Academic literature on the topic 'English-Greek dictionaries'

The paper focuses on various types of dictionary words, i.e. infrequent and rather uncommon words often listed in comprehensive monolingual English dictionaries but virtually nonexistent in actual usage. These are typically learned derivatives of Greek or Latin origin that are given as unlabeled synonyms of everyday vocabulary items. Their inclusion seems to stem from the application of two different bits of lexicographic philosophy: great respect for matters classical and the principle of comprehensiveness. Seen from this perspective, descriptive corpus-based lexicography is still too weak. While in large native-speaker-oriented dictionaries of English such entries do not seem to cause any harm, they can be positively dangerous in EFL/ESL environments, because using them can easily lead to strange or downright incomprehensible lexical items. Learners are advised to be careful and check the status of such “dubious” items also in English monolingual learners’ dictionaries, in which dictionary words are virtually nonexistent.

Abstract Greek bilingual dictionaries have long been marked by lack of naturalness and inadequate semantic and stylistic discrimination between the various equivalents suggested in translation. Although this is a general problem of bilingual dictionaries, which necessarily deal with decontextualized instances of language in the construction of the lemma, translationese is common in English-Greek dictionaries as a result of the idiosyncratic history of Greek applied linguistic practice. The paper discusses issues of translation equivalence that came into view in the editing of the new Collins English-Greek Dictionary (1997). Specific problems relating to the translation from English to Greek are pointed out, with reference to the areas of lexical, grammatical and discourse equivalence. In particular, the occurrence of 'false friends' and register couplets, the categories of definiteness, countability and verb aspect and the varying Theme-Rheme structures constitute points of divergence between the two languages. The word-for-word translation of these linguistic aspects is mainly accountable for the lack of naturalness. Dictionary editing involves a multitude of detailed decisions along these parameters, which shape the lemmas and influence the quality of the final text. The help from both English and Greek corpora has been indispensable at defining the parameters of naturalness for each lemma and at solving problems specific to Greek bilingual lexicography. Résumé Les dictionnaires bilingues grecs ont été longtemps marqués par un manque de naturel, par une discrimination sémantique et stylistique inadéquate entre les différentes équivalences suggérées dans la traduction. Bien qu'il s'agisse d'un problème général propre aux dictionnaires bilingues, qui, nécessairement se fondent sur des exemples hors de leur contexte linguistique lors de la construction du vocable, des traductions trop influencées par la langue de sortie sont communes dans les dictionnaires anglais-grec à la suite de l'histoire idiosyncratique de la pratique de la linguistique appliquée grecque. L'article se penche sur les problèmes de l'équivalence traductionelle lors de la rédaction du nouveau dictionnaire anglais-grec (Collins - 1997). Des problèmes spécifiques relatifs à la traduction de la langue anglaise à la langue grecque sont mis en évidence relativement aux domaines de l'équivalence lexicologique, grammaticale et du discours. Plus spécialement, l'émergence de "faux amis" et de couples dans le registre, les catégories de précision, la comptabilité des substantifs et l'aspect des verbes ainsi que les structures variables thème-rhème constituent des points de divergence entre les deux langues. La traduction mot-à-mot de ces aspects linguistiques est surtout due au manque de naturel. La rédaction de dictionnaires implique une multitude de décisions détaillés suivant ces paramètres, qui régissent les vocables et influencent la qualité du texte final. L'aide des corpus anglais et grecs a été indispensable lors de la définition des paramètres du naturel pour chaque vocable et lors de la solution des problèmes spécifiques à la lexicographie bilingue grecque.

Summary During the course of the 19th century, many English dictionaries carrying information on pronunciation directed that Greek-derived words beginning ps- should be pronounced with a silent initial p. In the relevant section of the OED, however (published 1909), the editor J. A. H. Murray (1837–1915) advised that, contrary to general practice, pronouncing the p was preferable, since it made clear the etymology of such words thus enhancing their intelligibility. Dictionaries after the OED have reported p as an optional pronunciation for many years subsequently — even as late as the 1970s — though their conflicting evidence supports the hypothesis that pronouncing the p was a dictionary chimaera never adopted by more than a handful of pedantic philologists. The article concludes that claims to descriptivism rather than prescriptivism, even by the most reputable dictionaries, should be taken with a pinch of salt.

Although one of the existing studies on Nigerian or African kinship terms has argued that semantic expansion of such words constitutes an absurdity to the English society, none has argued for the necessity of a specialized dictionary to address the problem of absurdity to the English society, the custodian of the English language. This is important especially now that the language has become an invaluable legacy which non-native speakers of the language use to express their culture as well as the fact that the English people now accept the Greek and Hebrew world-views through Christianity. This paper provides additional evidence in support of semantic expansion of kingship terms like ‘wife’ and ‘husband’ not only in a Nigerian or an African language but also in Greek and Hebrew languages. The paper argues that if English is to play its role as an international language, it will be desirable if our lexicographers can publish a specialized dictionary that will take care of kinship terms, as it is the case in some other specialized dictionaries on the different professions such as medicine, nursing, linguistics and agriculture, to mention but a few, so as to guide against ambiguity or absurdity that may arise in language use in social interactions.

This paper addresses the problem of automatic induction of the normalized form (lemma) of regular and mildly irregular words with no direct supervision using language-independent algorithms. More specifically, two string distance metric models (i.e. the Levenshtein Edit Distance algorithm and the Dice Coefficient similarity measure) were employed in order to deal with the automatic word lemmatization task by combining two alignment models based on the string similarity and the most frequent inflectional suffixes. The performance of the proposed model has been evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively. Experiments were performed for the Modern Greek and English languages and the results, which are set within the state-of-the-art, have showed that the proposed model is robust (for a variety of languages) and computationally efficient. The proposed model may be useful as a pre-processing tool to various language engineering and text mining applications such as spell-checkers, electronic dictionaries, morphological analyzers etc.

This paper aims at understanding the reasons why variants of the derivatives of HAEMA — Greek for blood — occur in medical vocabulary. Aspects of variation are seen from a terminological standpoint, which may differ from that prevailing in lexicography or in natural language processing (NLP). We consider as variants of a term not only the forms that are spelt in a similar way, but also its synonyms, i.e. all the forms that have a similar definition. However, since hyponyms of a given term differ by their definitions, i.e. have a separate meaning, we treat them as separate terms: variation becomes part of term formation. The examples in English come from medical dictionaries, a glossary in haematology and MEDLINE. Several types of variation are analysed: graphic, morphological, morphosyntactic, syntactic and lexical, together with their possible meanings, and case studies of the use of some of the variants in context are presented.

The article is devoted to the coverage of theoretical and practical experience of using ICT in the process of teaching foreign languages in universities of Ukraine and Greece. Educational electronic foreign language resources (information and reference materials, e-books, films on DVD, libraries of electronic visual aids and databases, methodical materials on electronic media, Internet resources, combined electronic teaching aids, educational and methodical software to support lectures) are classified. The authors singled out the most recent forms of teaching (distance learning, on-line learning with the interactive elements), types of educational activities (work with audio, video, making presentations, work with computer training programs, electronic communication) and teaching aids (audio recordings, video films, multimedia presentations, computer programs, e-books, textbooks, reference books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, Internet resources, e-mail, Skype, virtual learning environments, blogs, forums), based on ICTs that are actively engaged in teaching in the native and Greek higher educational institutions. The emphasis is focused on the advantages of distance learning technologies in the process of learning foreign languages (constant access to information, significantly lower cost of training course, the possibility of consulting with a teacher at the convenient time, increasing the role and enlarging the proportion of student’s self-work, etc.), on the features of work on Moodle platform. Particular attention is paid to the characteristics of the activity of the Greek Open University with a distance learning form, in particular to the description of the master's program for the teachers of English "Didactics of English as a Foreign / International Language". The perspectives of using pedagogically valuable experience of Greece in the use of ICT in national higher education of foreign languages have been outlined.

The aim of this paper is to provide an initial analysis of the semantic relations holding between Anglo-Saxon and Latinate synonyms in present-day English. It is an acknowledged fact that the lexicon of English consists of a basic indigenous vocabulary of Germanic origin with many foreign borrowings especially from French, Latin and Greek. This has produced an etymologically diverse word-stock characterized by distinct features. Near-synonymous words with a different etymology can be a source of confusion and dictionaries often fail to clearly distinguish between them. Pairs of Anglo-Saxon vs. Latinate words, such as speed/velocity, sweat/perspire, lunatic/insane, etc., are often said to be equivalent in meaning, with differences only in terms of style and register. The scenario, however, is more subtle, complex and interesting than this. A finer-grained analysis of speed and velocity, for instance, shows, on the one hand, that there is a high degree of interchangeability between the two words. On the other hand, though, the semantics of speed is more generic, neutral and broader in scope, while velocity expresses specific and restricted meanings. In addition to this generic-specific relation between the two words, velocity appears to undergo metaphoric extension.

The article considers the issues related to the semantic, grammatical, stylistic and technical difficulties currently present in machine translation and compares its four main approaches: Rule-based (RBMT), Corpora-based (CBMT), Neural (NMT), and Hybrid (HMT). It also examines some "open systems", which allow the correction or augmentation of content by the users themselves ("crowdsourced translation"). The authors of the article, native speakers presenting different countries (Russia, Greece, Malaysia, Japan and Serbia), tested the translation quality of the most representative phrases from the English, Russian, Greek, Malay and Japanese languages by using different machine translation systems: PROMT (RBMT), Yandex. Translate (HMT) and Google Translate (NMT). The test results presented by the authors show low "comprehension level" of semantic, linguistic and pragmatic contexts of translated texts, mistranslations of rare and culture-specific words,unnecessary translation of proper names, as well as a low rate of idiomatic phrase and metaphor recognition. It is argued that the development of machine translation requires incorporation of literal, conceptual, and content-and-contextual forms of meaning processing into text translation expansion of metaphor corpora and contextological dictionaries, and implementation of different types and styles of translation, which take into account gender peculiarities, specific dialects and idiolects of users. The problem of untranslatability ('linguistic relativity') of the concepts, unique to a particular culture, has been reviewed from the perspective of machine translation. It has also been shown, that the translation of booming Internet slang, where national languages merge with English, is almost impossible without human correction.

As was mentioned by known sociologist Kenneth Ewart Boulding, the human community, divided into various social organizations, is the most complex class of biological systems. This article is dedicated for mathematical modeling of the process of historical interaction between Russians and foreigners, which are reflected in the formation of a living Russian language. The difficulty lies not only in the large number of relationships, but also in the complexity experienced by the researcher who is inside the system under study. The natural desire to abstract in this study from the system itself can be realized using a strictly scientific approach and computational programming. Namely, by using formal objects and the same formal methods of comparing them, as is customary in mathematics, physics, and other sciences that study the laws of nature in areas that are not directly related to human being and society. To form an objective knowledge base about the interaction of social groups of people, you can use the analysis of traces of this interaction, one of which is their language. It is in the language of a people that the main factors of influence of other peoples - native speakers of another language-remain. These traces, in particular, are borrowed words and expressions. To work with such words and expressions, you must first discard those matches that can be attributed to random. Only in this case can the nature of our research be objective. This article uses statistical analysis methods to identify the fact of accidental coincidence of phonetic and semantic images of words from different languages. The basic tool we have chosen is the birthday paradox theorem. As a result, a method for identifying borrowed words that appeared in the language as a result of the interaction of native speakers of different languages, excluding the random nature of their coincidence, is obtained. The application of software definition of matching words in digitized dictionaries is justified. The method is applied to the Russian language. Conclusions are made about the history of the development of the Russian people and its language. These conclusions are that the main significant influence on the Russian population and its language was exerted by Europeans, primarily the French. At the same time, no traces of the influence of Mongolian or other Eastern languages were found. The influence of the Turkic language group and the Greek language occupy a middle position. At the same time, if the semantic load of Turkic and Greek borrowings is of a general scientific or economic nature, then European borrowings are primarily associated with trade, administration, war, and luxuries. The authors concludes that the family character of interaction between native English speakers and language groups close to the English geographically with the Russian population, since the names of the main family members are borrowed mainly from the English language, while the corresponding names was already exist in the old Slavonic language.

Phraseological units are an important part of every language and due to their distinctive characteristics, they require special attention in their lexicographic description. However, phraseology is often underrepresented in lexicography, especially in bilingual dictionaries. Even though many important theoretical propositions have been suggested by linguists in the field of phraseology and idioms, from the perspective of lexicography, research is rather limited and concentrates mainly on monolingual lexicography. In our attempt to fill this gap, we have examined the treatment of phraseology in bilingual English-Greek dictionaries. Specifically, we proceeded to a corpus-based comparative analysis of the main English-Greek dictionaries (paper and electronic editions), in order to detect the problematic aspects in the description of phraseological units in terms of dictionary macrostructure and microstructure. Our attention focused on various issues, such as phraseological coverage, translation equivalents, grammatical and syntactic information, usage labels and more. In order to extract information about the use of phraseological units and to retrieve potential translation equivalents, we built a parallel English – Greek corpus, consisted of texts collected from TED talks. While parallel corpora have been widely used in several fields of linguistics, they have not been extensively exploited as a tool in bilingual lexicography. The results of the dictionary assessment have shown that even if the general quality of the examined dictionaries is rather high, they present various problems and omissions, such as poor phraseological inclusion, insufficient grammatical/syntactic or stylistic information, inadequate translation equivalents and so on. Based on the information retrieved from our parallel corpus we compiled for our study, we have proposed solutions for their improvement, which could be applied both in this language combination and in bilingual dictionaries in general. Our attempt aims to make a lexicographical proposal on how bilingual dictionaries would improve the representation of phraseology. This model could be used in the compilation of bilingual dictionaries of general use, as well as dictionaries of phraseology.<br>Les unitats fraseològiques i les expressions idiomàtiques en especial constitueixen una part important de totes les llengües. Requereixen una atenció especial per part de la lexicografia ateses les seves característiques i atès que el seu significat no és composicional. Això no obstant, la representació de la fraseologia als diccionaris, i especialment al diccionaris bilingües, sovint és deficient. Malgrat el fet que s’hagin proposat diverses aproximacions lingüístiques per analitzar la fraseologia, hi ha hagut relativament poca recerca sobre la fraseologia des de la perspectiva de la lexicografia, i la que hi ha se centra principalment en els diccionaris monolingües. En aquesta tesi s’analitza el tractament de la fraseologia i, de manera especial, de les frases fetes, en diccionaris bilingües de la combinatòria lingüística anglès-grec. Es proposa analitzar els principal diccionaris bilingües d’aquesta combinatòria disponibles en format imprès i en format digital i utilitzar les dades d’un corpus paral·lel per tal de detectar els punts més problemàtics amb relació a la macrostructura i microstructura del diccionari. Es tractaran els temes següents: la selecció de fraseologia inclosa, els equivalents, la informació gramatical i sintàctica, i les etiquetes de registre, entre altres. Per tal d’obtenir informació sobre l’ús real de les unitats fraseològiques i per tal d’identificar els equivalents potencials, es crea un corpus paral·lel anglès-grec basat en un grup de textos corresponents a ponències de la fundació TED. Tot i que s’han utilitzat els corpus paral·lels en diversos estudis lingüístics, fins ara el seu ús en l’elaboració dels diccionaris bilingües ha estat relativament limitat. Els resultats de l’avaluació dels diccionaris demostren que, malgrat la bona qualitat general dels diccionaris estudiats, hi ha diversos problemes i llacunes en relació amb la fraseologia, com ara un nivell pobre d’inclusió de frases, una representació insuficient d’informació gramatical, sintàctica i estilística, i una identificació d’equivalents no satisfactoris, entre altres. Basant-nos en la informació extreta del corpus paral·lel desenvolupat per a aquesta tesi, hem proposat solucions per millorar els diccionaris d’aquesta combinatòria en especial i, més generalment, que es podrien implementar en la confecció de diccionaris bilingües. El nostre objectiu és fer una proposta factible en què els diccionaris bilingües incloguessin una informació fraseològica més acurada, que es podria adoptar tant pels diccionaris bilingües generals com pels diccionaris de fraseologia.<br>Las unidades fraseológicas y las expresiones idiomáticas en especial constituyen una parte importante de todas las lenguas. Requieren una atención especial por parte de la Lexicografía debido a sus características y a la falta de composicionalidad de su significado. No obstante, la representación de la fraseología en los diccionarios y especialmente en los diccionarios bilingües suele ser deficiente. A pesar de que se hayan propuesto varias aproximaciones al análisis de la fraseología desde la Lingüística, la investigación en fraseología desde la perspectiva de la Lexicografía es relativamente pobre y se centra principalmente en los diccionarios monolingües. En nuestra investigación, analizamos el tratamiento de la fraseología y, muy particularmente, de las frases hechas, en diccionarios bilingües de la combinatoria lingüística inglés-griego. Proponemos analizar los principales diccionarios bilingües de esta combinatoria y utilizar datos de un corpus paralelo para detectar los puntos más problemáticos en relación con la descripción de la fraseología y en relación con la macrostructura y la microstructura del diccionario. Se tratan los siguientes temas: la selección de fraseología incluida, los equivalentes, la información gramatical i sintáctica, i las etiquetas de registre, entre otros. Para obtener información sobre el uso real de unidades fraseológicas y para identificar equivalentes potenciales, se crea un corpus paralelo inglés-griego basado en textos correspondientes a ponencias de la fundación TED. Aunque se ha utilizado los corpus paralelos en varios estudios lingüísticos, hasta la fecha su uso en la elaboración de diccionarios bilingües ha sido relativamente limitado. Los resultados de la evaluación de los diccionarios demuestran que, a pesar de la buena calidad general de los diccionarios estudiados, hay varios problemas y carencias en relación con la fraseología, como, por ejemplo, el nivel pobre de inclusión de frases, una representación insuficiente de información gramatical, sintáctica y estilística, y una identificación de equivalentes no satisfactorios, entre otros. Basándonos en la información extraída del corpus paralelo desarrollado para esta tesis, se han propuesto soluciones para mejorar los diccionarios bilingües existentes en esta combinatoria específicamente y, más generalmente, que se podrían aplicar a la confección de diccionarios bilingües. Nuestro objetivo es desarrollar una propuesta factible en la que los diccionarios bilingües incluyeran una información fraseológica más esmerada, que se podría adoptar tanto para los diccionarios bilingües generales como para los diccionarios de fraseología.

Any reading of a Greek text is an act of translation. However, it is heavily mediated by those previous dialogues represented by the tools of scholarship, which may be regarded as a kind of secondary speech community for a language no longer spoken. Foremost among these tools for an Anglophone scholar has been Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon. The conversation in which one engages in consulting its glosses is at the very least three-way, involving not only ancient Greek and one’s own ‘mother tongue’, but also the English of Liddell and Scott. This chapter seeks to bring into sharper focus the vocabulary of the first edition’s glosses—a task rendered urgent not only by the passage of time but also by the fact that the editors had an axe to grind in selecting it.

Words in the corpus of texts making up Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG) have links to headwords in several dictionaries. TLG released a digitized version of Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon (LSJ) in 2011; since then, Cunliffe’s Lexicon of the Homeric Dialect has been added as well as Powell’s Lexicon to Herodotus, and Trapp’s Lexikon zur Byzantinischen Gräzität (LBG). The Lexicographical Resources page also provides links to the site of Diccionario griego-español (DGE), and to dictionaries of medieval and modern Greek, enabling study of the continuing history of words. This chapter compares entries for βάπτω‎ from LSJ, The Revised Supplement and DGE.

Pyrite consists of two elements—iron and sulfur—but considerations of pyrite formation have mainly concerned sulfur. Iron is extremely abundant in the Earth; in fact, it is the fourth most abundant element on Earth and is less localized in its distribution. By contrast, sulfur is the 17th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, and there are about 100 times more iron than sulfur. The interest in the primary role of sulfur in pyrite formation continues to the present day. In the Old Latin of early Republican Rome (i.e., before c. 200 BCE), sulfur was called sulpur or burning stone (i.e., brimstone). The p was pronounced with a puff of air. This puff was transliterated with an h following the p. When the f sound was introduced into classical Latin, p was often changed to ph in Latin words of Greek origin. Sulpur, however, had no Greek roots. The Greeks called it θείον (thion), which gave rise to our prefix, thio-. Sulfur had been written as sulphur in Old Latin, with the h indi­cating the puff of air after the p, but when the f sound was introduced this gave the mistaken impression that sulphur was originally a Greek word. At the end of classical times (around 27 BCE) the spelling was altered to sulfur, which is the spelling that usually appears in Latin dictionaries. In the last millennium, the element has traditionally been spelled sulphur in the United Kingdom and countries where UK rule held sway. By contrast, US English has continually used the correct sulfur spelling. The fountainhead of all chemical definitions worldwide, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, adopted the spelling sulfur in 1990. Finally, the UK authorities admitted their error and the UK Royal Society of Chemistry Nomenclature Committee recommended the correct spelling in 1992. In 2000 the authority determining quality and standards in UK schools decreed UK children should be taught the sulfur spelling. The sulphur spelling still occurs, but at best this is a literary affectation.

Entering circumflexes which are lacking on Russian and English language keyboard traditionally used in Russia is rather incovenient. As the example, the interface of digital abbreviation dictionary comprising 25 languages is described; the additional symbol bar is used for the purpose. Special attention is given to the features of the Modern Greek language where, along with circumflex input problem, the problems of orthography (two literary forms in use, orthographic complexities) are faced. The solution as appears in the abbreviations digital dictionary is presented. The author concludes that user-friendly solution for entering lacking symbols has to be found.