Academic literature on the topic 'English language – India – Terms and phrases'

ABSTRACTIndigenous languages are under siege, not only in the US but around the world – in danger of disappearing because they are not being transmitted to the next generation. Immigrants and their languages worldwide are similarly subjected to seemingly irresistible social, political, and economic pressures. This article discusses a number of such cases, including Shawandawa from the Brazilian Amazon, Quechua in the South American Andes, the East Indian communities of South Africa, Khmer in Philadelphia, Welsh, Maori, Turkish in the UK, and Native Californian languages. At a time when phrases like “endangered languages” and “linguicism” are invoked to describe the plight of the world's vanishing linguistic resources in their encounter with the phenomenal growth of world languages such as English, the cases reviewed here provide consistent and compelling evidence that language policy and language education serve as vehicles for promoting the vitality, versatility, and stability of these languages, and ultimately promote the rights of their speakers to participate in the global community on and IN their own terms. (Endangered languages, immigrant languages, indigenous languages, language revitalization, linguicism)

The paper analyses Syed Amanuddin’s “Don’t Call Me Indo-Anglian” from the perspective of a cultural materialist. In an effort to understand Amanuddin’s contempt for the term, the matrix of identity, language and cultural ideology has been explored. The politics of the representation of the self and the other that creates a chasm among human beings has also been discussed. The impact of the British colonialism on the language and psyche of people has been taken into account. This is best visible in the seemingly innocent introduction of English in India as medium of instruction which has subsequently brought in a new kind of sensibility and culture unknown hitherto in India. Indians experienced them in the form of snobbery, racism, highbrow and religious bigotry. P C Ray and M K Gandhi resisted the introduction of English as the medium of instruction. However, a new class of Indo-Anglians has emerged after independence which is not different from the Anglo-Indians in their attitude towards India. The question of identity has become important for an Indian irrespective of the spatial or time location of a person. References Abel, E. (1988). The Anglo-Indian Community: Survival in India. Delhi: Chanakya. Atharva Veda. Retrieved from: http://vedpuran.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/atharva-2.pdf Bethencourt, F. (2013). Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton UP. Bhagvadgita:The Song of God. Retrieved from: www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org Constitution of India [The]. (2007). New Delhi: Ministry of Law and Justice, Govt of India, 2007, Retrieved from: www.lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf. Cousins, J. H. (1918). The Renaissance in India. Madras: Madras: Ganesh & Co., n. d., Preface is dated June 1918, Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.203914 Daruwalla, K. (2004). The Decolonised Muse: A Personal Statement. Retrieved from: https://www.poetryinternationalweb.net/pi/site/cou_article/item/2693/The-Decolonised-Muse/en Gale, T. (n.d.) Christian Impact on India, History of. Encyclopedia of India. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from: https://www.encyclopedia.com. Gandhi M K. (1938). My Own Experience. Harijan, Retrieved from: www.mkgandhi.org/ indiadreams/chap44.htm ---. “Medium of Education”. The Selected Works of Gandhi, Vol. 5, Retrieved from: www.mkgandhi.org/edugandhi/education.htm Gist, N. P., Wright, R. D. (1973). Marginality and Identity: Anglo-Indians as a Racially-Mixed Minority in India. Leiden: Brill. Godard, B. (1993). Marlene NourbeSe Philip’s Hyphenated Tongue or, Writing the Caribbean Demotic between Africa and Arctic. In Major Minorities: English Literatures in Transit, (pp. 151-175) Raoul Granquist (ed). Amsterdam, Rodopi. Gokak, V K. (n.d.). English in India: Its Present and Future. Bombay et al: Asia Publishing House. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.460832. Gopika, I S. (2018). Rise of the Indo-Anglians in Kerala. The New Indian Express. Retrieved from www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2018/feb/16/rise-of-the-indo-anglians-in-kerala-1774446.html Hall, S. (1996). Who Needs ‘Identity’? In Questions of Cultural Identity, (pp. 1-17). Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay (eds.). London: Sage. Lobo, A. (1996a). Anglo-Indian Schools and Anglo-Indian Educational Disadvantage. Part 1. International Journal of Anglo-Indian Studies, 1(1), 13-30. Retrieved from www.international-journal-of-anglo-indian-studies.org ---. (1996b). Anglo-Indian Schools and Anglo-Indian Educational Disadvantage. Part 2. International Journal of Anglo-Indian Studies. 1(2), 13-34. Retrieved from: www.international-journal-of-anglo-indian-studies.org Maha Upanishad. Retrieved from: http://www.gayathrimanthra.com/contents/documents/ Vedicrelated/Maha_Upanishad Montaut, A. (2010). English in India. In Problematizing Language Studies, Cultural, Theoretical and Applied Perspectives: Essays in Honour of Rama Kant Agnihotri. (pp. 83-116.) S. I. Hasnain and S. Chaudhary (eds). Delhi: Akar Books. Retrieved from: https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00549309/document Naik, M K. (1973). Indian Poetry in English. Indian Literature. 16(3/4) 157-164. Retrieved from: www.jstor.org/stable/24157227 Pai, S. (2018). Indo-Anglians: The newest and fastest-growing caste in India. Retrieved from: https://scroll.in/magazine/867130/indo-anglians-the-newest-and-fastest-growing-caste-in-india Pearson, M. N. (1987). The Portuguese in India. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Rai, S. (2012). India’s New ‘English Only’ Generation. Retrieved from: https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/indias-new-english-only-generation/ Ray, P. C. (1932). Life and Experiences of a Bengali Chemist. Calcutta: Chuckervertty, Chatterjee & London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/ in.ernet.dli.2015.90919 Rig Veda. Retrieved from: http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rv09-044.pdf. Rocha, E. (2010). Racism in Novels: A Comparative Study of Brazilian and South American Cultural History. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Rushdie, S., West, E. (Eds.) (1997). The Vintage Book of Indian Writing 1947 – 1997. London: Vintage. Sen, S. (2010). Education of the Anglo-Indian Community. Gender and Generation: A Study on the Pattern of Responses of Two Generations of Anglo-Indian Women Living During and After 1970s in Kolkata, Unpublished Ph D dissertation. Kolkata: Jadavpur University. Retrieved from: http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/176756/8/08_chapter% 203.pdf Stephens, H. M. (1897). The Rulers of India, Albuqurque. Ed. William Wilson Hunter. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156532 Subramaniam, A. (2017). Speaking of Ramanujan. Retrieved from: https://indianexpress.com/ article/lifestyle/books/speaking-of-ramanujan-guillermo-rodriguez-when-mirrors-are-windows-4772031/ Trevelyan, G. O. (1876). The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay. London: Longmans, Geeen, & Co. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/lifelettersoflor01trevuoft Williams, B. R. (2002). Anglo-Indians: Vanishing Remnants of a Bygone Era: Anglo-Indians in India, North America and the UK in 2000. Calcutta: Tiljallah Relief. Yajurveda. Retrieved from: http://vedpuran.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/yajurved.pdf Yule, H., Burnell A. C. (1903). Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive. Ed. William Crooke. London: J. Murray. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/ details/hobsonjobsonagl00croogoog

A different name than English literature, ‘Anglo-Indian Literature’, was given to the body of literature in English that emerged on account of the British interaction with India unlike the case with their interaction with America or Australia or New Zealand. Even the Indians’ contributions (translations as well as creative pieces in English) were classed under the caption ‘Anglo-Indian’ initially but later a different name, ‘Indo-Anglian’, was conceived for the growing variety and volume of writings in English by the Indians. However, unlike the former the latter has not found a favour with the compilers of English dictionaries. With the passage of time the fine line of demarcation drawn on the basis of subject matter and author’s point of view has disappeared and currently even Anglo-Indians’ writings are classed as ‘Indo-Anglian’. Besides contemplating on various connotations of the term ‘Indo-Anglian’ the article discusses the related issues such as: the etymology of the term, fixing the name of its coiner and the date of its first use. In contrast to the opinions of the historians and critics like K R S Iyengar, G P Sarma, M K Naik, Daniela Rogobete, Sachidananda Mohanty, Dilip Chatterjee and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak it has been brought to light that the term ‘Indo-Anglian’ was first used in 1880 by James Payn to refer to the Indians’ writings in English rather pejoratively. However, Iyengar used it in a positive sense though he himself gave it up soon. The reasons for the wide acceptance of the term, sometimes also for the authors of the sub-continent, by the members of academia all over the world, despite its rejection by Sahitya Akademi (the national body of letters in India), have also been contemplated on. References Alphonso-Karkala, John B. (1970). Indo-English Literature in the Nineteenth Century, Mysore: Literary Half-yearly, University of Mysore, University of Mysore Press. Amanuddin, Syed. (2016 [1990]). “Don’t Call Me Indo-Anglian”. C. D. Narasimhaiah (Ed.), An Anthology of Commonwealth Poetry. Bengaluru: Trinity Press. B A (Compiler). (1883). Indo-Anglian Literature. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co. PDF. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.in/books?id=rByZ2RcSBTMC&pg=PA1&source= gbs_selected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false ---. (1887). “Indo-Anglian Literature”. 2nd Issue. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co. PDF. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/60238178 Basham, A L. (1981[1954]). The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the History and Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent before the Coming of the Muslims. Indian Rpt, Calcutta: Rupa. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/TheWonderThatWasIndiaByALBasham Bhushan, V N. (1945). The Peacock Lute. Bomaby: Padma Publications Ltd. Bhushan, V N. (1945). The Moving Finger. Bomaby: Padma Publications Ltd. Boria, Cavellay. (1807). “Account of the Jains, Collected from a Priest of this Sect; at Mudgeri: Translated by Cavelly Boria, Brahmen; for Major C. Mackenzie”. Asiatick Researches: Or Transactions of the Society; Instituted In Bengal, For Enquiring Into The History And Antiquities, the Arts, Sciences, and Literature, of Asia, 9, 244-286. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.104510 Chamber’s Twentieth Century Dictionary [The]. (1971). Bombay et al: Allied Publishers. Print. Chatterjee, Dilip Kumar. (1989). Cousins and Sri Aurobindo: A Study in Literary Influence, Journal of South Asian Literature, 24(1), 114-123. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/ stable/40873985. Chattopadhyay, Dilip Kumar. (1988). A Study of the Works of James Henry Cousins (1873-1956) in the Light of the Theosophical Movement in India and the West. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Burdwan: The University of Burdwan. PDF. Retrieved from: http://ir.inflibnet. ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/68500/9/09_chapter%205.pdf. Cobuild English Language Dictionary. (1989 [1987]). rpt. London and Glasgow. Collins Cobuild Advanced Illustrated Dictionary. (2010). rpt. Glasgow: Harper Collins. Print. Concise Oxford English Dictionary [The]. (1961 [1951]). H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. (Eds.) Oxford: Clarendon Press. 4th ed. Cousins, James H. (1921). Modern English Poetry: Its Characteristics and Tendencies. Madras: Ganesh & Co. n. d., Preface is dated April, 1921. PDF. Retrieved from: http://hdl.handle.net/ 2027/uc1.$b683874 ---. (1919) New Ways in English Literature. Madras: Ganesh & Co. 2nd edition. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31747 ---. (1918). The Renaissance in India. Madras: Madras: Ganesh & Co., n. d., Preface is dated June 1918. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.203914 Das, Sisir Kumar. (1991). History of Indian Literature. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. Encarta World English Dictionary. (1999). London: Bloomsbury. Gandhi, M K. (1938 [1909]). Hind Swaraj Tr. M K Gandhi. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. PDF. Retrieved from: www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/hind_swaraj.pdf. Gokak, V K. (n.d.). English in India: Its Present and Future. Bombay et al: Asia Publishing House. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.460832 Goodwin, Gwendoline (Ed.). (1927). Anthology of Modern Indian Poetry, London: John Murray. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176578 Guptara, Prabhu S. (1986). Review of Indian Literature in English, 1827-1979: A Guide to Information Sources. The Yearbook of English Studies, 16 (1986): 311–13. PDF. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3507834 Iyengar, K R Srinivasa. (1945). Indian Contribution to English Literature [The]. Bombay: Karnatak Publishing House. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/ indiancontributi030041mbp ---. (2013 [1962]). Indian Writing in English. New Delhi: Sterling. ---. (1943). Indo-Anglian Literature. Bombay: PEN & International Book House. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/IndoAnglianLiterature Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. (2003). Essex: Pearson. Lyall, Alfred Comyn. (1915). The Anglo-Indian Novelist. Studies in Literature and History. London: John Murray. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet. dli.2015.94619 Macaulay T. B. (1835). Minute on Indian Education dated the 2nd February 1835. HTML. Retrieved from: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/ txt_minute_education_1835.html Mehrotra, Arvind Krishna. (2003). An Illustrated History of Indian Literature in English. Delhi: Permanent Black. ---. (2003[1992]). The Oxford India Anthology of Twelve Modern Indian Poets. New Delhi: Oxford U P. Minocherhomji, Roshan Nadirsha. (1945). Indian Writers of Fiction in English. Bombay: U of Bombay. Modak, Cyril (Editor). (1938). The Indian Gateway to Poetry (Poetry in English), Calcutta: Longmans, Green. PDF. Retrieved from http://en.booksee.org/book/2266726 Mohanty, Sachidananda. (2013). “An ‘Indo-Anglian’ Legacy”. The Hindu. July 20, 2013. Web. Retrieved from: http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/an-indoanglian-legacy/article 4927193.ece Mukherjee, Sujit. (1968). Indo-English Literature: An Essay in Definition, Critical Essays on Indian Writing in English. Eds. M. K. Naik, G. S. Amur and S. K. Desai. Dharwad: Karnatak University. Naik, M K. (1989 [1982]). A History of Indian English Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, rpt.New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles [The], (1993). Ed. Lesley Brown, Vol. 1, Oxford: Clarendon Press.Naik, M K. (1989 [1982]). A History of Indian English Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, rpt. Oaten, Edward Farley. (1953 [1916]). Anglo-Indian Literature. In: Cambridge History of English Literature, Vol. 14, (pp. 331-342). A C Award and A R Waller, (Eds). Rpt. ---. (1908). A Sketch of Anglo-Indian Literature, London: Kegan Paul. PDF. Retrieved from: https://ia600303.us.archive.org/0/items/sketchofangloind00oateuoft/sketchofangloind00oateuoft.pdf) Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. (1979 [1974]). A. S. Hornby (Ed). : Oxford UP, 3rd ed. Oxford English Dictionary [The]. Vol. 7. (1991[1989]). J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, (Eds.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2nd ed. Pai, Sajith. (2018). Indo-Anglians: The newest and fastest-growing caste in India. Web. Retrieved from: https://scroll.in/magazine/867130/indo-anglians-the-newest-and-fastest-growing-caste-in-india Pandia, Mahendra Navansuklal. (1950). The Indo-Anglian Novels as a Social Document. Bombay: U Press. Payn, James. (1880). An Indo-Anglian Poet, The Gentleman’s Magazine, 246(1791):370-375. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/stream/gentlemansmagaz11unkngoog#page/ n382/mode/2up. ---. (1880). An Indo-Anglian Poet, Littell’s Living Age (1844-1896), 145(1868): 49-52. PDF. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/stream/livingage18projgoog/livingage18projgoog_ djvu.txt. Rai, Saritha. (2012). India’s New ‘English Only’ Generation. Retrieved from: https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/indias-new-english-only-generation/ Raizada, Harish. (1978). The Lotus and the Rose: Indian Fiction in English (1850-1947). Aligarh: The Arts Faculty. Rajan, P K. (2006). Indian English literature: Changing traditions. Littcrit. 32(1-2), 11-23. Rao, Raja. (2005 [1938]). Kanthapura. New Delhi: Oxford UP. Rogobete, Daniela. (2015). Global versus Glocal Dimensions of the Post-1981 Indian English Novel. Portal Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies, 12(1). Retrieved from: http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/portal/article/view/4378/4589. Rushdie, Salman & Elizabeth West. (Eds.) (1997). The Vintage Book of Indian Writing 1947 – 1997. London: Vintage. Sampson, George. (1959 [1941]). Concise Cambridge History of English Literature [The]. Cambridge: UP. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.18336. Sarma, Gobinda Prasad. (1990). Nationalism in Indo-Anglian Fiction. New Delhi: Sterling. Singh, Kh. Kunjo. (2002). The Fiction of Bhabani Bhattacharya. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. (2012). How to Read a ‘Culturally Different’ Book. An Aesthetic Education in the Era of Globalization, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Sturgeon, Mary C. (1916). Studies of Contemporary Poets, London: George G Hard & Co., Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95728. Thomson, W S (Ed). (1876). Anglo-Indian Prize Poems, Native and English Writers, In: Commemoration of the Visit of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to India. London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/ books?id=QrwOAAAAQAAJ Wadia, A R. (1954). The Future of English. Bombay: Asia Publishing House. Wadia, B J. (1945). Foreword to K R Srinivasa Iyengar’s The Indian Contribution to English Literature. Bombay: Karnatak Publishing House. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/ details/indiancontributi030041mbp Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. (1989). New York: Portland House. Yule, H. and A C Burnell. (1903). Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive. W. Crooke, Ed. London: J. Murray. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/ details/hobsonjobsonagl00croogoog Sources www.amazon.com/Indo-Anglian-Literature-Edward-Charles-Buck/dp/1358184496 www.archive.org/stream/livingage18projgoog/livingage18projgoog_djvu.txt www.catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001903204?type%5B%5D=all&lookfor%5B%5D=indo%20anglian&ft= www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.L._Indo_Anglian_Public_School,_Aurangabad www.everyculture.com/South-Asia/Anglo-Indian.html www.solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/search.do?fn=search&ct=search&initialSearch=true&mode=Basic&tab=local&indx=1&dum=true&srt=rank&vid=OXVU1&frbg=&tb=t&vl%28freeText0%29=Indo-Anglian+Literature+&scp.scps=scope%3A%28OX%29&vl% 28516065169UI1%29=all_items&vl%281UIStartWith0%29=contains&vl%28254947567UI0%29=any&vl%28254947567UI0%29=title&vl%28254947567UI0%29=any www.worldcat.org/title/indo-anglian-literature/oclc/30452040

It reports the development of an enhanced library OPAC prototype through integration of language analysis tool and book reader in the retrieval interface. Language analysis or text analytics is considered as one of the components of language documentation and when integrated with library OPAC can extend supports to analyse corpus of the retrieved document in terms of word/phrase frequency, term circus, term links, term context etc through visual representation in a single-window along with the other datasets generally expected in a typical library OPAC. The open source software based integration mechanism is tested with English and Bengali as mainstream languages and a Unicode-compliant Indian official tribal language Santali (Ol Chiki script) as minority language.

Maritime English is a specific register. Therefore, it requires a specific treatment. This paper implies the restricted aspect of a complex system such as English for specific purpose in the nautical education and profession. The sophisticated system of the maritime English makes it a plain instrument of communication. The opposite "tides" govern the system: creative and economical tendency. The creative side of the maritime language is evident in the forming of new words and meanings, combining of existing units, various metaphors, etc. We have tried to look into certain subregisters within Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) by pointing to the main characteristics. Seaspeak is a vital instrument of communication on board a ship. The importance of English language has always been emphasized, especially the importance of the standardized maritime phrases used in vessel-to-vessel vessel-to-port communication. By trying to encode the Maritime English world, we will look into the structure of Maritime English communication terms and phrases. However, we cannot make artificial borders between Maritime and General English. These two registers intertwine and it is impossible to eliminate Maritime English from General English and vice versa. As far as restricted aspect of Maritime English is concerned, Standard Marine Communication Phrases are used in both ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communication.

The study of terminology and lexical fields of specialized lexis is an important issue in linguistics. Special attention should be devoted to the medical terminology, which branches into different areas, is heterogeneous in its composition and has specific properties and patterns. The article is devoted to the classification and structural analysis of orthodontic English terminological units. The objective of the article is to study the main word-forming mechanisms of orthodontic terms in English, their classification, characteristics, and comparison. The research is based on methods of analysis, synthesis and comparison of terminological units of English orthodontic text (scientific articles, monographs and textbooks). Using structural analysis, English orthodontic terms were classified according to the methods of their creation. The field of terminology "Orthodontics" is classified and divided into 4 categories: "Anatomy of the Oral Cavity", "Symptoms and Diseases", "Professional Orthodontic Activity" and "Treatments". It is determined that the most common word-forming means are morphological and terminological phrases, which are characteristic to most categories. A lot of the lexical units of the category "Anatomy of the Oral Cavity" are borrowed from Latin and Greek or contain word-forming affixes. The category "Symptoms and Diseases" contains a lot of phrases. A special feature of "Professional Orthodontic Activity" is the graphic units of the written orthodontic text, which are formed by abbreviations and combined abbreviations. "Treatments" are characterized by abbreviations and combined abbreviations.

The subject of this research is the word-forming structure of beekeeping terms in the Kumyk, Russian and English languages. The article describes the distinctive features of terminological word formation in the area of “beekeeping” in the aforementioned languages. For determining the type of word formation, the author uses the number and composition of the components. The similarities in common literary and terminological word formation are identified. It is demonstrated that in the corresponding terminology of the Kumyk language prevail the terminological phrases. The prevalence of phrases in the  languages under reviews is explained by the fact that the term not only denotes the concept, but to a certain extent reflects to its content. This requires the creation of mainly terms-phrases that can reflect the characteristics of the concept to the fullest. On the other hand, the growing number of terminological phrases in the Kumyk language indicates that beekeeping terms in the Kumyk language are translated from the Russian language, therefore part of the terms first appear as a result of clarification of their meaning. Whole terms comprise approximately 30% of all terms of the corpus. These terms are naturally included in the terminological phrases as the nuclear words and defining in the terminological phrases. In beekeeping terminology of tge Kumyk and English languages, prevail N/R + N/R models, which the authors believe is a reflection of common literary word formation.

Translation of medical terms from English into Serbian implies observing lexical and grammatical rules of the Serbian language in order to have appropriate, precise and correct translation equivalents. The problem exists in translating complex phrases, because English has a compounding feature whereas the same idea in Serbian has to be descriptively expressed. Examples of inadequately translated terms taken from medical dictionaries, books and research papers of Serbian doctors are presented with suggestions how to remedy the situation.

Abstract The English and Swedish Drama Dialogue (ESDD) corpus is a sociopragmatically tagged corpus of English and Swedish drama texts from the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Using this corpus, I investigated the use of the address terms Fool, Dear, Sir and Brother. The study focused on the contexts where these terms were found and traced diachronic usage patterns. The main questions asked in the investigation concerned, first, the speaker’s attitude towards the addressees when using the address phrases and whether attitudes connected with particular phrases changed over time; second, whether the phrases could be said to signal intimacy or distance between the interlocutors.

The purpose of conducting this study is to identify and handle the problems arising from translating conversational words and phrases rooted in culture from English into Kurdish and vice versa. To achieve the objectives of the current research, source language conversational texts associated with greetings, politeness terms, kinship terms, address terms and words and phrases used on different occasions are translated into their counterparts in the target language. The results obtained from the translations show that translating cultural concepts is problematic and burdensome, and the problems identified result from cultural differences between the two languages and from literal translation which often leads to unnatural and incomprehensible expressions although this technique is used to borrow a source language expression. The results also indicate that translating culturally-bound conversational words and phrases requires good knowledge and mastery of both languages and cultures and proper use of various translation techniques. This research paper is an attempt to identify the problems that arise in translating culturally-specific conversational words and phrases from English into Kurdish and vice versa. It also aims to find out effective ways of overcoming the problem through implementing appropriate techniques for translating culturally-loaded words and phrases associated with greetings, terms of address, politeness terms, family relationship, in both languages.

Presents a study of surveying terminology, which may be considered as an under-researched area when compared to legal, medical or business terminologies, focusing on English and Polish. This book provides a wide picture of surveying terminology by looking at problems that diversified groups of users may identify. Kwiatek investigates how surveying terms are created and how they are named in English and Polish; she analyses the concept systems of the two languages with respect to surveying terminology; and she indicates the areas of surveying in which terminology and conceptual differences occur, the factors that trigger them and translation strategies which are used to solve them.

Lin Ming Sum.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves i-xi).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
Acknowledgements
Abstract
摘要
Table of Content
List of tables
List of figures
Units of measurement
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- What are formulaic sequences? --- p.2
Chapter 1.2 --- Importance of researching on formulaic sequences --- p.4
Chapter 1.2.1 --- Wray's works --- p.6
Chapter 1.2.2 --- Distinction between native and normative speakers --- p.9
Chapter 1.2.3 --- Building blocks of language --- p.10
Chapter 1.2.4 --- Processing Unit --- p.11
Chapter 1.2.5 --- A pragmatic phenomenon in social interactions --- p.13
Chapter 1.3 --- Rationale --- p.17
Chapter 1.4 --- Objectives --- p.19
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Literature Review --- p.20
Chapter 2.1 --- Defining formulaic sequences --- p.20
Chapter 2.2 --- The development of research on formulaic sequences --- p.26
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Context of formulaic sequences research --- p.26
Chapter 2.2.2 --- Milestone works on formulaic language --- p.29
Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- The first phase --- p.30
Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- The second phase --- p.33
Chapter 2.2.2.3 --- The third phase --- p.35
Chapter 2.2.3 --- Questions and problems surrounding the field --- p.38
Chapter 2.3 --- Relationship between fluency and the use of formulaic sequences --- p.44
Chapter 2.4 --- Methods of identification of formulaic sequences --- p.50
Chapter 2.4.1 --- The criteria listed by other researchers --- p.50
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Intuition --- p.58
Chapter 2.4.3 --- Case studies --- p.60
Chapter 2.4.4 --- Corpus tools --- p.62
Chapter 2.4.5 --- Phonological features --- p.65
Chapter 2.4.6 --- Other methodologies --- p.67
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Methodology --- p.72
Chapter 3.1 --- Research questions --- p.72
Chapter 3.1 --- The tasks --- p.73
Chapter 3.2 --- The subjects --- p.74
Chapter 3.3 --- Data collection --- p.75
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Data analysis --- p.77
Chapter Chapter 5 --- Findings --- p.80
Chapter 5.1 --- Use of formulaic sequences by native and normative speakers --- p.80
Chapter 5.2 --- Interaction between NS/NNS factor and task type --- p.81
Chapter 5.3 --- Analysis of individual performance --- p.82
Chapter 5.4 --- Fluency and the use of formulaic language --- p.85
Chapter 5.5 --- Time on task and the use of formulaic language --- p.87
Chapter 5.6 --- Use of formulaic language and mean length of each turn --- p.89
Chapter 5.7 --- Articulation rate of formulaic sequences --- p.90
Chapter 5.8 --- Summary of findings --- p.91
Chapter Chapter 6 --- Discussion --- p.93
Chapter 6.1 --- Use of formulaic language by native and normative speakers --- p.93
Chapter 6.2 --- Interaction between NS/NNS factor and task type --- p.97
Chapter 6.3 --- The use of formulaic language and fluency --- p.97
Chapter 6.4 --- Time on task and the use of formulaic language --- p.99
Chapter 6.5 --- Length of each turn and the use of formulaic language --- p.103
Chapter 6.6 --- Rate analysis --- p.105
Chapter 6.7 --- Summary of the discussion --- p.106
Chapter Chapter 7 --- Limitations --- p.107
Chapter Chapter 8 --- Implications of this study --- p.110
Chapter 8.1 --- Implications for research --- p.110
Chapter 8.2 --- Implications for pedagogy --- p.111
Chapter Chapter 9 --- Directions for future research --- p.116
Chapter Chapter 10 --- Conclusion --- p.119
Bibliography --- p.i
Appendices --- p.xii
Instructions for the Picture Story Telling --- p.xii
Picture series 1: Picnic --- p.xiii
Picture series 2: Football --- p.xiv
Instructions for the Problem-solving task --- p.xv
Problem-solving task: The Problem Page --- p.xvi

The subject of collocability has been a common concern among linguists, lexicographers, and language pedagogues recently. They find the linguistic aspect of collocation interesting, because words due not exist in isolation from other words in a language. They exist with other words. In every language, the vocabulary consists of single words and multi-word expressions. Collocations are among those multi-word expressions. The aim of this thesis is to characterize collocations in the Arabic language, to devise a classification of the semantic and the distributional patterns of collocations in the Arabic language and to examine the problems encountered in translating English collocations into Arabic. This will require an analysis of the collocational patterns in both English and Arabic, a classification of the translation outcomes, and therefore, types of errors adopted by translators, an indication of how frequent and significant each error is, and an analysis of the causes of each error.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

In this dissertation, I examine metaphorical expressions of biblical and sacral origin (bibleisms) that occur in Russian narrative literary texts. The interpretation of bibleisms is carried out within the framework of interaction theories of metaphor, making it possible to account for the use of bibleisms in Modern Russian, and for the role of their original meanings in the development of their new metaphorical associations. This is viewed as a set of intertextual relationships between the biblical and sacral texts, the Modern Russian language and the literary texts in which the expressions occur. Different types of metaphor are distinguished in terms of interaction theory. This has implications for the translation of bibleisms. It is demonstrated that in different interactive situations, the same bibleism can be referred to different types of metaphor, and hence the translation procedure may only be determined by taking into account the metaphorical language in each individual case.
Afrikaans & Theory of Literature
M.A. (Theory of Literature)

This chapter examines language that is inappropriate for academic writing and reveals the individual terms that should be avoided. It explores adjective choice and how writing can be improved by removing unnecessary phrases from sentences, to improve clarity and understanding. It ends with a discussion on the merits of using noun phrases and verbs.

The purpose of the paper is to determine the features of the translation of technical terms from English into Ukrainian. A term is a word or phrase that expresses a clearly defined concept in a particular field of science, technology, art, socio-political life, and so on. Scientific and technical terminology is a wide layer of vocabulary that develops intensively and actively interacts with other layers of the vocabulary of the language, primarily with common vocabulary. Unlike commonly used words, terms are usually unambiguous, they are not characterized by expression. Some terms have lost a purely special character and are widely used in various parts of speech, while others retain a narrowly specialized use. Peculiarities of terms, as well as their translation into Ukrainian were studied by such linguists as G. Bezhenar, I. Beloded, I.Volkova, M.Volodina, B.Golovin, V.Danylenko, А. Dyakov, T Kiyak, R. Korobin, D Lotte, A. Naumenko, O. Oguy, E. Pirikov and others. Terms, as specific lexical units of language, are characterized by such features as accuracy, unambiguity, systematicity, objectivity and motivation. Translation of complex terms consists of two main procedures - analytical and synthetic. An important role in the translation of phrases is played by the analytical stage - the translation of its individual components. And for this it is necessary to correctly define the components of a complex term, because they can be not only words but also phrases that are part of a complex term. The main means of translating terms-phrases are descriptive method, transcription and tracing. The most difficult to translate are terms that have different meanings not only in different fields of science and technology, but even in one field. The main problem of translation of terms and terms-phrases is their ambiguity not only among different branches of science, but also within the technical field itself. Terms are units of language and professional knowledge that ensure the effectiveness of intercultural communication. For this reason, the greatest practical significance in the translation of scientific and technical texts is the equivalent translation of terminology. Differences in the lexical structure and morphosyntactic structure of terms have objective linguistic reasons: English terms, the structure of which includes a substantive defining component (noun or noun group), cannot be translated into Ukrainian without differences in morphosyntactic structure due to differences in the grammatical structure of languages.

Rapidly growing Web users from multilingual communities focus the attention to improve the multilingual search engines on the basis of sentiment or emotion and provide the opportunities to build resources for languages other than English. At present, there is no such corpus or lexicon available for emotion analysis in Indian languages, especially for Bengali, the sixth most popular language in the world, second in India, and the national language of Bangladesh. Thus, in the chapter, the authors describe the preparation of an emotion corpus and lexicon in Bengali. The emotion lexicon, termed Bengali WordNet Affect has been developed from its equivalent version in English by traversing the steps of expansion, translation, and sense disambiguation. In addition to emotion lexicon, a Bengali blog corpus for emotion analysis has also been developed by manual annotators with detailed linguistic expressions such as emotional phrases, intensities, emotion holder, emotion topic and target span, and sentential emotion tags.

This chapter examines the linguistic dimension of the tension between India’s democratic politics and its liberalized economy. I argue that there is a divergence between languages used in the polity and languages used in the economy. In the polity, characterized by a semblance of empowerment through the electoral participation of the weaker sections of society, vernacular languages predominate. In contrast, the language of the economy in India, particularly since economic liberalization in 1991, tends to be English. It is in the economy that India’s class and caste chasm manifests itself linguistically: between the English-speaking elite and the vernacular-speaking masses. While the noted Indian economist, Deepak Nayyar, warns of an impending clash between the democratically empowered masses and the economically privileged elite, I suggest that in terms of language use India’s robust democracy may well trump market forces. And while linguists have warned that English as the language of the globalized marketplace can have dire consequences for linguistic diversity, I argue that India’s linguistic diversity, at least in terms of its major regional languages, remains impressive. In the case of India, I conclude, the spread of the language of globalization, English, as the language of the economy, is mediated by the languages used in India’s vibrant democracy.

The development of modern society in the world takes place in the era of rapid development of information technologies in all fields of human activity, including education. Therefore, one of the main ways of solving the problem of education modernization is the introduction of information technologies and combination with traditional educational means. The issue of ensuring the high level of information and communication technologies in the educational process becomes more urgent every year. The experience of teachers of higher education institutions shows the effectivenes of information and communication technologies integration in teaching English. Information and communication technologies enable students to be involved in the learning process, increase students’ motivation and their interest in learning English. The use of information and communication technologies in the educational process gives the possibility to reduce the time for mastering the material at the expense of clarity and to check students’ knowledge in the interactive form. The article deals with the use of modern information and communication technologies in the process of teaching English in higher education. Aspects of information and communication technologies in the process of learning a foreign language are theoretically grounded. The experience of information and communication technologies implementation in the educational process of higher educational institutions is analyzed and the main advantages and disadvantages of their application are characterized. The experience of using Quizlet (an application that helps in learning new words, phrases, terms faster and more effectively) in teaching English at the National Technical University of Ukraine “Kyiv Polytechnic Institute of Igor Sikorsky” was analized in the context of the analysis of information technologies in higher educational establishments of Ukraine.

This study examined whether the pedagogical use of Spaceteam ESL (English as a Second Language), a digital shouting game, could contribute to the development of Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) among 71 English students in secondary schools in Mombasa, Kenya. Following a mixed-methods approach for data collection and analysis, we pre- and post-tested the participants on their ability to read aloud efficiently (speed) and accurately (accuracy) in three tasks: (1) phrases extracted from the game; (2) phrases not related to the game; and (3) an anecdote. Our findings indicate that participants who played Spaceteam ESL improved their ORF on all measures of speed, but no significant differences were observed in terms of accuracy. Overall, these findings corroborate our hypothesis that some of the affordances of Spaceteam ESL (e.g. speed reading) would contribute to the development of some aspects of ORF.

Writers who can’t come up with the right word to describe something seldom hesitate to create a new one. As a result some of our most useful terms have come from their pens and keyboards. Authors such as Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton lived in times when the English language was mushrooming, along with scientific and other discoveries. This invited them to fill gaps in the lexicon with words of their own creation. Charles Dickens was a prolific coiner of “Dickensisms,” some of which took their place in the vernacular (e.g., cheesiness, seediness, bodyguard, sawbones). Not just text but titles such as Psychobabble, Catch-22, The Last Hurrah, and The Rise of the Meritocracy were the source of words and phrases in common use today.

Climate change conferences had wide media coverage – be it on newspaper, radio, television or the internet. The terms such as ‘climate change', ‘global warming', and ‘El Nino' are gaining popularity among the public. This study examines the news coverage of climate change issues in the major daily newspapers—The Times of India, The Hindu in English, and the Dina Thanthi, Dinamalar, and Dinamani in regional language (Tamil)—for the calendar years 2014 and 2015. This chapter describes how climate change influences nature and human life, and it is the basis for social and economic development. The news coverage of climate change and sustainability issues helps the reader better understand the concepts and perspectives of environment. Climate change communication in regional newspapers and local news stories may increase the public's interest and knowledge level regarding climate change and sustainability issues.

The discovery of periodicity in the properties of the elements and its connection to their atomic weights is one of the most important advances in nineteenth-century chemistry. This chapter will consider the tables of John Newlands (1837–1898) and William Odling (1829–1921), which preceded that of Dmitrii Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907). Mendeleev’s table was published in 1869, prior to his being aware of the UK precedents of his tabulation. The major portion of this chapter will extend the ideas advanced by Stephen Brush in The Reception of Mendeleev’s Periodic Law in America and Britain but will restrict itself to the dissemination of the periodicity concept within the United Kingdom. This will be monitored by recording its appearances in textbooks and examination papers, and in a wider context, by extracting data from Google Books. The periodic table has a rich history since its inception. It has evolved into many shapes, and indeed dimensions, yet retaining its essential periodic underpinning. In the United Kingdom it is seen as a “table,” whereas the French prefer “classification” and the Germans and Russians “system.” Mendeleev himself referred to his periodic law in his Faraday Lecture and never used the term “table,” thus it is ironic that his fame is linked to words that he appears never to have uttered. The arrangement of the elements in rows and columns is seen as a table, but why label it periodic? A related, more familiar word to non-chemists is periodical, normally referring to a magazine that appears at regular time intervals. Google Books is a powerful modern tool for investigating the usage of selected words or phrases over selected time intervals. The writer chose to use its advanced search for books in the English language. This meant that sources other than British, notably North American, are also included but the observed patterns are probably true for British books. The data compare the number of times the terms periodic table, periodic law, periodic classification, and periodic acid occurred in five-year intervals between 1870 and 1919.

A puzzle in the sociolinguistic history of Sanskrit is that texts with authenticated dates first appear in the 2nd century CE, after five centuries of exclusively Prakrit inscriptions. Various hypotheses have tried to account for this fact. Senart (1886) proposed that Sanskrit gained wider currency through Buddhists and Jains. Franke (1902) claimed that Sanskrit died out in India and was artificially reintroduced. Lévi (1902) argued for usurpation of Sanskrit by the Kshatrapas, foreign rulers who employed brahmins in administrative positions. Pisani (1955) instead viewed the “Sanskrit Renaissance” as the brahmins’ attempt to combat these foreign invaders. Ostler (2005) attributed the victory of Sanskrit to its ‘cultivated, self-conscious charm’; his acknowledgment of prior Sanskrit use by brahmins and kshatriyas suggests that he did not consider the victory a sudden event. The hypothesis that the early-CE public appearance of Sanskrit was a sudden event is revived by Pollock (1996, 2006). He argues that Sanskrit was originally confined to ‘sacerdotal’ contexts; that it never was a natural spoken language, as shown by its inability to communicate childhood experiences; and that ‘the epigraphic record (thin though admittedly it is) suggests … that [tribal chiefs] help[ed] create’ a new political civilization, the “Sanskrit Cosmopolis”, ‘by employing Sanskrit in a hitherto unprecedented way’. Crucial in his argument is the claim that kāvya literature was a foundational characteristic of this new civilization and that kāvya has no significant antecedents. I show that Pollock’s arguments are problematic. He ignores evidence for a continuous non-sacerdotal use of Sanskrit, as in the epics and fables. The employment of nursery words like tāta ‘daddy’/tata ‘sonny’ (also used as general terms of endearment), or ambā/ambikā ‘mommy; mother’ attest to Sanskrit’s ability to communicate childhood experiences. Kāvya, the foundation of Pollock’s “Sanskrit Cosmopolis”, has antecedents in earlier Sanskrit (and Pali). Most important, Pollock fails to show how his powerful political-poetic kāvya tradition could have arisen ex nihilo. To produce their poetry, the poets would have had to draw on a living, spoken language with all its different uses, and that language must have been current in a larger linguistic community beyond the poets, whether that community was restricted to brahmins (as commonly assumed) or also included kshatriyas (as suggested by Ostler). I conclude by considering implications for the “Sanskritization” of Southeast Asia and the possible parallel of modern “Indian English” literature.