Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'English language – Zimbabwe'

This study focuses on the use of English as the sole medium of instruction in Zimbabwean schools and the effect of such a policy on the educational achievement of students, particularly in secondary schools. The role of Shona and Ndebele, two other Zimbabwean official languages, in schooling is also examined.
Some of the findings reveal a learning and teaching environment that prevents strategies from addressing linguistic, social and cultural development with a coherent workable vision in the English classroom.
Because English is the working language of government, business, and industry in Zimbabwe, an English-only policy seems to be a practical means to prepare students for higher education and the workforce. The growing status of English as an international lingua franca provides additional support for such a policy.
This study reveals the need to rethink the imposition of an English-only policy. The findings indicate that current teaching approaches/methods and materials do not entirely support language development in English, largely because they do not take into account the economic, social, and linguistic situations of the students.
The study supports and calls for a multifaceted approach to the way language is currently taught in Zimbabwe, and sees this as one way secondary schools can produce, through the medium of English instruction, students and teachers who can adapt to rapid change, and relate to people from diverse socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
The study emphasizes the integration and expectations of people's views on language and education, as heard and expressed by many respondents. This is considered central to any meaningful effort towards linguistic competence, a challenging but stimulating learning environment, and better communication among students and teachers.

Thesis (PhD)-- Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study considers a lexicographical intervention in the acquisition and use of English in Zimbabwe. English is the country’s sole official language. This means that it dominates all the other languages in the country in terms of prestige and usage in the high status domains such as government, media, law, education, etc. English is learnt as a compulsory subject throughout the education system up to the General Certificate of Ordinary Level (‘O’ Level) and used as medium of instruction from the fourth grade upwards. The annual national pass rate of around 33% and less than 10% for some schools in this subject has been recorded in recent years. An ‘O’ Level certificate is considered complete if is has registered five ‘O’ Level subjects including English. This means that without an ‘O’ Level English pass, learners have no chance to proceed to the General Certificate in Education Advanced Level (‘A’ Level) or tertiary education, and their chances of getting employment in the public service are limited, if not non-existent. In the mainstream scholarship on language policy and language planning in the country, this situation has resulted in advocating that indigenous languages, particularly Shona and Ndebele, be developed and elevated to the official status currently enjoyed by English. Far from being against the development and status elevation of indigenous languages, this study proposes a lexicographical intervention in the acquisition and use of English as one of the necessary mechanisms that may mitigate some problems associated with this language. It is argued that the problem with English is not simply that it is a language of foreign origin, to be explicit, the language of the former colonial master. Rather, the problem is that the majority of Zimbabweans are not competent enough to function in this language. Of course, this may be related to the fact that many Zimbabweans have to learn it as an additional language since it is not an indigenous language and thus linguistically and culturally distant from the native languages of its learners. Dealing with the field of lexicography, this dissertation considers an intervention with respect to those problems that may be addressed by the consultation of dictionaries. The availability, use and user-friendliness of English dictionaries are investigated in view of the characteristics of Zimbabweans as additional language learners of English, their situations in which lexicographically-relevant problems occur and the subsequent information needs. In doing this, the theory of learners’ lexicography (Tarp 2004; 2004a; 2008) is used. Firstly, it is established that dictionaries are scarce commodities in Zimbabwe, with a very limited range of dictionaries being available for Zimbabweans to buy. Secondly, dictionaries are not actively used in the learning and use of English within the school system, except in the former Group A schools which are elitist in nature. Curriculum developers, teachers, assessors and learners are not very clear about the role of dictionaries within the school system. Thirdly, the dictionaries that are used are not appropriate for the learners who consult them, with advanced learners’ dictionaries dominating the limited presence even at primary schools. Notwithstanding this poor background, it is generally accepted that appropriate dictionaries, despite the fact that there is a general lack of awareness of the differences between dictionaries, may address some of the problems associated with English, especially within the education system. Should this happen, the learners will develop a dictionary culture and regard dictionaries as utility products which they may rely on later in their academic and professional careers in which English continues to be dominant. A model of lexicographical intervention in the acquisition and use of English in Zimbabwe is therefore formulated. This is done against the above background and also the history of both English and Zimbabwean lexicography. English lexicography now sees English dictionaries being produced in a host of countries other than Britain, America, Australia and New Zealand, where English is a native language. This is mainly because of the dominant role that English has acquired in those countries such as South Africa. However, Zimbabwean lexicography has thus far focused on mother-tongue dictionaries in Shona and Ndebele, the main reason being the need to develop these formerly marginalised languages. Accordingly, the proposed model seeks to expand the scope of Zimbabwean lexicography. This is not just for the sake of expanding. On the contrary, in the research it is observed that the dictionaries constituting the envisaged lexicographical intervention have to be produced in Zimbabwe in order for them to effectively address the local needs regarding this language. For example, lemma selection, paraphrases of meaning, illustrative examples and data contained in the outer texts have to be linguistically and culturally relevant, taking into cognisance the native languages and cultures of the target users. It is observed that if the proposed model is to be successfully implemented, local publishers will need to play an important role, while curriculum developers, assessors, teachers and learners have to be lexicographically educated. At present, local publishers with international affiliations distribute externally-motivated dictionaries (Gouws 2005). Where dictionaries are used, no serious consideration is given regarding the appropriateness of the dictionaries. Any available dictionary is purchased regardless of its user-friendliness. Unfortunately this results in a situation where users fail to extract the best from the dictionaries and end up being disillusioned about the usefulness of dictionaries as utility tools. Some of the dictionaries found at schools are just locked in safe cabinets in headmasters’ offices while learners continue experiencing problems that could be solved by appropriate dictionaries. Accordingly, with lexicographical pedagogy, and further research on specific aspects of the model, a lexicographical intervention in the acquisition and use of English in Zimbabwe is considered a worthwhile enterprise.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie beskou 'n leksikografiese tussenkoms in die verwerwing en gebruik van Engels in Zimbabwe. Engels is die land se enigste offisiële taal. Dit beteken dat dit al die ander tale in die land oorheers wat betref prestige en gebruik in die hoërstatusterreine soos die regering, media, reg, opvoeding, ens. Engels word as 'n verpligte vak geleer dwarsdeur die opvoedingstelsel tot by die Algemene Sertifikaat van Gewone Vlak ('O'-vlak) en gebruik as onderrigmedium vanaf die vierde graad en hoër. Die jaarlikse nasionale slaagsyfer van rondom 33% en minder as 10% vir sommige skole in hierdie vak is in onlangse jare waargeneem. 'n 'O'-vlaksertifikaat word as volledig beskou indien dit vyf 'O'-vlakvakke insluitende Engels geregistreer het. Dit beteken dat sonder die slaag van Engels op 'O'-vlak leerders geen kans het om voort te gaan na die Algemene Sertifikaat in Opvoedkunde Gevorderde Vlak ('A'-vlak) of tersiêre onderwys nie, en hul kanse is beperk, indien nie niebestaande nie, om werk in die openbare diens te kry. In die hoofstroomvakkundigheid betreffende taalpolitiek en taalbeplanning in die land het hierdie situasie daartoe gelei dat bepleit word dat die inheemse tale, veral Sjona en Ndebele, ontwikkel en verhef word tot die offisiële status wat tans deur Engels geniet word. Verre van teen die ontwikkeling en statusverheffing van die inheemse tale te wees, stel hierdie studie 'n tussenkoms in die verwerwing en gebruik van Engels voor as een van die noodsaaklike meganismes wat sommige probleme wat verband hou met hierdie taal, kan versag. Daar word geredeneer dat die probleem met Engels nie eenvoudig is dat dit 'n taal van vreemde herkoms, om dit onomwonde te stel, die taal van die vroeëre koloniale baas is nie. Die probleem is eerder dat die meerderheid Zimbabwiërs nie bedrewe genoeg is om in hierdie taal te funksioneer nie. Dit kan natuurlik verwant wees aan die feit dat baie Zimbabwiërs dit as 'n bykomende taal moet leer aangesien dit nie 'n inheemse taal is nie en daarom linguisties en kultureel verwyder is van die inheemse tale van sy leerders. Omdat dit oor die gebied van die leksikografie handel, beskou hierdie verhandeling 'n tussenkoms met betrekking tot daardie probleme wat deur die raadpleging van woordeboeke benader kan word. Die beskikbaarheid, gebruik en gebruikersvriendelikheid van Engelse woordeboeke word ondersoek met betrekking tot die kenmerke van Zimbabwiërs as leerders van Engels as 'n bykomende taal, hul omstandighede waarin leksikografies relevante probleme voorkom en die gevolglike inligtingsbehoeftes. Om dit te doen, word die teorie van aanleerdersleksikografie (Tarp 2004; 2004a; 2008) gebruik. Eerstens is vasgestel dat woordeboeke skaars artikels in Zimbabwe is, met 'n baie beperkte reeks woordeboeke vir Zimbabwiërs om te koop. Tweedens word woordeboeke nie daadwerklik aangewend by die leer en gebruik van Engels binne die skoolstelsel nie, behalwe in die vroeëre Groep A-skole wat elitisties van aard is. Leerplanontwikkelaars, onderwysers, assessore en leerders het nie baie groot duidelikheid oor die rol van woordeboeke binne die skoolstelsel nie. Derdens, die woordeboeke wat gebruik word, is nie geskik vir die leerders wat hulle raadpleeg nie, met gevorderde aanleerderswoordeboeke wat selfs in primêre skole die beperkte aanwesigheid oorheers. Nieteenstaande hierdie swak agtergrond, word dit algemeen aanvaar dat geskikte woordeboeke, ten spyte van die feit dat daar 'n algemene gebrek aan 'n bewustheid van die verskille tussen woordeboeke is, sommige van die probleme wat met Engels verband hou, veral in die onderwysstelsel, kan oplos. Sou dit gebeur, sal leerders 'n woordeboekkultuur ontwikkel en woordeboeke as nutsartikels beskou waarop hulle later kan steun in hul akademiese en professionele loopbane waarin Engels voortgaan om oorheersend te wees. 'n Model van leksikografiese tussenkoms in die verwerwing en gebruik van Engels in Zimbabwe word gevolglik geformuleer. Dit word gedoen teen die voorafgaande agtergrond en ook die geskiedenis van sowel Engelse as Zimbabwiese leksikografie. Engelse leksikografie toon tans dat Engelse woordeboeke voortgebring word in 'n menigte ander lande as Brittanje, Amerika, Australië en Nieu-Seeland waar Engels 'n inheemse taal is. Dit is hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die oorheersende rol wat Engels in daardie lande soos Suid- Afrika verkry het. Zimbabwiese leksikografie het egter tot sover gefokus op moedertaalwoordeboeke in Sjona en Ndebele, met as hoofrede die behoefte om hierdie voorheen gemarginaliseerde tale te ontwikkel. Gevolglik probeer die voorgestelde model om die omvang van Zimbabwiese leksikografie uit te brei. Dit is nie net ter wille van uitbreiding nie. Inteendeel. In die navorsing word dit waargeneem dat die woordeboeke wat die beoogde leksikografiese tussenkoms uitmaak, in Zimbabwe voortgebring moet word vir hulle om die plaaslike behoeftes met betrekking tot hierdie taal doeltreffend te benader. Byvoorbeeld, lemmakeuse, betekenisparafrases, toeligtende voorbeelde en data bevat in die buitetekste moet linguisties en kultureel toepaslik wees om die inheemse tale en kulture van die teikengebruikers in aanmerking te neem. Daar word opgemerk dat, om die voorgestelde model suksesvol deur te voer, plaaslike uitgewers 'n belangrike rol sal moet speel, terwyl leerplanontwikkelaars, assessore, onderwysers en leerders leksikografies opgevoed sal moet word. Op die oomblik versprei plaaslike uitgewers met internasionale verbintenisse ekstern-gemotiveerde woordeboeke (Gouws 2005). Waar woordeboeke gebruik word, word geen ernstige oorwegings geskenk aan die geskiktheid van woordeboeke nie. Enige beskikbare woordeboek word gekoop ongeag sy bruikbaarheid. Ongelukkig lei dit tot 'n situasie waar gebruikers in gebreke bly om die beste uit die woordeboeke te haal en ontnugter eindig oor die nuttigheid van woordeboeke as gebruiksgereedskap Sommige van die woordeboeke wat in skole aangetref is, word net in veilige kaste in skoolhoofde se kantore weggesluit, terwyl leerders voortgaan om probleme te ondervind wat opgelos kan word deur geskikte woordeboeke. Met leksikografiese opvoeding, en verdere navorsing oor bepaalde aspekte van die model, word 'n leksikografiese tussenkoms in die verwerwing en gebruik van Engels in Zimbabwe gevolglik as 'n verdienstelike onderneming beskou.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD ( Language Education)
Ordinarily, Teacher Development at the level of Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) at Great Zimbabwe University (GZU) comes in two major phases spread over four years - the theoretical and the practical based phases. The theoretical phase comes in the form of courses based on pedagogical content and professional knowledge in the initial years at the university while the practical based phase comes in the form of school-based Teaching Practice (TP) for real and direct teaching experiences. The initial theoretical phase is often based on the liberal arts-like education to develop the whole teacher for adaptable life-long service. This is translated by a number of subject that can vary according the dictates of the focus of a particular national curriculum. TP on the other hand, provides student-teachers the opportunity to apply not only the knowledge acquired in the initial phase but also the schoolbased curriculum they are immersed in plus other contextual experiences they might have. If well-structured and blended, the two phases may ensure a smooth transition from a novice student teacher to an expert professional teacher for long-life practice.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Educational Psychology)) --University of Limpopo, 2012
This research project was an endeavor to investigate the effects of the languages of instruction (English and Shona), to teach Tsonga (Shangani) speaking children in Chiredzi district of Zimbabwe. Because of the nature of the study, a mixed method design was used where both qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted to study the performance of the Tsonga (Shangani) minority language speaking learners in five purposively sampled schools. 222 learners participated in the study. The main aim of the study was to investigate the effect of the language instruction in teaching Tsonga (Shangani) speaking Grade Seven children in Environmental Science. In fact, the researcher was interested in finding out whether teaching learners in a foreign language was a bridge or barrier to learning. In this case, the research did not only look at the effect of using English for instructional purposes, but also investigated how other major or dominant indigenous languages which are used for instructional purposes affect the performance of minority language speaking children in Chiredzi district of Zimbabwe. Data for this study were collected using lesson observation, document analysis, the questionnaire and a knowledge test. In this case, fifteen lessons were observed. Fifteen Tsonga (Shangani) speaking Grade Seven learners per school were purposively selected and taught in Tsonga (Shangani) only and the other fifteen Shona speaking Grade Seven children per school were also purposively selected and taught the same topic in Shona, and a third group of fifteen Grade Seven learners per school, were randomly selected and taught in English only. A knowledge test was given to each group thereafter. Children from each language condition were allowed to answer questions in their home languages, except for the third group which was taught in English. This group answered the questions in English with the restricted use of Shona. Each of the test results from the knowledge tests were analysed using a One Way Anova of Variance (ANOVA) and conclusions drawn. The results from other data collection instruments were analysed using qualitative methods like narrative discussions of data. A sample of five learners per school had their exercise books analysed. Data were presented in tables. The results from the knowledge tests given showed a significant difference in the mean marks obtained from the three groups (the Shangani, Shona and English group). The result showed that language has a significant influence on the performance of learners since the p – value was 0.000. This implies that the performance of learners between the three groups is significantly different. On the basis of these observations, the Null hypothesis was rejected. The same picture was also shown in document analysis and in the questionnaires. Consequently, conclusions were drawn and recommendations made.

The purpose of this study was to analyse formative assessment challenges facing English Language (L2) Secondary school teachers in the Makoni District of Zimbabwe. Data were collected from 25 English Language secondary school teachers pooled from 5 secondary schools in the Makoni District. The study utilised the pragmatic paradigm which allowed the use of the mixed methods approach. The study used the survey research design. Quantitative data were collected through questionnaires while qualitative data were collected through follow-up interviews, documents and non-participant observations. Cross-tabulations were used to present data which were then reported mainly in percentages. While most of the qualitative data were used to buttress findings established through the questionnaires, the other data were categorised into themes and analysed accordingly. Major challenges that were revealed by this study were that teachers used the teacher – centred approach, feedback given to pupils was not detailed, there was less time to assess appropriately and that teachers were not motivated to assess effectively. Remedial activities were not being carried out and that teachers’ training in assessment was not thorough. Shortage of teaching and learning resources and high teacher – pupil ratios were some of the challenges that teachers faced. There was lack of coordination of agencies involved in assessment and that assessment was examinations – oriented. Assessment policy formulation did not involve teachers and that most pupils were not motivated to learn. On the basis of these findings, the study recommended the provision of adequate teaching and learning resources, provision of appropriate pre-service and in – service training programs as well as involving the teachers in the formulation of assessment policies.

This essay explores the living conditions of the main characters Kambili in Purple Hibiscus by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Tambudzai in Nervous Conditions by Tsitsi Dangarembga and their struggle to achieve personal freedom. It aims to show that colonial stereotypes are challenged through the girl´s struggles. It starts with a short exposé over post-colonial theory, here a methodological viewpoint, which is important to consider Kambili and Tambudzai from. It furthermore considers how their extensive family circumstances have impact on these two young protagonists, and finally examines how they employ formal and informal education as a tool to make changes in their lives and become inspirational young African women.

Includes bibliographical references.
The thesis - which locates itself at the interface between linguistic and literary studies - explores the possibility of developing a ‘Marxist- stylistic’ method of text interpretation, which primarily proceeds from Althusserian Marxist Criticism, but which also incorporates salient elements of Critical Discourse Analysis. In construction of the method, the thesis first investigates the need for Althusserian Marxist criticism to be mediated, and more specifically, the areas in which this mediation is required. The thesis then crosses over to the field of Critical Discourse Analysis where it identifies relevant theoretical and methodological resources that are capable of mediating the ‘gaps’ identified in Althusserian Marxist criticism. The construction of the Marxist stylistic method is then effected through the transfer of germane theoretical and methodological resources from Critical Discourse Analysis to Althusserian Marxist criticism. The distinctive properties of the emergent Marxist-stylistic method are delineated before the method is practically applied to the interpretation of at least four fictional texts – all written and set in Zimbabwe. The key outcome of the thesis is that a distinctive method of text interpretation, which meaningfully separates itself from Althusserian Marxist criticism, on the one hand, and Critical Discourse Analysis, on the other, emerges. The thesis concludes with a reflection on the application of the method and makes some suggestions for further research and development in the area herein labelled as ‘Marxist stylistics.’

The aim of this study was to explore language censorship in Zimbabwean films in Shona and English. The study concentrated on the themes of politics, culture and economic in the genre of the documentary, feature and short film genres. It was demonstrated that the Zimbabwean laws enabled authorities to impose censorship strategies that ranged from banning, restriction, persecution of filmmakers, withdrawal of films from circulation, and threats of withdrawal of permits of film retailers. These visible, direct and banal forms of censorship have forced some filmmakers to flee the country. Most of the filmmakers who have remained in the country have been forced to deal with themes that appear harmless to the state. This state induced form of self-censorship on the filmmakers has resulted in the production of uncritical, and unreflective films whose staple diet were embedded in cultural stereotypes. The study argued that language is a signifying practice that cannot be interpreted in a single direction. Thus, despite these realities of film censorship some filmmakers deliberately encoded or used verbal and visual film language that generated surplus meanings with which the films could be re-read in ways that reveal new linguistic strategies to evade and challenge both the restrictive censorship laws as well as criticise the undemocratic political culture that has taken root in Zimbabwe. The study used eclectic theories such as Marxism, audience-reception approach, critical legal theories and language theories to analyse the films. The explanatory capacity of these theories helped to reveal the contradictory ways in which the desire to impose restrictions on film meanings was constantly undermined in the innovative language of the films.
African Languages
D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

This study analyses the perspectives of teachers on English as a language of learning and teaching in the context of government recommendations that Shona and Ndebele be used alongside English as languages of learning and teaching in Zimbabwean secondary schools. Through a questionnaire survey, open interviews and classroom observation, it was found that the teachers regard English as a language of learning and teaching in a positive way though they are aware of the difficulties associated with its use. There was a high consensus on the desirability of English among teachers as informants with various attributes obtained attitude, pedagogical beliefs and perceived difficulties scores that were, in the main, not statistically significant. It also emerged that government recommendations for the use of endoglossic languages as languages of learning and teaching (LoLT) have not been complemented by concrete measures and that the subsequent efforts to change the language-in-education policy have so far seemed insincere.
Linguistics
M.A. (With specialisation in Applied Linguistics)

The Zimbabwean Education Act of 1987 stated that English was the official language of learning and teaching (LoLT) from grade four upwards. From grade three downwards, the mother tongue was to be used. That Education Act was later amended in 2006, to extend the use of the mother tongue up to grade seven. As a college lecturer, I have observed that there is tension between policy and practice. English and indigenous languages are vying for supremacy as the LoLT from as early as the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level. For the majority of these learners, English is a second language. This research aims to investigate problems emanating from the use of English as a second language (ESL) in learning and teaching Environmental Science (ES) at primary school level. Its objectives are to investigate the usefulness of the language policy currently in use in Zimbabwe as well as to investigate empirically, how grades four to seven teachers and their pupils communicate in class during ES lessons; and identify problems resulting from the use of ESL during ES lessons at primary school level and suggest solutions to these problems. I purposively chose ES because I developed interest in that subject when I taught it at college level where I observed many students teaching it for almost three decades. Most of the pupils these students taught struggled to communicate in ESL. My research was not intended to test existing theory. Therefore I chose an inductive (qualitative) approach. I adopted the phenomenological case study in which I collected data from the natural setting, namely: three purposively selected primary schools. I did my pilot study at the fourth school. I used four methods of data collection, namely: direct observation, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. The participants were grades four to seven teachers and their pupils. Findings of this study show that pupils were not willing to participate in class oral discourse. When teachers asked questions, pupils usually gave one-word answers. Teachers and pupils spoke the same first language (L1). So, when they failed to express themselves coherently in English, they code-switched to their L1. When that happened, most of the pupils were eager to talk. They gave correct responses in their L1. Group discussions were very lively when they were held in the pupils’ L1. But when teachers instructed the pupils to discuss in English, many pupils were silenced because of their limited English proficiency (LEP). It was very evident that ESL was a barrier to the learning of ES for many learners. Pupils faced conceptual and communication problems because most of them were not yet proficient enough to use ESL effectively to learn ES. Participants welcomed code-switching to L1 as a solution to their limited English proficiency.
Educational Studies
D. Phil. (Education)

Various researches across the world have established that graffiti writing is a universal social practice. The actual occurrence or manifestation of graffiti is however far from being universal cross-culturally. It varies based on a wide array of social variables. This research therefore set out to interrogate the occurrence of graffiti writing as a unique social practice in Zimbabwean urban areas. Three Zimbabwean urban areas (Harare, Chitungwiza and Gweru) were specifically sampled for the collection of graffiti inscriptions on various surfaces which included toilet walls, durawalls as well as road signs. Graffiti data collected from the various surfaces was complemented by reader feedback contributions from The Herald and Newsday. Focus group discussions provided a third tier of data aimed at establishing participants’ multiple reactions towards the practice of graffiti. Analysis of data was done based on three significant sections of participants’ attitudes towards graffiti, urban street protest graffiti as well as educational graffiti collected from various toilet surfaces in urban areas. Participants’ attitudes towards graffiti revealed varied reactions towards the practice of graffiti. The reactions were partly influenced by the participants’ ages as well as levels of education and maturity. Age and maturity proved to be predictors of the extent to which participants were willing to be pragmatic in so far as the appreciation of graffiti writing is concerned. Older and more experienced and mature participants were thus willing to look past the ‘deviant’ nature of graffiti writing to consider the various pressures that force writers to take to the wall. Urban street protest graffiti is a term coined in this research to capture the unique type of graffiti that is written on various surfaces along streets in urban areas. This highly textual graffiti is drastically different from the post-graffiti commonly found in Western urban cities and is aptly referred to as street art. Urban street protest mainly manifested itself in Zimbabwean urban areas in two main themes of protest inscriptions directed towards the operations of Zimbabwe’s electrical energy supplier (commonly referred to by its former name of the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority - ZESA) as well as through political inscriptions. Political inscriptions expose a high degree of nuances that have not been hitherto discussed in literature on political graffiti inscriptions. The research analysed how graffiti writing can be employed for both pro-hegemonic and anti-hegemonic purposes. Inscriptions in high schools and tertiary institutions highlighted a differential construction of discourse on a gendered basis. Inscriptions in female toilets indicated a tendency of graffiti writers to perpetuate dominant educational, health, traditional and religious discourses which assert male dominance. The inscriptions show a major preoccupation with restricting or policing of female sexuality by fellow students mainly through the discursive usages of social corrective Shona labels such as hure (prostitute) and gaba ([big] tin). These are labels that are virtually absent in graffiti inscriptions in male toilets which is suggestive of a situation whereby female inscriptions are conservative. A consequence of such conservatism in inscriptions in female toilets is that no new sexualities are reconstructed and negotiated through discourses in discursive spaces provided by the inherently private nature of toilets in general. Thus, cultural and religious normative expectations are regarded as still weighing heavily on female high school writers in the construction and negotiation of sexuality and gendered behaviours, attitudes, norms and values through discourses constructed through graffiti. In contrast, male inscriptions highlight a major subversion of dominant discourses on abstinence and responsible sexual behaviours and attitudes. Corrective social labels such as ngochani (gay person) are mainly employed to pressure males into indulging and engaging in heterosexual behaviours. Discourses constructed through graffiti inscriptions in male toilets also demonstrate how sexuality is constructed through debate on the appropriateness of marginalised sexualities such as masturbation and homosexuality.
African Languages
D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

Academic achievement in the context of the school necessarily involves a whole range of factors. The education system and schools in particular, have assumed the primacy of cognitive attributions in the learner over that of any other factors in the shaping and honing of individual academic achievement. However, the literature revealed that the learning process within the school environment feeds on a plethora of explanations for academic success or otherwise. Much work by researchers has focused on factors other than the cognitive, in an attempt to explain good or weak academic achievement. Certainly the separation of the cognitive from the affective in terms of achievement is impractical, as revealed by the literature. However the literature also contradicts received wisdom which suggests the omniscience of the cognitive as an explanatory tool for academic performance. This investigation focused on factors other than the cognitive in order to seek reasons for academic success. Three important affective factors were selected from the literature in order to ascertain whether these factors played a role in academic achievement or indeed if there was a relationship between these factors and scholastic success or otherwise. An empirical investigation was conducted which consisted primarily of a questionnaire for form four students in English classes. The questionnaire consisted of four sections with a total of 81 items. It was completed by 271 students attending five schools in Mutare Zimbabwe. Statistical analyses revealed that the affective factors attitudes towards English, self-concepts of academic ability and student perceptions of their teachers of English correlated significantly. The analyses also revealed that the selected factors took up 33% of the variance and that within that 33% the area in which students lived was the most important factor contributing to academic achievement whilst I.Q. and student self-concept of academic ability followed closely. The results of the literature study and the empirical investigation demonstrated that there are factors other than the cognitive which are important in terms of academic success in school As a result recommendations were made regarding school based programmes where the aim is to enhance affective factors and therefore achievement.
Educational Studies
D.Ed. (Psychology of Education)

The research study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of the instructional methods, particularly the lecture-discussion instructional method as a teaching and learning method at grade 7 level, in Shurugwi district, Zimbabwe. The subject taught being English language. The experimental method (quasi-experimental) used at the twenty chosen schools was the pre-test and post test group method. It was found that the lecture-discussion instructional method produced better results in more cases than the discussion method alone. It was also found that work produced by the lecture-discussion instructional method was more refined than work produced by the discussion method alone. Guided learners were more work focused than learners discussing alone without a teacher. Average and below average learners did not enjoy learning without the presence of the teacher talk. The learners, during teacher absence, seemed hesitant and confused at times. The lecture-discussion method seems to cater for all the learners and their learning styles. The importance of the teacher in the class was clearly demonstrated by the work and results produced by the learners at the twenty selected primary schools in Shurugwi district, Midlands province, Zimbabwe. All the learners that received treatment from the experiment produced better results than their control groups that did not receive the treatment. However, conclusions and generalisations can not be made because the samples used and the areas covered were too small in size. The learners studied were too few to make meaningful generalisations and conclusions for the country. Further researches should be carried out in future.
Curriculum and Instructional Studies
M. Ed. (Didactics)

The study sought to explore possibilities of using ChiShona as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools. The aim was to compare the use of English as a medium of instruction with ChiShona as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to Grade 4 class. The other objective was to examine the people’s attitudes towards the use of mother tongue instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in Zimbabwe primary schools. A practical teaching experiment was used to investigate the feasibility of using ChiShona as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to Grade 4 class. In addition a descriptive survey research design which used questionnaires and interviews as data collection methods was employed for its usefulness in exploratory studies. A total of 750 people participated in the research and these were 40 Grade 4 learners (used for teaching experiment) 260 teachers/lecturers, 250 parents and 200 college/university learners. Data gathered was subjected to both quantitative and qualitative analysis resulting in data triangulation for validation. Major findings of the research indicated that the use of ChiShona as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics to primary school children is possible and that the use of the mother tongue instruction (ChiShona) impacted positively in the teaching of Mathematics to Grade 4 learners. The use of ChiShona as a medium of instruction in teaching Mathematics was effective and comparatively the learners who used ChiShona performed better than those who used English as a medium of instruction. However the research further concluded that people preferred that English remain the only medium of instruction from primary up to university level as English offers them better opportunities for employment compared to ChiShona. The study concludes that the continued use of English as medium of instruction means that African languages such as ChiShona will remain underdeveloped and fail to find their way in the classrooms as languages of instruction in education. The study finally recommends the need for an all-inclusive multi-lingual policy that uplifts the status of indigenous languages and their literature without annihilating English.
African Languages
D. Litt et Phil.

Department of English
PhD (English)
The study sought to investigate the role played by learners’ mother tongue, in the teaching and learning of English in secondary schools in Zimbabwe. Two secondary schools in Masvingo District were used as a case study. The study was informed by bilingualism, models of bilingualism and related theories such as Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Communication Strategies. The selected communication strategy that was focused on is code-switching. This communication strategy reveals the important role that the learners’ L1 can play in learning English. The study, therefore, sought to gain insights into the beliefs of secondary school teachers and learners of English about the use of code-switching in the teaching and learning of English. The study also sought to investigate the ESL teachers’ perceptions on the relationship between code-switching and emerging varieties of English called New Englishes, as well as the teachers’ perceptions on the teaching of such local varieties of English. The inquiry adopted a qualitative research paradigm and focused on two purposively sampled secondary schools comprising one rural day, and one urban boarding school that also enrols day learners. It was the researcher’s belief that these schools would offer useful insights about the role of the learners’ L1 in the teaching and learning of English. The study employed three data collection tools, namely observation, interviews and focus group discussions. Ten Form One and ten Form Three English lessons were observed per school, to give a total of twenty lessons. The four ESL teachers whose lessons were observed at the two schools were interviewed. The researcher also held focus group discussions with a sample of a group of ten Form One and ten Form Three English learners per school. Thus, four focus group discussions were held. Data were analysed and presented qualitatively through identification of emerging themes, and through descriptions, narratives, direct quotes, and tables. Results show that the ESL teachers and learners who participated in the study code-switched from English to the learners’ L1 as a communication strategy and teaching and learning tool, mainly to foster understanding among learners and between the learners and their teachers, and for other communicative and social functions. Results also indicate that there was more code-switching at School B (rural day secondary school) than at School A (urban boarding secondary school), although the teachers’ and learners’ code-switching functions at the two secondary schools were by and large similar. It also emerged that the frequencies of the teachers code v switching differed from teacher to teacher, with Teacher A (urban boarding secondary school) code-switching moderately and Teacher B (urban boarding secondary school) code-switching minimally, while Teacher C and Teacher D (rural day secondary school) code-switched frequently. With regard to the learners, the study revealed that Class A learners (urban boarding secondary school) code-switched moderately during formal classroom exchanges with their teacher, but code-switched a lot among themselves. Class B learners (urban boarding secondary school), Class C and Class D learners (rural day secondary school), code-switched minimally during formal classroom exchanges with their teachers. However, as was the case with Class A learners, they code-switched a lot among themselves. The teachers were largely tolerant of their learners’ code-switching although they showed awareness of the possible negative effects of learners’ code-switching in the learning of ESL. As for the learners, the majority expressed an appreciation of their teachers’ code-switching but there were also negative sentiments against the teachers’ code-switching. The inquiry also revealed that there was unanimous agreement among the four teachers that there is a relationship between code-switching and New Englishes. In addition, two of the teachers expressed the view that there is nothing wrong with teaching the local variety of English in the schools, while the other two said they preferred the teaching of ‘standard’ English. In light of the findings, the study recommends that language policy planners revisit the English-only policy in the school and consider adopting the endonormative rather than the exo-normative model of English for the education system. The study also recommends that the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should hold workshops to sensitise teachers on how code-switching may best be employed as a teaching and learning tool. Furthermore, the study recommends that ESL teachers be guided by the Postmethod pedagogy, a sense of plausibility as well as the notion of relativism in their decisions on code-switching. In addition, the inquiry recommends that the Zimbabwe Schools Examinations Council be sensitive to aspects of the local variety of English rather than set exo-normative models. Finally, the study recommends that further research be done on code-switching in school types which were not included in the sample for the present study.

The study critically explored the language of reportage of the Zimbabwe Land Reform programme as presented in selected Shona and English newspapers in Zimbabwe. The study focused on Kwayedza, The Herald, The Daily News and The Daily Mirror. The objective was to find out whether or not the verbal and visual languages used in reporting the Land Reform programme left readers more knowledgeable about the programme, and then adopt a critical attitude towards the Land Reform exercise. The study used qualitative textual analysis to unpack the language frames used in representing Land Reform in the selected newspapers. Some relevant critical voices from readers were also enlisted in order to support or complicate interpretations of how Land Reform was portrayed in the selected stories. Kwayedza and The Herald unequivocally supported the Land Reform. This official stance was contested in Chapter Four in which The Daily News adopted an ideological position opposed to both the idea of the Land Reform and the confiscatory way the land was repossessed. The Daily News’ extremely negative criticism of the Land Reform was challenged and then modified in The Daily Mirror. The Daily Mirror criticised both the government’s extremely supportive view of the Land Reform. The Daily Mirror also openly criticised The Daily News for refusing to acknowledge the historical inevitability and necessity of the Land Reform. The Daily Mirror advanced a perspective that suggested that Land Reform programme should benefit the masses more than the elites. It was argued that in contexts of political change such as that of Zimbabwe, newspapers take a stance and support particular ideological interests.
African Languages
D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

This study sought to examine linguistic and discursive strategies used to construct messages reflective of the implementation of the HIV and AIDS policy for Zimbabwe of 1999 by government and private newspapers. Such analysis was perceived to be important since media content has a bearing on Zimbabweans‘ perception and attitudes regarding HIV and AIDS prevention, treatment and control. The study was aimed at comparing messages from newspapers with views by the people of Zimbabwe regarding the implementation of the policy. Findings reveal that empowerment programmes particularly those targeting women and children are lagging behind as Zimbabweans, literature and newspaper data sources testify. In addition, information sources concur that cultural (For example, stigmatisation, polygamy, religious practices, spouse inheritance) and structural (For example, patriarchy, masculinity, bureaucracy, politics) are stumbling blocks that negatively affect the implementation of the policy. Further, even though private and government newspapers do not fully agree on the portrayal of human agents, there is a general consensus between newspaper reports and Zimbabweans that people still face socio-economic and econo-political challenges that militate against the smooth implementation of the HIV and AIDS policy. Government newspapers tend to downplay aspects which reveal inadequacies of government activities. The study notes this as betrayal of use of ideological squares both by government and private newspapers whereby certain aspects regarding the implementation of the policy are either downplayed or highlighted to influence perception. The study reveals that newspaper reports used nominalisation, quantification, positive politeness, thematisation, rhematisation, intertextuality, euphemism, proverbs, idioms, action verbs, metaphors and citation of experts as linguistic and discursive strategies both for agenda setting and building purposes regarding the implementation of the HIV and AIDS policy. Other devices used particularly in the encoding of Operation Murambatsvina are, claptraps, deictic referencing, personal pronouns, adjectives and direct speech. The study attributes problems regarding the Zimbabwean HIV and AIDS intervention model to the top – down approach inherent in the policy. Hence, the call for an adoption of an unhu/hunhu/ubuntu inspired bottom – up HIV and AIDS intervention model in Zimbabwe. This would inculcate pro-family, pro-village, pro-nation/people and ―servant leadership‖ (Mangena and Chitando, 2011) values in the fight against the pandemic through the embracing of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). Unfortunately, such values largely continue to elude the radar of the current top – down HIV and AIDS intervention model cuurently in use in Zimbabwe.
African Languages
D. Litt et Phil. (African Languages)

Text in English with summaries in English, Shona and isiXhosa
Bibliography: leaves 140-144
Personal names carry significant meaning in African cultures. The research critically argues that among the Shona speaking people of Zimbabwe, given names are not just mere tags or labels but carry and convey a significant message to the family or society of the named person. The message is often descriptive of the person named or their family. It describes the circumstances around the birth of the named or the conditions of their parents or their country and or their environment. The research further shows that names derived from socio-cultural experiences may have a plurality of meanings and also that they may be used to predict or explain something about the person named, including their parents or environment. Philosophically then, to name is to confirm, or to negate, and to confer something to the person named or to describe the circumstances of their birth.
Mazita edungamunhu ane chirevo mutsika nemagariro evanhu vemuAfrica. Donzvo retsvakurudzo ino rinotaura nezvevanhu verudzi rweChiShona munyika yeZimbabwe, richiti mazita anopihwa vana haangova mazita chete, asi anetsanangudzo yakakosha zvikuru kumhuri kana kuti munzvimbo yaberekerwa munhu wacho, kana kuti kumuridzi wezita racho. Tsananguro yacho inotaura nezvemuridzi wezita kana kuti kumhuri yaaberekerwa. Tsananguro yacho inotsanangudza mamiriro enguva yaberekwa munhu wacho kana kuti tsika nemagariro evabereki vake kana mamiriro emunyika yaaberekwa kana kuti munzvimbo yaaberekerwa. Tsvakurudzo ino inoenderera mberi ichitaura kuti mazita evanhu anobva mutsika memagariro evanhu anoreva zvinhu zvakawanda nekuti dzimwe nguva anoshandiswa kutaura zvichauya kana kutsanangura nezvemuridzi wezita kana vabereki vake, dzimwe dzenguva nzvimbo yavanogara. Saka fungidziro inoti, kupa zita kubvumirana kana kupikisana, kana kuti kugadza chigaro pamunhu kana kuti katsanangudza mamiriro akaita nguva yaaberekwa.
gama lomntu linentsingiselo enzulu kwiinkcubeko zama-Afrika. Uphando lubonisa ngokucacileyo ukuba phakathi kwabantu baseZimbabwe abantetho isisiShona, igama alinikwayo umntu asinto nje yokuphawula, koko ngumyalezo obalulekileyo omalunga nosapho okanye uluntu lwalowo uthiywa igama. Lo myalezo ula ngokuchaza ngalowo uthiywayo okanye usapho lwakhe. Kuchazwa iimeko ezingqonge ukuzalwa kwakhe okanye imeko yabazali bakhe, isizwe sakhe okanye indalo ebangqongileyo. Uphando lubonakalisa ukuba amagama asekelwe kumava enkcubeko nezentlalo anganeentsingiselo eziliqela. Ngaphaya koko, la magma asenokusetyeniziselwa ukuqikelela okanye ukucacisa okuthile malunga nalo uthiywayo, abazali bakhe okanye indalo ebangqongileyo. Ngokwefilosofi ke ngoko, ukuthiya igama kukungqina okanye kukuphikisa, kukubethelela inyaniso ethile ngomntu othiywa igama, ikwakukuchaza iimeko zokuzalwa kwakhe.
Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology
M. Phil. (Philosophy)

This study discusses the evolutionist approach to African history as an action plan for challenging the hegemony of English in university education and in the teaching and writing of literature in post-independence Africa. The researcher selected Zimbabwe’s university education and literary practice as the microcosm case studies whilst Africa’s university education and literary practice in general, were used as macrocosmic case studies for the study. Some two universities: the Midlands State University and the Great Zimbabwe State University and some six academic departments from the two universities were on target. The researcher used questionnaires to access data from university students and lecturers and he used interviews to gather data from university departmental Chairpersons, scholars, fiction writers and stakeholders in organizations that deal with language growth and development in Zimbabwe. Data from questionnaires was analysed on the basis of numerical scores and percentage of responses. By virtue of its not being easily quantified, data from interviews was presented through capturing what each of the thirteen key informants said and was then analysed on the basis of the hegemonic theory that is proposed in this study. The research findings were discussed using: the evolutionist approach to the history of Africa; data from document analysis; information gathered through the use of the participant and observer technique and using examples from what happened and/or is still happening in the different African countries. The study established that the approaches which have so far been used to challenge the hegemony of English in post-independence Africa are not effective. The approaches are six in total. They are the essentialist, the assimilationist, the developmentalist, the code-switch, the multilingualist and the syncretic. They are ineffective since they are used in a wrong era: That era, is the era of Neocolonialism (Americanization of the world). Therefore, the researcher has recommended the use of the evolutionist approach to African history as a strategy for challenging the hegemony in question. The approach lobbies that, for Africa to successfully challenge that hegemony, she should first of all move her history from the era of Neocolonialism as she enters the era of Nationalism.
African Languages
(D.Litt. et Phil. (African Languages))

This study is an attempt to determine the impact of teachers' attitudes on their classroom behaviour and therefore on their implementation of the Communicative Approach. A descriptive case study was conducted at six secondary schools in Harare, Zimbabwe (as ESL environment) to determine the effect of 38 O-level English teachers' attitudes on their classroom practice. Quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection, including a questionnaire, an observation instrument and a semistructured interview were used to gauge teachers' attitudes, assessing the extent to which attitudes are reflected in their classroom behaviour, and eliciting teachers' verbalisation of how they conceive of their professional task. The findings show that the effective implementation of the Communicative Approach was critically dependent on teachers' positive attitudes towards this approach in the five categories covered by this study.
Linguistics
M.A. (Applied Linguistics)

The research highlights the problems of the diglossic relationship between Shona and English in the teaching-learning situation in Zimbabwe secondary schools. It focuses on how English as a high variety language adversely affects the performance of learners writing 'O' level Shona examinations in secondary schools. The research also confirms that teachers and learners of Shona in Zimbabwean secondary schools have a negative attitude towards Shona. Finally, the use of English in the teaching of Shona, the less hours allocated to Shona, the low esteem of Shona vis-à-vis the dominance of English and the association of English with social mobility impact on the attitude of students towards Shona as a subject. This linguistic attitude coupled with orthographic problems causes low passes in Shona at 'O' level. Hence, one proposes, language awareness campaigns and the use of Shona in the teaching of practical criticism and grammar.
African Languages
M.A. (African Languages)