured study was conducted with five English teachers. The results showed a variety of strategies that the teachers found effective, but one similarity for three out of five teachers was strategies where students work in groups. Regarding how the teachers work to reduce anxiety towards oral production, the results showed that four out of five teachers mentioned that small group tasks reduce anxiety. As to how the teachers plan and work towards a motivating classroom climate, four out of five teachers used strategies that took students’ interest, personal engagement, and/or students’ enjoyment into consideration when aiming for a motivating classroom climate. To research teacher cognition is important since teachers’ beliefs might affect what they do in the classroom and therefore affect students learning experience.

As Chinese is a topic prominent language and English is a subject prominent language, there are many differences between these two languages. The present study investigates the influence of Chinese topic prominence constructions on the acquisition of English with the instrument of a translation task. 60 Chinese college students of two levels were divided into two groups according to their English proficiency level (the non-English majors for low level and the English majors for high level). The results were analyzed and calculated in terms of four types of topic prominence constructions: Noun phrases as topics, clauses as topics, verb phrases as topics and prepositional phrases as topics.     Through this study, it is found that the interlanguage of Chinese learners for English is characterized by topic prominence construction. What is more, Chinese learners of English can gradually decrease the use of topic prominence construction, turning into more target-like interlangage with the increase of their English proficiency level.   The findings of the present study contribute to a better understanding of Chinese English learners' interlanguage development from topic prominence to subject prominence. Furthermore, the results of the current study are significant for the English teaching in China. The language teacher should enhance the comparison between Chinese and English so that the learners could be more aware of the difference between these two languages and errors could be avoided.

The research problem focused on the 11 million Mexican immigrant families in the United States who speak little or no English. Their stated needs for English literacy, socioeconomic and academic success, and the increasing calls for xenophobic legislation throughout the nation indicated a need to investigate alternative pedagogies to compel positive social change through language fluency. In this case study, Mexican immigrant second-language learners and their descendants were asked how they wanted to learn English and if using native culture as a learning tool would help in achieving their literacy goals. Prior researchers had not asked those questions. Three adults from a 3-generation Mexican immigrant family living in Florida gave interviews to address this gap. The participants, 2 of whom were native Spanish speakers, were recruited via a Facebook call for participation, and interviews were conducted by telephone. Cultural theory served as a conceptual framework for understanding the relationship between culture and language, and for interpreting and respecting participants' articulations of their experiences and opinions. Analyses of interviews and language background questionnaires were completed using pattern matching and SPSS, respectively. The key finding was that participants agreed a cultural pedagogy would be helpful in learning English. A recommendation is made to implement an experimental teaching study using cultural pedagogy as its framework. Achieving positive social change begins with removing the barriers of cultural language discrimination and allowing immigrants to reach their stated goals without loss of their cultural heritage.

A look at how artists in the grunge and Riot Grrrl movements constructed public identities that typically appealed to the economic, cultural, and social conditions of the early 1990s. These public personas -- perceived as “honest” -- were defined by negotiation with mainstream culture, the notion of the “confessional,” and gender construction. By examining how these identities were constructed, composition students can see how cultural influences mediate their own identity construction. A “grunge/Riot Grrrl” pedagogy is proposed that encourages students to look at how identities are constructed across a multimedia landscape, reflecting the way grunge and Riot Grrrl artists built public personas using music, lyrics, interviews, album covers, photo shoots, and videos. An online assignment is suggested that would allow students to “profile” their public selves and the cultural conditions that influence them so that students can use multimedia to show their public identities.

Studien behandlar engelskundervisning för åk 4–6 där problemet är lärarnas inställningar gentemot pedagogiskt drama i engelskundervisningen. Syftet med där här studien är därför att undersöka hur pedagogiskt drama används i engelskundervisningen samt lärarnas inställningar till det. Vidare undersöks även lärarnas inställningar för språkliga- och psykosociala förmågor genom användandet av pedagogiskt drama i engelskundervisningen. Studien har en kvalitativ metod med en fenomenografisk inspirerad metodansats vars resultat bygger på intervjuer från verksamma lärare i åk 4–6. Resultatet är till sin struktur uppbyggt med studiens syfte och frågeställningar och innefattar enbart utlåtanden från deltagarna. Genom lärarnas utlåtanden och forskarnas studier leder slutsatsen till att eleverna utvecklar psykosociala förmågor som i sin tur förbättrar elevernas möjligheter till ökade språkliga förmågor.
This study examines the English teaching classroom in grades 4 to 6. The problem for the study is the teachers‘attitude towards educational drama used in an English teaching classroom. The purpose is therefore to examine the teachers´ attitudes and how educational drama is used in an English teaching classroom. Furthermore, the purpose examines the teachers’ attitude towards the pupils’ capabilities to develop linguistic- and psychosocial abilities through educational drama used in an English teaching classroom. The result is based on interviews from teachers in grades 4 to 6. Onwards, the result contains only statements from the participants and is constructed by this study’s purpose and issues. Through the researchers ‘and teachers’ statements the conclusion for the study is that the pupils develop psychosocial abilities which in turn also develop the pupils’ linguistic abilities. The method used is a qualitative method with a phenomenologically-inspired theory.

Communicative strategies not only play an important role in communication but they also contribute to second language acquisition. Communicative strategies (CS) can help to keep the communication channel open, encourage hypothesis formation and automatization. The overall aim of this essay is to find out whether there is a relationship between Chinese English learners’ attitudes toward the use of communicative strategies and the reported frequency of using them in actual communication. Forty Chinese English majors are selected randomly to participate in this investigation. They were divided into two different groups according to their different level of language proficiency. The main methods of this essay are two questionnaires and an interview.   Based on the framework of achievement strategies and reduction strategies and through the investigation of the relationship between the attitude toward communicative strategies and the reported frequency of using them in communication, three tentative conclusions have been drawn. Firstly, a learner’s attitude of CS has some influence on the use of CS. Secondly; Chinese learners of English tend to use reduction strategies most often. Finally, Chinese learners seldom use achievement strategies although they tend to believe the important role of achievement strategies in communication. What is more, this essay also analyzes the two groups of students’ different attitudes and different reported frequency of using CS and finds some reasons for those differences. After the above analyses, the essay categorizes three main factors which affect learners’ attitudes and their reported frequency of using CS. It includes the learner itself, the learning context, and the communication context.

Reading and writing difficulties and dyslexia affect how a student performs at school and, thus, their future lives (Borodkin & Faust 2014). This has been known and researched for the past decades (Fletcher 2009). Considerable studies have been carried out regarding dyslexia and first language acquisition, though dyslexia in second language is comparatively underrepresented. This underrepresentation, in turn, means that dyslexia and second language is less researched, and consequently, less known. This is problematic as there is then less knowledge on how to help students with dyslexia in a second language. This case study investigates how an upper secondary school in Sweden works with defining and diagnosing dyslexia, and which provisions students with dyslexia receive. To answer these questions the Head teacher, Special Needs Education teacher, English teachers and a dyslexia test analyst have been interviewed. The results showed that dyslexia is described differently by the people interviewed, it is diagnosed with a software called LOGOS and the provision depends on the student having (or not having) a diagnosis. The conclusion is that English teachers and special needs teachers must work closer together. It is therefore suggested that cooperation between the teachers and special needs department should put each student in the centre and develop methods and strategies based on the individual student. It is hypothesised that the school has many unidentified students with dyslexia and in those cases additional adjustments in the classroom are vital. This would allow the student a better chance of performing according to their abilities in school and thus expanding the limits of their world ensuring they become fulfilled, employed democratic citizens.

This thesis investigates issues of intelligibility through the lens and focus of prosody when the Bostonian and Los Angeles-based accents are heard in casually occurring conversation by native and non-native speakers. Over the spring and summer of 2017, six native speakers and 11 non-native speakers of English were interviewed from having listened to two 2.5 minute audio sample clips of speakers who have these accents. Respondents were asked questions such as what was difficult or easy or whether they could summarize the recordings for me. Findings indicate that while the native speakers often had difficulty with vocabulary due to context, non-native English speakers frequently found the same recordings to sound continuous, blended or merged together when the Boston and Los Angeles audios were played to them. Native English speakers, by contrast, did not seem to face the same prosodic challenges of intelligibility as their non-native English-speaking counterparts when these two accents were heard in informal conversation. It has been found that L2 learners have a strong desire to learn English from their teachers through more naturally or informally occurring conversation. The argument is made that the teaching, practice and engagement of informal conversation is woefully inadequate for non-native speakers of English. Within this thesis the core subsets of the perceptions of prosody are analyzed between native and non-native speakers of English. The purpose of doing so is to pedagogically improve learning in EFL and ESL contexts.

COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
Pesquisas recentes apontam para a L1 como facilitadora no processo de aprendizagem de L2 (Upton e Thompson, 2001; Jarvis, 2001; Silva, 2003; Zuchelli, 2003), especificamente no processo de escritura em L2 (Salies, 1995; Victori, 1999; Wen e Wang, 2002; Glopper, Stevenson e van Gelderen, 2003). Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar o papel de L1 no desenvolvimento da escrita em L2, por meio de uma investigação exploratória das percepções e ações observadas no discurso em sala de aula e no processo particular de escritura dos aprendizes. Trata-se de um estudo de caso de um grupo de doutorandos em áreas exatas, aprendendo inglês para escrita acadêmica. Os dados serão triangulados para validação de possíveis conclusões em relação ao papel de L1, a partir das várias ferramentas de investigação: observação participante e transcrição do discurso de sala de aula, entrevistas, protocolos verbais retrospectivos e questionários semi-estruturados. Discuti-se o lugar da L1 na instrução formal para escrita em L2, com possíveis aplicações pedagógicas.
Recent studies propose a facilitative role for L1 in the process of L2 learning (Upton e Thompson, 2001; Jarvis, 2001; Silva, 2003; Zuchelli, 2003), specifically in the process of L2 writing (Salies, 1995; Victori, 1999; Wen e Wang, 2002; Glopper, Stevenson e van Gelderen, 2003). The purpose of this work is to investigate the role of L1 in the development of L2 writing, by means of an exploratory research of the perceptions and actions observed in class and in the learners` private writing processes. This research is a case study of a group of doctorate students from technological areas, learning English for academic writing. The data are obtained from four methodological tools: participant observation with transcriptions, interviews, retrospective protocols and questionnaires with open-ended and closed questions. They are triangulated to validate possible conclusions in relation to the role of L1. The possible pedagogic applications of L1 in the formal instruction of L2 writing are discussed.

According to former brain surgeon, Nils Simonson, Swedish schools are wasting their students’ time by using teaching methods that lead to poor memorization, namely reading and listening as separate activities. He instead suggests that the students use methods that lead to better memorization. The study described in this rendering focuses on two of Simonson’s suggestions – discussion and peer teaching. This work accounts for a study, in which Swedish 8 thgrade English students were working in asymmetrical pairs, i.e. pairs composed by students on different levels of achievement. The study was aimed at finding an answer to the thesis question of whether working in asymmetrical pairs led to a larger or smaller improvement, on a final grammar test, than the improvement of the rest of the students in the class, who were working individually, and thus formed a control group for the study. The result was that the students in three out of four asymmetrical pairs improved their results more than the control group. Since one of the students in the fourth asymmetrical pair had been absent, they had only been working together during half the period of the study. This probably explains why their improvement was only on the same level as the improvement of the students in the control group. The answer to the thesis question is therefore that working in asymmetrical pairs led to better results on the final grammar test, than working individually. If the results of the participating students are divided into different groups, we also find that the students with the lowest results on the initial grammar test were those who improved their results the most, which could possibly be explained by a better room for improvement. Due to the short time range of the study, it was limited to one class, and the generalizability of the study is hence very low. However, it could potentially serve as a pilot study for larger research projects. My main idea of future research is thus to expand the study to a larger number of students. It would also be interesting to incorporate students on all levels of achievement into a similar research project. This work incorporates predominant teaching science theory, such as socio-cultural theories, and influential second language acquisition theory, such as the input hypothesis, the output hypothesis and focus on form instruction.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD ( Language Education)
Ordinarily, Teacher Development at the level of Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) at Great Zimbabwe University (GZU) comes in two major phases spread over four years - the theoretical and the practical based phases. The theoretical phase comes in the form of courses based on pedagogical content and professional knowledge in the initial years at the university while the practical based phase comes in the form of school-based Teaching Practice (TP) for real and direct teaching experiences. The initial theoretical phase is often based on the liberal arts-like education to develop the whole teacher for adaptable life-long service. This is translated by a number of subject that can vary according the dictates of the focus of a particular national curriculum. TP on the other hand, provides student-teachers the opportunity to apply not only the knowledge acquired in the initial phase but also the schoolbased curriculum they are immersed in plus other contextual experiences they might have. If well-structured and blended, the two phases may ensure a smooth transition from a novice student teacher to an expert professional teacher for long-life practice.

The aim of this study is to investigate teachers’ opinions and experiences using analogue coursebooks in lower secondary school English teaching. The study was conducted using written interviews, interviewing 7 currently active teachers teaching English in the Swedish school system, with the participants’ answers being the material. Thematic Analysis was a method used to structure the results, and Sociocultural Theory was the theoretical perspective. The themes that were identified were: analogue coursebooks; digital coursebooks; more or less suitable activities for coursebook usage; the future of coursebook usage; and desirable qualities of a coursebook. The results of the study reveal that the participants have a positive outlook on using analogue coursebooks in the English classroom as a way of maintaining a certain level of difficulty and quality in the teaching, whilst also having something to fall back on as a source with varied content that can be used. There were no noticeable differences in the teachers’ opinion of what they could be used for but the extent to which they used them varied depending on their experience in the profession. Finally, the cost of coursebooks was mentioned as a key aspect in the process of selecting coursebooks, together with user-friendliness and flexibility.

Sedan mitten av 1990-talet har Sverige internationellt sätt legat i topp på grund av grundskolelevers goda resultat i engelsk språkkunskap. Den svenska grundskolan är fortfarande internationellt sätt i topp men på nationell nivån har det skett en förändring. Sedan mitten av 1990-talet har grundskolelevernas resultat stagnerat och i vissa språkmoment även försämrats. Vad som orsakat denna negativa förändring finns det många spekulationer om t.ex. den ökade invandringen och elevers attityd till ämnet. Forskare har under en tid studerat olika områden som kan vara orsaken till de försämrade resultaten men har inte funnit ett konkret svar, ingen ensam faktor som kan ha förorsakat detta i skolan.

Vad gäller undervisningsplanering i skolan finns det inte mycket tidigare forskning inom Sverige för den svenska grundskolan. Inte heller skolans styrdokument har några direktiv för hur undervisningsmål ska uppnås, planeras eller vad denna planering ska innehålla. Undervisningens planering är lämnad i lärarens händer.

Svenska grundskoleelevers skolresultat i engelska visar på en nedåtgående utveckling, flera områden i skolan har fått uppmärksamhet, men undervisningsplaneringen är något som ännu är outforskat. Det är planeringen som avgör hur undervisningen utformas, vilka material och tillvägagångssätt elever ges möjlighet att tillägna sig i sikte att uppnå målen.

Denna studie omfattar intervjuer av sex lärare för grundskolans tidigare år. Intervjuerna har behandlat hur lärare planerar, vad de planerar och hur det tänker kring undervisningsämnet engelska, i syfte att få en bild av vilket innehåll och vilken struktur planeringen har. I studien framkommer att det är den individuella lärarens val av metoder och material samt det mål läraren har med undervisningen som avgör vad eleverna ges möjlighet att tillägna sig i skolan. Resultatet visar att det skiljer sig i hur lärare strukturerar sin undervisning. En del har en noga och väl strukturerad plan med moment och metoder, andra har en tanke som ännu inte är utformad eller tar det lite som det kommer. Alla arbetar för samma sak, efter samma styrdokument men på olika sätt.