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Journal articles on the topic 'English literature – 19th century'
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1
Bush, Glen. "Teaching Ethnicity, Gender, and 19th Century English Literature: The Inclusive 19th Century." International Journal of Diversity in Organizations, Communities, and Nations: Annual Review 8, no. 5 (2008): 183–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/1447-9532/cgp/v08i05/39605.
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Jones, JC. "Cool flames in 19th century English literature." Journal of Fire Sciences 36, no. 3 (March 4, 2018): 291–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734904118761642.
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Dr Mubashar Saeed and Sadia Irshad. "CHILDREN'S URDU LITERATURE." Tasdiqتصدیق۔ 4, no. 2 (December 30, 2022): 139–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.56276/tasdiq.v4i2.100.
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One of the major fields of literature and journalism is Children's Literature. In the 19th century, the tradition of the publication of magazines in Urdu journalism became very strong, but the first regular magazines for children began in the early twentieth centure. “Bachon Ka Akhbar” of Munshi Mehboob Alam is regarded as the first children magazine published in May 1902. So far more than 300 such magazines have been launched till now. The Role of Government in this regard also praiseworthy. In the last half of Twentieth Century Government of Pakistan translate many booklets from English Literature to Urdu Literature for Children. It made the history of children literature.
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Mahlberg, Michaela, Viola Wiegand, Peter Stockwell, and Anthony Hennessey. "Speech-bundles in the 19th-century English novel." Language and Literature: International Journal of Stylistics 28, no. 4 (November 2019): 326–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963947019886754.
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We propose a lexico-grammatical approach to speech in fiction based on the centrality of ‘fictional speech-bundles’ as the key element of fictional talk. To identify fictional speech-bundles, we use three corpora of 19th-century fiction that are available through the corpus stylistic web application CLiC (Corpus Linguistics in Context). We focus on the ‘quotes’ subsets of the corpora, i.e. text within quotation marks, which is mostly equivalent to direct speech. These quotes subsets are compared across the fiction corpora and with the spoken component of the British National Corpus 1994. The comparisons illustrate how fictional speech-bundles can be described on a continuum from lexical bundles in real spoken language to repeated sequences of words that are specific to individual fictional characters. Typical functions of fictional speech-bundles are the description of interactions and interpersonal relationships of fictional characters. While our approach crucially depends on an innovative corpus linguistic methodology, it also draws on theoretical insights into spoken grammar and characterisation in fiction in order to question traditional notions of realism and authenticity in fictional speech.
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Wenjuan, Tian. "TWO ORIENTALISMS: THE ROLE OF ORIENTAL DICTION IN G. G. BYRON’S THE BRIDE OF ABYDOS AND I. I. KOZLOV’S RUSSIAN TRANSLATION." Russkaya literatura 2 (2021): 50–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.31860/0131-6095-2021-2-50-53.
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«Oriental diction» is an important exotic element of Byron’s poem The Bride of Abydos. Using Oriental words that jarred with English poetry of early 19th century, and accompanying them with extensive notes, Byron gave his poem an experimental and scholarly character. While translating the English poem into Russian, I. I. Kozlov chose a creative approach to the problem of reproducing the Oriental diction (the exotic and bizarre words, style and poetics were somewhat downplayed), the reasons being the originality of the Russian culture of the early 19th century and Kozlov’s own literary taste.
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Priydarshi, Ashok Kumar. "History and Development of the Problem Play in English Literature." Journal of Advanced Research in English and Education 06, no. 03 (December 8, 2021): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.24321/2456.4370.202104.
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The genre, ‘problem play’ originated in France in the late 19th century. Notable example are Ibsen’s ‘A Dolls’ House’ (1879), questioning the subordination of women in marriage, Shaw’s ‘Mrs Warren’s Profession’ (1902), examining attitudes towards prostitution; and Galsworthy’s ‘Justice’ (1910), exposing the cruelties of solitary confinement and the legal system. Some plays by later writers such as A. Wesker, J. McGrath, Caryl Churchill, H. Brenton and D. Hare also raise contemporary issues, often using a wider canvas than their predecessors.
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Priydarshi, Ashok Kumar. "History and Development of the Problem Play in English Literature." Journal of Advanced Research in English and Education 06, no. 03 (December 8, 2021): 1–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.24321/2456.4370.202104.
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The genre, ‘problem play’ originated in France in the late 19th century. Notable example are Ibsen’s ‘A Dolls’ House’ (1879), questioning the subordination of women in marriage, Shaw’s ‘Mrs Warren’s Profession’ (1902), examining attitudes towards prostitution; and Galsworthy’s ‘Justice’ (1910), exposing the cruelties of solitary confinement and the legal system. Some plays by later writers such as A. Wesker, J. McGrath, Caryl Churchill, H. Brenton and D. Hare also raise contemporary issues, often using a wider canvas than their predecessors.
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Lardreau, E. "The Difference Between Epileptic Auras and Migrainous Auras in the 19th Century." Cephalalgia 27, no. 12 (December 2007): 1378–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2982.2007.01447.x.
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In the International Headache Society classification of headaches, the concept of aura is given a key role. It serves as a boundary between ‘migraine without aura’ and ‘migraine with aura’. Historically, the concept of an aura was borrowed from the epilepsy vocabulary; a borrowing that took place in English medicine at the beginning of the 19th century and in French medicine in the mid-19th century. It would therefore be interesting to see which features of the epileptic aura are used to explain the migraine aura. Based on the French and English medical literature of the 19th century, two processes have been reviewed: (i) the emergence of the concept of aura, and (ii) the modifications of this concept throughout the 19th century. It appears that the original medical use of the term ‘aura’ as a set of rising tactile sensations was in use from the 2nd century until late in the 19th century, but then various other symptoms were recognized and the aura gradually became accepted as an early part of the seizure. By the end of the 19th century the aura that preceded a migraine was seen as a similar process, and thought of as part of the migraine sequence.
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GÖKGÖZ, Turgay. "LITERATURE AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT IN BEYRUT IN THE 19TH CENTURY." RIMAK International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 297–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.47832/2717-8293.1-3.23.
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Throughout history, Beirut has been the habitat of different religions and nations. The people of various nations are made up of Christians and Muslims. Today, it is seen that languages such as Arabic, French and English are among the most spoken languages in Lebanon, where Beirut is located. Looking at Beirut in the 19th century, it was seen that colonial powers such as Britain and France were a conflict area, and at the same time it was one of the centers of Arab nationalism thought against the Ottoman Empire. During the occupation of Mehmet Ali Pasha, missionary schools were allowed to open, as well as cities such as Zahle, Damascus and Aleppo, Jesuit schools were opened in Beirut. With the opening of American Protestant schools, the influence of the relevant schools in the emergence and development of the idea of Arab nationalism is inevitable. Especially in Beirut, it would be appropriate to state that the aim of using languages such as French and English instead of Arabic education in missionary schools is to instill Western culture and to attract students to Christianity. The students of the Syrian Protestant College, who constituted the original of the American University of Beirut, worked against the Ottoman Empire within the society they established and aimed to establish an independent secular Arab state. Beirut comes to the fore especially in areas such as poetry and theater before the “Nahda” movement that started in Egypt during the reign of Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt. The advances that paved the way for the development of modern literature in Beirut before Egypt will find a place in the field of literature later. In this study, it is aimed to present information on literary and cultural activities that took place in Beirut and emphasize the importance of Beirut in modern Arabic literature in the 19th century.
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GÖKGÖZ, Turgay. "LITERATURE AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT IN BEYRUT IN THE 19TH CENTURY." RIMAK International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 297–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.47832/2717-8293.1-3.23.
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Throughout history, Beirut has been the habitat of different religions and nations. The people of various nations are made up of Christians and Muslims. Today, it is seen that languages such as Arabic, French and English are among the most spoken languages in Lebanon, where Beirut is located. Looking at Beirut in the 19th century, it was seen that colonial powers such as Britain and France were a conflict area, and at the same time it was one of the centers of Arab nationalism thought against the Ottoman Empire. During the occupation of Mehmet Ali Pasha, missionary schools were allowed to open, as well as cities such as Zahle, Damascus and Aleppo, Jesuit schools were opened in Beirut. With the opening of American Protestant schools, the influence of the relevant schools in the emergence and development of the idea of Arab nationalism is inevitable. Especially in Beirut, it would be appropriate to state that the aim of using languages such as French and English instead of Arabic education in missionary schools is to instill Western culture and to attract students to Christianity. The students of the Syrian Protestant College, who constituted the original of the American University of Beirut, worked against the Ottoman Empire within the society they established and aimed to establish an independent secular Arab state. Beirut comes to the fore especially in areas such as poetry and theater before the “Nahda” movement that started in Egypt during the reign of Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt. The advances that paved the way for the development of modern literature in Beirut before Egypt will find a place in the field of literature later. In this study, it is aimed to present information on literary and cultural activities that took place in Beirut and emphasize the importance of Beirut in modern Arabic literature in the 19th century.
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Hundt, Marianne, and Benedikt Szmrecsanyi. "Animacy in early New Zealand English." English World-Wide 33, no. 3 (October 29, 2012): 241–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/eww.33.3.01hun.
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The literature suggests that animacy effects in present-day spoken New Zealand English (NZE) differ from animacy effects in other varieties of English. We seek to determine if such differences have a history in earlier NZE writing or not. We revisit two grammatical phenomena — progressives and genitives — that are well known to be sensitive to animacy effects, and we study these phenomena in corpora sampling 19th- and early 20th-century written NZE; for reference purposes, we also study parallel samples of 19th- and early 20th-century British English and American English. We indeed find significant regional differences between early New Zealand writing and the other varieties in terms of the effect that animacy has on the frequency and probabilities of grammatical phenomena.
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Dedovic-Atilla, Elma. "Byron’s and Shelley’s Revolutionary Ideas in Literature." English Studies at NBU 3, no. 1 (May 31, 2017): 27–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.33919/esnbu.17.1.2.
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The paper explores the revolutionary spirit of literary works of two Romantic poets: George Gordon Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. In the period of conservative early 19th century English society that held high regard for propriety, tradition, decorum, conventions and institutionalized religion, the two poets’ multi-layered rebellious and subversive writing and thinking instigated public uproar and elitist outrage, threatening to undermine traditional concepts and practices. Acting as precursors to new era notions and liberties, their opuses present literary voices of protest against 19th century social, religious, moral and literary conventions. Their revolutionary and non-conformist methods and ideas are discussed and analyzed in this paper through three works of theirs: Byron’s The Vision of Judgement and Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage and Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound.
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Variano, Angelo. "Spigolature di anglicismi: a proposito di leggings e altri (recenti) forestierismi." Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 134, no. 2 (June 8, 2018): 568–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zrp-2018-0035.
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AbstractThe present article focuses on English-Italian language contact. In detail, we will show that supposedly recent borrowings such as leggings (GRADIT: 2004) or steward (1928) can already be observed in 19th-century Italian translations of English travel literature.
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Bækken, Bjørg. "The Progressive in 19th-century English. A Process of Integration." English Studies 89, no. 3 (June 2008): 370–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00138380801912677.
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Crowley, Sharon. "Histories of Pedagogy, English Studies, and Composition." College Composition & Communication 49, no. 1 (February 1, 1998): 109–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.58680/ccc19983176.
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The University of Pittsburgh Press Series in Composition, Literacy and Culture has recently published three titles which should be of interest to historians of literacy and of teaching. Two of the works under review collect historical documents from the 19th century. (Crowley 109).
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Young, Liz. "Paupers, Property, and Place: A Geographical Analysis of the English, Irish, and Scottish Poor Laws in the Mid-19th Century." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12, no. 3 (June 1994): 325–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/d120325.
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The diversity of poor law policy and practice in Britain in the mid-19th century is examined. Primary sources consulted include contemporary literature and the minute books of five poor law unions in Scotland. The discussion is set in the context of the existing literature on the New English Poor Law and the debate about the nature of British state formation. It is argued that by broadening the geographical scope of analysis to include consideration of the Irish and Scottish Poor Laws a more nuanced account of the processes and patterns of state formation emerges. Analysis of the ‘poverty question’ and attempts at its resolution through poor law policy illustrates the contradiction between 19th-century economic and political discourses. Poverty in Britain in the mid-19th century was structural and consequent upon economic processes which were geographically extensive, and debates about its resolution emphasised individual responsibility and reinforced national identities. Practice within each national territory was diverse and the new poor law machinery offered existing local political and economic interests a novel vehicle through which to exercise power.
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Small, Helen. "'In the guise of science' : literature and the rhetoric of 19th-century English psychiatry." History of the Human Sciences 7, no. 1 (February 1994): 27–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095269519400700102.
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Chakma, Tiasha. "The Early Phase of Japanese Literature in Bangla in Periodicals." IAFOR Journal of Literature & Librarianship 11, no. 1 (October 28, 2022): 85–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.22492/ijl.11.1.06.
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Many Japanese literary texts have been translated recently into Bangla. However, nobody has yet identified the first translation of Japanese literary text in the periodicals until today. The purpose of this paper is first to map the early phase of Japanese literature in Bangla periodicals; second, it attempts to distinguish the first piece of Japanese literature in Bangla; and third, it strives to ascertain the trends in interpreting Japanese literature in the second half of the 19th century. At least four pieces of literature are unearthed for the first time in this article. Despite not embracing the original Japanese or English name in the title in Bangla, Gonpachikomurasakihiyokufun (The Loves of Gompachi and Komurasaki) and Hone Kawa (Bones and Ribs) became the earliest Japanese literary specimens in Bangla. Colonial influence and preference for works of religious significance pertinent to Bengal society – are pinned down as the trends in interpreting Japanese literature in periodicals in the 19th century.
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Saif, Mohammad. "Modernism and Romanticism: A Comparative Study of the Selected Poems of W.B. Yeats and John Keats." SMART MOVES JOURNAL IJELLH 7, no. 6 (June 28, 2019): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.24113/ijellh.v7i6.8849.
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Romantic poetry was especially concerned with the themes of country life which is also known as pastoral poetry; moreover it also employed mythological and fantastic settings. Romanticism focuses more on the individual than society. The Romantics were fascinated especially by the individual imagination and individual consciousness. “Melancholy” was quite the exhortation for the Romantic poets. A firm loosening of the persistent rules of artistic expression, during earlier times, was observed in the Romantic era.
In English literature, modernism has its roots in 19th and 20th century; the age was characterised by an unexpected and sudden release from conventional ways of viewing the world and interacting with it. Individualism and Experimentation, which were often heartily discouraged in the past, became the modern virtues. The modernist period in English literature was an intuitive response towards the prevailing aesthetics and culture of the Victorians culture of the 19th century. At the turn of the twentieth century, artists and intellectuals blamed the writers of earlier generation for misleading the society, thereby resulting in a dead end. They had the ability to predict hence they could foresee that world events were escalating into a mysterious territory.
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Antal, Tamás. "Changes in the English jury in the 19th and 20th centuries." Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta, Novi Sad 57, no. 4 (2023): 1307–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/zrpfns57-45501.
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The present paper deals with the short history of the English jury in the modern age. The main goal of the author is completing a historical research and finding the most important features concerning legal institutions of the Anglo-Saxon type of lay jurisdiction in England and Ireland. The historical perspective gives a chance to examine the institutions of the jury as a court of citizens integrated into the jurisdiction of the state for a brief period of time. The author takes the view in several periods from the early 19th century up to the end of the 20th century. It is not the procedure but the organisational rules which are under discussion here with special attention to the conditions which determined the role of the jury as a part of county courts and sessions as well as the central tribunals in London. The literature was collected in the British Library during research intervals to have the opportunity to work from special sources not cited by Central-European scholars yet.
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Fadhil Hasobi, Dr Wael. "Indo-Anglian Novel: The impact of the west on Indian life from a sociological point of view." International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation 4, no. 6 (2023): 77–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.54660/.ijmrge.2023.4.6.77-81.
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This paper is an attempt to describe briefly the contribution of Indian writers in the literature in English language. Many Indian writers believed that English language is a gateway to western knowledge. Contact with English language and literature was fruitful to the regional languages, as it led to the growth and development of creative literature in these tongues. The use of English led to the Indian Renaissance of the 19th century. In this paper, two novels, Music for Mohini and The Serpent and The Rope, have been discussed to prove that English has acted as a link language among various regional languages, meanwhile, those novels exposed the conflict between two cultures and showed the direct or indirect impact of English language and culture on the Indian traditions and spirit.
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Ashrafli, Nazifa. "The gender problem in the 19th century summary." Scientific Bulletin 1, no. 1 (2021): 40–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.54414/porv2035.
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This article addresses the gender issue of the 19th century. XIX century in England. This century is generally considered Victorian, although this is not quite the correct idea. The Victorian era refers to the period from 1837 to 1901, when Great Britain was ruled by Queen Victoria. So Queen Victoria began her reign only in 1837. In the Victorian era (1837-1901), it was the novel that became the leading literary genre in English. Women played an important role in this growth in the popularity of both authors and readers. Circulating libraries that allowed books to be borrowed for annual subscriptions were another factor in the novel's popularity. The 1830s and 1840s saw the rise of the social novel. It was a lot of things response to rapid industrialization, as well as social, political, and economic challenges associated with it and was a means of commenting on the abuses of government and industry and the suffering of the poor who did not profit from the English economy. Stories about the working-class poor were aimed at the middle class to help create sympathy and foster change. The greatness of the novelists of this period is not only in their veracity description of modern life, but also in their deep humanism. They believed in the good qualities of the human heart and expressed their hopes for a better future. At the end of the eighteenth century, two young poets, W. Wordsworth and S. Coleridge, published a volume of poems called "Lyric ballads". From this moment began the period of romanticism in England, although it did not last long, only three decades, but it was truly bright and memorable for English literature. It was this time that gave us many great novels. Even in the Middle ages, clear and distinct gender boundaries were drawn and stereotypes of gender behavior were defined. Everyone was assigned their own specific roles and their violation caused public hatred. A Victorian married woman was her husband's "chattel"; she had no right property and personal wealth; legal recourse in any question, if it was not confirmed by her husband. Socio-economic changes in the middle of the XIX century lead to changes in the status of women middle and lower strata: gaining material independence and sustainable development socio-economic status, women acquire a social status equal to that of men. Women are beginning to fight against double standards in relation to the sexes, for reforms in the field of property rights, divorce, for ability to work. The next step was to raise the issue of women's voting rights as a means to ensure legislative reform. Women they sought independence from men.
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Ujma, Martyna. "The Science of Polish Verse (?). Rzecz o teorii notacji poetyckiej Sidneya Laniera w kontekście współczesnych kulturowych teorii literatury." Tematy i Konteksty 16, no. 11 (2021): 486–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.15584/tik.2021.31.
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The article presents the theoretical-literary concept developed by Sidney Lanier in the second half of the 19th century in America. The author presents the assumptions of the theory of poetic notation, primary and secondary rhythm, and the links between literature and the social landscape described by the American in “The Science of English Verse” and “The English Novel”. The considerations are included in the framework of reflection on the way of shaping contemporary cultural literary studies.
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Montedoro, Beatrice. "Union First Line Index of English Verse, 13th-19th Century. Database." Renaissance and Reformation 42, no. 2 (October 24, 2019): 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1065131ar.
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Jonasson, ME, and R. Afshari. "Historical documentation of lead toxicity prior to the 20th century in English literature." Human & Experimental Toxicology 37, no. 8 (October 27, 2017): 775–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327117737146.
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Lead is a heavy metal that remains a persistent environmental toxin. Although there have been a substantial number of reviews published on the health effects of lead, these reviews have predominantly focused on recent publications and rarely look at older, more historical articles. Old documents on lead can provide useful insight in establishing the historical context of lead usage and its modes of toxicity. The objective of this review is to explore historical understandings and uses of lead prior to the 20th century. One hundred eighty-eight English language articles that were published before the year 1900 were included in this review. Major themes in historical documentation of lead toxicology include lead’s use in medical treatments, symptoms of lead poisoning, treatments for lead poisoning, occupational lead poisonings, and lead contamination in food and drinking water. The results of this review indicate that lead’s usage was widespread throughout the 19th century, and its toxic properties were well-known. Common symptoms of lead poisoning and suggested treatments were identified during this time period. This review provides important insight into the knowledge and uses of lead before the 20th century and can serve as a resource for researchers looking at the history of lead.
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Baloyan, Varduhi. "Translations of English Children’s Literature in the Armenian Periodicals in India." Translation Studies: Theory and Practice 2, no. 2 (4) (December 20, 2022): 49–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.46991/tstp/2022.2.2.048.
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Translations had a significant role both in the popularization of Eastern Armenian and the establishment of literary and cultural ties between the Armenian community and the British. The purpose was to further the international outlook, understanding and emotional experience of foreign environments and cultures, on the one hand, next was to make more literature available to children and to contribute to the development of the readers’ set of values.
It should be noted that literary relations first of all contributed to the emergence of bilingual dictionaries. Shmavonian published an English-Armenian dictionary which was intended “for the entertainment of studious children” (Mkhitaryan 2016:81).
19th century was marked by social political changes and created conditions for the development of new Armenian literature which was so important for shaping the mind set and behavior of the Armenian children. Thus, Armenian translators translated literature in connection with social and economic forces.
The Armenian printing business in India operated for a century and published almost 200 books, booklets and more than ten periodicals. In this article some translations published in Azdarar (The Intelligencer, 1794, Madras), Azgaser (the Patriot, 1845, Calcutta), Azgaser Araratian (Patriot Araratian, 1848. Calcutta), and Hayeli Kalkatian (Mirror of Calcutta, 1820, Calcutta) are examined.
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Moon, Francis C. "Franz Reuleaux: Contributions to 19th century kinematics and theory of machines." Applied Mechanics Reviews 56, no. 2 (March 1, 2003): 261–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1523427.
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This review surveys late 19th century kinematics and the theory of machines as seen through the contributions of the German engineering scientist, Franz Reuleaux (1829–1905), often called the “Father of Kinematics.” Extremely famous in his time and one of the first honorary members of ASME, Reuleaux was largely forgotten in much of modern mechanics literature in English until the recent rediscovery of some of his work. In addition to his contributions to kinematics, we review Reuleaux’s ideas about design synthesis, optimization and aesthetics in design, and in engineering education, as well as his early contributions to biomechanics. A unique aspect of this review has been the use of Reuleaux’s kinematic models at Cornell University and in the Deutsches Museum, in Munich, as a tool to rediscover lost engineering and kinematic knowledge of 19th century history of machines. This review article cites 108 references.
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Hu, Xin. "Paratexts in English Translations of Chinese Classical Novels in China Review." Journal of Theory and Practice of Social Science 4, no. 05 (May 31, 2024): 26–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.53469/jtpss.2024.04(05).03.
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This paper takes the Chinese classical novels published in the English periodical China Review as the research object and examines the paratexts in the English translations, particularly paying attention to prefaces, annotations, and other peritexts, to explore the functions and roles of these paratexts in the translation process. By studying the paratexts of Chinese classical novels in China Review, we can understand the translation of Chinese classical novels in the 19th century and their dissemination in the Western world, providing references for the translation and dissemination of Chinese literature.
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Christie, Frances. "The study of language and subject English." Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 27, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 15–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/aral.27.1.02chr.
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Abstract Applied linguistics has not sufficiently addressed theories of teaching subject English in the mainstream classroom. This is unfortunate because applied linguistic theories can offer a great deal to the development of a theory of subject English. Over the last century, subject English has changed quite fundamentally, and it is increasingly in need of a theory of language to shape its future. At the end of the 19th century, English was a set of discrete English skills. Later, as literature achieved greater status at the university level, its teaching was also brought into school English, though the discrete skills and literary pursuits were at best brought into an uneasy amalgam. By the 1960s, in an effort to overcome the uneasy amalgam, “integrated” models of English teaching were proposed, and it was argued that the goal of the English program should be to promote “growth” through language. Terms like “language development” were adopted in English, though this was ironically at a time that teaching of knowledge about language became discredited. By the 21st century English had become increasingly synonymous with “literacy”, though a robust theory of knowledge about language was badly needed. Subject English needs new directions, of a kind that functional theories of language can provide.
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Böhmerová, Adela. "Historical Aspects of Early Contacts of Slovaks with English." ELOPE: English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries 19, no. 2 (December 31, 2022): 63–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/elope.19.2.63-85.
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This study is devoted to tracing, presenting and linguo-culturally interpreting some of the aspects of the early history of the contacts of Slovaks with the English language. Although English in Slovakia started to be of interest to several men of letters already in the 18th century, the need for it as means of communication only arose in the US in the second half of the 19th century among Slovak immigrants. The paper focuses above all on Janko Slovenský’s book as the first material assisting Slovaks in the acquisition of English, and analyses its content, educational merit and cultural value. Also surveyed is the history of the first dictionaries contrasting English and Slovak. The final part introduces the beginnings of English studies in Slovakia dating from the early 1920s, and their early development. The study offers insight into an educationally important subject that so far has only marginally received scholarly attention.
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Bianucci, Raffaella, Simon T. Donell, Francesco M. Galassi, Tiziana Lanza, Grazia Mattutino, Andreas G. Nerlich, and Luca Sineo. "The Salafia embalming formula: do it well or don’t do it at all." Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology 127, no. 1 (August 28, 2023): 7–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/ijae-14513.
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Medical imaging allows non-invasive investigation of human remains. While paleoimaging is undoubtedly necessary in mummy studies, it is intrinsically limited in the sense that it cannot provide mummy experts with information on the chemical composition of the embalming substances. This holds particularly true for modern embalmed mummies (19th-20th centuries). Since the end of the 19th century, cadavers were arterially injected with chemicals which varied depending on different methods. One of those embalming methods was Salafia’s, which was much advertised in the USA. Since attempts at experimental reproduction of the Salafia method are planned by our team, a re-examination of the published literature on the formula was made. Here we provide evidence that an error in unit conversion from gallons to litres occurred and that the same mistake was repeated in the majority of the published English literature with a single exception which went unnoticed. Furthermore, we provide English speaking embalmers and mummy scholars with the complete and correct translation of the original version of Salafia’s formula.
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Jenner, Bryan. "‘Articulatory settings’." Historiographia Linguistica 28, no. 1-2 (September 7, 2001): 121–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.28.1.09jen.
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Summary The term ‘articulatory setting’ first appeared in English phonetic literature in a much-cited article by Beatrice Honikman (1964). The link between this term and a set of synonyms used by a range of 19th century European scholars was amply demonstrated by Laver (1978). By examining a few of the many sources available, this article seeks to show, as Laver’s article did not, that the phenomenon that Honikman discusses has been almost continuously present in German phonetic literature from Sievers (1876) onward, and that British scholars in the 20th century failed to take account of this. As a result, the concept was entirely absent from British phonetic literature from about 1909 until 1964. Against this background the article also seeks to establish possible direct sources for Honikman’s ideas.
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Williams, Sandra. "On the Cusp of the Canon." Libri et liberi 9, no. 1 (November 18, 2020): 11–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.21066/carcl.libri.2020.1.1.
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This period, the first half of the 19th century, stands on the cusp of the first Golden Age of English children’s literature. While publications from the mid-1800s onwards, such as Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, The Secret Garden and The Wind in the Willows, have become part of the cultural landscape, those from the first half of the 19th century are largely unfamiliar and forgotten. If read at all, they are studied by academics rather than read by children. Publications at that time reveal the tensions between the perceived need for improving, moralising books and those that might give pleasure to the reader. It will be argued in this article that amongst the more didactic works, there are indicators of what was to follow. Attention is drawn to chapbooks for children and to a number of titles which have enjoyed a degree of longevity.
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Feng, Li, and Chengyao Jian. "An Exploration of the Causes of Tess’s Tragedy in Tess of the D’Urbervilles." International Journal of Education and Humanities 15, no. 1 (July 7, 2024): 309–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/696pfz49.
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Tess of the D’Urbervilles, a novel written by the renowned British author Thomas Hardy, stands as a gem of the 19th-century English literature. The novel describes the bumpy life of Tess, a young woman born into a poor peddler’s family, mirroring the impact of the industrial rise on rural life in the 19th century. This paper, taking the female predicament in the Victorian era - limited education, passive marriage, and constrained employment, as its starting point and focusing on Tess’s image as a kind, independent, and rebellious character, delves into the multifaceted factors that contributed to her tragic fate, including impoverished familial background, hypocritical social morality, and spiritual oppression from religion. These factors intertwined, forming an invisible force that gradually pushed Tess into the abyss. Despite her resilient defiance, Tess ultimately succumbed to the dictates of fate, becoming a casualty of the progression of the times.
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Kolykhalova, Olga A., and Anna Yu Kuldoshina. "Perceptions of Russian Literature in Britain in the end of the XIX — beginning of the XX century." NSU Vestnik. Series: Linguistics and Intercultural Communication 17, no. 4 (2019): 119–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7935-2019-17-4-119-129.
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The purpose of the article is to analyze the existing ideas about Russian literature in Britain at the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries. A brief overview of the advancement of works by Russian classics among British readers is given. The spread of Russian literature in Britain had been progressing slowly for a long time due to the difficulty in translation and the lack of interest in Russia and Russian culture. However, at the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries, the situation changed in the British literary community. This period saw a plethora of publications of translations of Russian fiction that were accomplished by professional translators, Slavonic scholars, and writers. These translations appeared in periodicals and other print formats. The article provides an overview of the translation of works of F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, who have become the most understandable and accessible to the English mentality. It happened thanks to such outstanding translators as C. Garnett, Aylmer and Louise Maude, S. S. Koteliansky (who worked in collaboration with V. Woolf, J. M. Murry), R. E. C. Long and others. Having gained access to high-quality translations of Russian classics, British writers began to study their works in greater detail. The British saw the influence of English and European writers (W. Shakespeare, Ch. Dickens, J.-J. Rousseau, J. W. Goethe, V. Hugo, etc.), e.g., in F. M. Dostoevsky’s works. However, later the Russian influence could also be felt in the Western novel, modifying it. There is an opinion that the works of A. P. Chekhov, translated by Garnett, changed the English short story, making it exactly as we know it. V. Woolf, J. Joyce, B. Shaw, J. Galsworthy, A. Bennett and others admired the depth, style, and language of Russian writers. Translation of works of great Russian authors facilitated the flow of information about Russia and expanded the Brit’s view on the country and its people. It once again confirms the existence of mutual cultural exchange between the two countries from a historical perspective. It can be argued that, despite all the complexities of the relationship, the mutual influence of the literatures of the two countries is quite significant.
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Funda, Evelyn I. "“With Scalpel and Microscope in Hand”: The Influence of Professor Lucius Sherman's 19th-Century Literary Pedagogy on Willa Cather's Developing Aesthetic." Prospects 29 (October 2005): 289–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0361233300001770.
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Today few, if any, scholars of American literature have heard of University of Nebraska English Professor Lucius Adelno Sherman (Figure 1), and if they know of him at all, it is likely through his antagonistic association with a young Willa Cather, who had been his student in Nebraska in the 1890s (more on that relationship in the latter part of this essay). During that last decade of the 19th century, however, this Yaleeducated professor was becoming well known in his own right as a soughtafter educator and literary critic who, during his more than fifty-year career, wrote seven books on the study of literature and education and edited several others.
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Tubbs, R. Shane, Payman Vahedi, Marios Loukas, Mohammadali M. Shoja, and Aaron A. Cohen-Gadol. "Hubert von Luschka (1820–1875): his life, discoveries, and contributions to our understanding of the nervous system." Journal of Neurosurgery 114, no. 1 (January 2011): 268–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2010.8.jns10683.
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One of the most prolific anatomical writers of the 19th century, Hubert von Luschka made significant contributions to our knowledge of neuroanatomy. His publications and textbooks were standards for their day. However, very little is written of his life in either the English or the German literature. His name lives on eponymously in more than 20 anatomical structures, including those most relevant to the neurosurgeon, the foramina of Luschka and uncovertebral joints. In this article, the authors discuss the life and contributions of this prominent German surgeon and anatomist.
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Conde-Parrilla, M. Ángeles. "Hiberno-English and identity in Joyce’s A Portrait." Language and Literature: International Journal of Stylistics 22, no. 1 (February 2013): 32–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963947012469750.
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The present article addresses sociolinguistic issues in a literary context, namely regional variation in James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, a relevant, though not fully analysed, aspect of this novel. By the end of the 19th century most of Ireland was predominantly English speaking, but taking on a foreign language meant for the Irish a form of exile from their own identity, place and history. Revivalist writers responded to such a tension by using Hiberno-English, until it eventually became established as a literary medium. As is clear from my analysis, dialectal usage powerfully contributes to the vivid realization of most characters in Joyce’s novel, reflecting their regional provenance and social background. The representation of the linguistic situation thus offered is realistic and extensive, but also innovative in the context of the Irish Literary Revival. More importantly, it illustrates the protagonist’s views on national identity, and his struggles to find his own voice in the midst of the polyphony prevalent in turn-of-the-century Dublin. As this article argues, the dialogical tension between hybrid Irish English and standard English is truly essential to a comprehensive reading of A (colonial) Portrait.
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Frye, Carla B. "Using Literature in Health Care: Reflections on “The Yellow Wallpaper”." Annals of Pharmacotherapy 32, no. 7-8 (July 1998): 829–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1345/aph.17363.
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OBJECTIVE: To discuss how literature can be used to educate healthcare practitioners and students about the patient's physical and emotional response to treatment. DATA SOURCES: A MEDLINE search (January 1975-November 1997) of English-language literature pertinent to using literature in health care was performed. Additional literature was obtained from a search of the New York University Web site on medicine and humanities, biographies of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and a search of the MLA and INFOTRAC database. SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION: All articles and literature were considered for possible inclusion in this article. Pertinent information, as judged by the author, was selected for discussion. SUMMARY: Literature can pose a wealth of information to the healthcare professional. The short story “The Yellow Wallpaper” is analyzed in this article as one example of how literature portrays the patient's emotional response to disease. This short story describes a 19th-century woman's “descent into madness” and the ineffective treatment attempted by her well-meaning physician husband. The author, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, loosely based the story on her own experience with the respected physician, S Weir Mitchell and his famous rest cure. Some biographical information about Mitchell and Perkins is included, as well as a commentary on the treatment of depression in the 19th century. CONCLUSIONS: Short stories such as “The Yellow Wallpaper,” novels, and other short stories can help to remind the healthcare professional of the subjective nature of even our most proven therapies. As we strive to teach and deliver pharmaceutical care, we can use literature to help us understand the emotional impact of our drug therapies.
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Antonov, Nikolay K. "A review of research literature on the topic of the priesthood in the works of st. Gregory the Theologian." Issues of Theology 3, no. 2 (2021): 177–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu28.2021.204.
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The article examines the tradition of research on the topic of the priesthood in the legacy of St. Gregory the Theologian from the 19th century to 2020. The review includes general monographs on both the formation of the episcopate in Late Antiquity and specifically the legacy of Nazianzen, dissertations, publications in periodicals, dictionaries and encyclopedias on this topic, as well as on a wide range of related topics, key publications and translations of the Apology on his Flight — St. Gregory’s central text on the priesthood — in English, Russian, German, French and Italian. The following periodization of historiography is proposed: the early period (19th — middle of 20th centuries), theological studies of the Apology in the 50s–70s, studies and publications by J.Bernardi, the “new wave” of the 1990s and its development in the 21st century. In the last period, three main trends are identified: the Theologian’s texts on the priesthood are considered in the context of: the development of the image of a monk-bishop in Late Antiquity; platonic political philosophy; Gregory’s main theological concepts. The importance of research on other aspects of Gregory’s work is shown especially the categories θεωρία/πρᾶξις and his autobiographical texts. Two lines of further research are proposed as the most promising: intertextual analysis of the Apology and integral analysis of the entire legacy of St. Gregory through the prism of the priesthood theme.
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O'Donnell, Kathleen Ann. "Translations of Ossian, Thomas Moore and the Gothic by 19th Century European Radical Intellectuals: The Democratic Eastern Federation." Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature 43, no. 4 (December 30, 2019): 89. http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/lsmll.2019.43.4.89-104.
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<p>This article will show how translated works by European radical writers of <em>The Poems of Ossian</em> by the Scot James Macpherson and <em>Irish Melodies</em> and other works by the Irishman Thomas Moore, were disseminated. Moore prefaced <em>Irish Melodies</em> with “In Imitation of Ossian”. It will also demonstrate how Celtic literature, written in English, influenced the Gothic genre. The propagation of these works was also disseminated in order to implement democratic federalism, without monarchy; one example is the Democratic Eastern Federation, founded in Athens and Bucharest. To what extent did translations and imitations by Russian and Polish revolutionary intellectuals of Celtic literature and the Gothic influence Balkan revolutionary men of letters?</p>
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Mikhailova, Maria, and Sofya Kudritskaya. "Mire’s Interpretation of the Tragic and Paradoxical World of Oscar Wilde." Literatūra 63, no. 2 (November 22, 2021): 70–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/litera.2021.63.2.5.
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This article analyzes the reception of the figure of O. Wilde, the 19th-century English writer, and his works in the prose and criticism of Alexandra Mikhailovna Moiseeva (1874-1913), who entered the history of Russian literature of the Silver Age by the name of “Mire”. The study focuses mainly on her story Black Panther (1909), in which the author provides an original perspective on the tragic love episode in Wilde’s life. Attention is also paid to the thematic similarities between the works of Wilde and Mire in terms of genre, plot and literary image, as well as Mire’s interpretation of Wilde’s works in her critical reviews.
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Bangulzai, Abdul lateef. "Translation Studies in Brahui literature." Al-Burz 14, no. 1 (July 1, 2022): 14–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.54781/abz.v14i1.285.
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Translators should have a broad understanding of the languages being used in translation i.e. the language of the original text and the target language wherein the translation will be made. Thus, it is necessary that the translator should have sound knowledge and understanding of the language of the text and the translator's complete knowledge of his target language including educational, technical, practical, and linguistic skills at a mastery level. Similarly, the translator should be capable of making translation interesting and charming without losing the original essence. This article presents Maulvi Allah Bakhsh Zehri's the Handbook of Brahui Language in the 19th century with a Brahui translation of several Persian anecdotes followed by a translation from English into Brahui, titled "Brahui Reader". However, the art of translation in Brahui literature was first introduced by religious scholars and esteemed people with Arabic and Persian translations. For example. scholars of the Durkhani school of thought have been the source of many religious books, essays, commentaries, and valuable translations of the Holy Qur'an and Hadith in Brahui literature. This study discusses how the people benefited from the translations and commentaries of the Quran Majeed Furqan Hameed.
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Sikorska, Marta, and Aleksandra Sylburska. "The struggle of Polish feminist organisations to obtain the vote for women across the spectrum of Central Europe." Studia z Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej XIX i XX Wieku 26 (December 30, 2023): 43–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/2080-8313.26.03.
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The article presents the history of Polish feminist movements against the background of similar organizations in Bohemia and Hungary in 19th and 20th century. It describes their founders and members, cooperation between them and methods of activity leading to obtaining voting rights for women. Depicting similarities and differences between them, the article explains the complexity of factors creating the feminist movement in Central Europe. Their main goal was achieved only after the First World War. The authors mainly use texts by Polish feminists and literature in Polish, English, Czech and Hungarian. They used the comparative method during analysing the sources.
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Akai, Joanne. "Creole… English: West Indian Writing as Translation." TTR : traduction, terminologie, rédaction 10, no. 1 (February 27, 2007): 165–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/037283ar.
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Abstract Creole... English: West Indian Writing as Translation — This paper looks at the use of language(s) in Indo-Caribbean (i.e., West Indian of East Indian descent) writings. West Indian writers are Creole, in every sense of the term: born in (former) British colonies, they have a hybrid culture and a hybrid language. They operate from within a polylectal Creole language-culture continuum which offers them a wide and varied linguistic range (Creole to Standard English) and an extended cultural base ("primitive" oral culture to anglicized written culture). Indo-Caribbean writers, however, have access, not only to the Creole language-culture continuum, but also to the pre-colonial cultural, linguistic and religious traditions of their ancestors who came from India in the 19th century. But if Creole is the mother-tongue of all West Indians, English is the only language they know to read and write. West Indian literature in English constitutes an intricately woven textile of Creole and English : a hybrid writing made possible through the translation of Creole experience into English; oral Creole culture into written English; the Creole language into the English language. In fact, West Indian literature in English can be considered self-translation, for which the presence of the author as the translator gives authority to the hybridized product, a true extract of the West Indian writer and his Caribbean language-culture.
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Brintlinger, Angela. "GRIBOEDOV AND WITTINESS IN THE USA: UM, RAZUM AND ZAUM’." Culture and Text, no. 46 (2021): 115–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.37386/2305-4077-2021-3-115-121.
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In 2020 Columbia University Press in the United States published a new translation of A. S. Griboedov’s play Woe from Wit into English. In the article are discussed the experience of teaching the play in a classroom of non-specialist college students and the particular complications of the play for such readers. Examples from student papers are used and the problem of vocabulary in English is discussed. The author concludes that even though the new translation conveys the content of Griboedov’s play, gives American students an opportunity to expand their knowledge about 19th century Russia, and in parts remains a comedy, certain nuances of the playwright’s poetic inventions are not yet visible. In conjunction with A. S. Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin, Woe from Wit illustrates specific political and moral qualities of society in the first quarter of the century, but the idea of wit remains unclear for students. Teachers of Russian literature in institutions of higher education in the United States and other English-speaking countries, through wittiness, along with the concepts of wit, beyond sense, and reason, help students learn about Russia. The new edition of Griboedov is yet another instrument in this effort.
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Zhatkin, D. N., and A. A. Ryabova. "Russian Reception by James Hogg (Mid-19<sup>th</sup> — Early 20<sup>th</sup> Centuries)." Nauchnyi dialog, no. 10 (October 29, 2021): 213–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2021-10-213-225.
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The article continues a series of works devoted to the Russian reception of the Scottish writer James Hogg (1770—1835), a famous interpreter of folk ballads and author of “The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner” (1824). The facts and materials related to the perception of J. Hogg in Russia in the middle of the XIX — early XX century are collected and summarized. It is noted that during the period under review, no new translations of J. Hogg's poetry and prose into Russian were created, however, in the articles of leading literary critics (N. G. Chernyshevsky, M. L. Mikhailov, A. V. Druzhinin) when analyzing the works of N. V. Gogol, T. Goode, the translation activity of I. S. Turgenev expressed opinions on certain aspects of the biography and work of the Scottish author. It has been established that the main source of information about J. Hogge and his work was for the Russian reader of the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries translated publications on the history of English literature and culture, other books by Western European researchers published in Russia. The manifestations of interest of Russian researchers and popularizers of English literature in the work of J. Hogg are comprehended, with special attention paid to the article by N. A. Solovyov-Nesmelov “James Hogg”, which was a literary sketch about the childhood of the writer, and the essay by K. F. Tiander the novel of the first quarter of the 19th century, which offers a different assessment from the predecessors of the Scottish author’s activities as a continuer of the traditions of M. Edgeworth.
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Manai, Adel. "North Africa in the Tourist Guidebooks of the 19th and Early 20th Centuries." Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 11, no. 3 (May 10, 2020): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.36941/mjss-2020-0030.
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By the dawn of the twentieth century, a guidebook was a vital element of a tourist’s packing list and an item, which a tourist could not do without. The guidebook not only provided practical and useful information, but also advised the tourist about what ‘ought to be seen’. It accompanied the development and maturation of modern tourism and witnessed an explosion in the second half of the 19th century and after. The guidebook was gradually improved, highly commercialized, popularized, and extended to many parts of the world and somehow managed to impose ‘beaten tracks’ on tourists. Similarly, the guidebook accompanied European colonial schemes, served as a tool for them and reflected their agendas and the mindset of the age. This paper is based on a large number of French and English guidebooks spanning approximately the period between the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and addresses the following questions: when and how was North Africa included in the tourist guidebook literature? What visions did the guidebook provide of the region? How far did the guidebooks contribute to placing North Africa in the global tourist networks and with what effect?
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Muhajir, Fatimah. "THE PORTRAYAL OF ENGLISH GENTLEMAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AS SEEN IN DICKENS’ GREAT EXPECTATIONS NOVEL." CaLLs (Journal of Culture, Arts, Literature, and Linguistics) 6, no. 1 (June 17, 2020): 71. http://dx.doi.org/10.30872/calls.v6i1.3145.
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This study deals with the portrayal of English gentleman in the 19th century as seen in Charles Dickens' Great Expectations. The purpose of this study is to describe a portrait of the English gentlemen that are represented by the characters such as Pip, Herbert Pocket, Dumble, Mattew Pocket, Mr. Jaggers and Compeyson as illustrated by Dickens. This research uses descriptive qualitative method and sociology of literature theory by Diana Lawrenson and Alan Swingewood in analyzing the relationship between the portrayal of English gentelman and its social conditions in at the time. The results of this study shows that there are several categories of gentelman title that represented by the characters in the story, namely: Drummle is gentleman by birth (aristocrats), Pip is gentleman by wealth, Gentleman by education or the gentleman students include Pip, Herbert Pocket, and Dummle. The gentleman by profession represented by Mr. Matthew and Mr.Jaggers. While moral code ethics of the gentleman can detemine a man if he the true gentleman or fake / wicked gentleman. In fact the true gentleman in this story is Mr. Matthew while the fake gentleman is Compeyson.
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Luchkina, Olga A. "“FROM A LOG CABIN TO THE WHITE HOUSE”: BIOGRAPHIES OF AMERICAN PRESIDENTS IN A RUSSIAN BOOK FOR CHILDREN’S READING IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY." Children's Readings: Studies in Children's Literature 24 (2023): 187–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.31860/2304-5817-2023-2-24-187-210.
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The article discusses biographies of American presidents written and published by Russian writers in the second half of the 19th century. The biographies were predominantly original texts, based on documents, books, and other diverse sources in English. The paper analyzes the context of the era and the specifics of America-Russia relations in the second half of the 19th century, when several American presidents (Benjamin Franklin, Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, James Garfield) were the subjects of biographical narratives created by children’s writers Maria Rostovskaya, Alexander Khrebtov, Alexander Lyubimov, Anna Munt-Valueva, Alexan- dra Annenskaya, Catherine Sysoeva, and A. Platonov. The work identifies the techniques used in the biographies to construct the image of the hero- president, and the reasons why writers turned to the figure of the American president as an ideal model for emulation in the Russian children’s book. The identified plot features help to clarify the specifics of the genre model, which used the Bildungsroman. The narrative about the “thorny” life path of the presidents allowed the writers to demonstrate to the children the hard work and will of the characters, the results of the career (presidency, fame, independence of the country), emphasized the value of these qualities for the reader-child, and thanks to the genre specifics, the psychological, moral, and social formation of the personality of the hero-American was revealed.