Academic literature on the topic 'Enlightened absolutism'

Au siècle des Lumières, la physiocratie constitue un paradigme attractif qui propose un modèle universel et original de réforme de la société d’Ancien Régime. À compter des années 1760, les idées portées par cette doctrine politique, économique et juridique circulent à travers tout le continent européen et sont accueillies avec plus ou moins d’attention par les souverains et les élites éclairées. Les propositions du mouvement emportent l’adhésion de certains grands d’Europe et suscitent l’enthousiasme de nombre d’intellectuels, diplomates et administrateurs étrangers. Ouverts à l’esprit du temps, plusieurs monarques et ministres de haut rang décident de recourir à la physiocratie dans le cadre de leurs réformes du droit commercial, de la fiscalité, de l’organisation du travail, de l’agriculture, de l’administration territoriale ou de l’instruction publique. De même, la théorie du despotisme légal conjuguée au triptyque jusnaturaliste « liberté, propriété, sûreté » offre un modèle propice à la régénération de l’État et à la reconnaissance des droits fondamentaux. Or, dans d’autres contrées européennes, la physiocratie est reçue avec scepticisme ou indifférence par certains princes, ministres ou penseurs souvent proches du pouvoir. Bien qu’en quête de solutions réformatrices, ces gouvernants ne recourent alors qu’avec parcimonie aux préceptes de l’école, quand ils ne les rejettent pas purement et simplement au prétexte de leurs effets pernicieux pour l’ordre social traditionnel
During the Age of the Enlightenment, physiocracy established an attractive paradigm which proposed an original and universal model of reform of society under the Ancien Régime. From the 1760s onwards, the ideas carried by this political, economic and legal doctrine spread across the entire continent of Europe and attracted the attention to a greater or lesser extent of sovereigns and the enlightened elites of the day. What the movement proposed had the support of a number of crowned heads and aroused the enthusiasm of many of intellectuals, diplomats and foreign administrators. Certain monarchs and ministers were very much open to the spirit of the time and they decided to use physiocracy within the framework of their reforms of commercial law, taxation, the organization of labour, agriculture, territorial administration or education. Indeed, the theory of legal despotism combined with the three natural rights of “liberty, property and security” offered a suitable model for the regeneration of the State and the recognition of fundamental rights. Yet in some European countries, physiocracy was greeted with scepticism or indifference by other princes, ministers and thinkers who were often close to those in power. Although these rulers were looking for reformist solutions, they resorted only sparingly to the precepts of the school, when they didn’t reject them outright, the pretext being the pernicious effects of such precepts on traditional social order

Les philosophes français des Lumières se sont évertués, notamment dans la deuxième moitié du XVIIIe siècle, à préciser les cas où l’inégalité et les limites de la liberté seraient conformes aux lois naturelles afin de proposer les préceptes permettant une vie sociale épanouie. Ce faisant, ils ouvrirent la voie à la formation des absolutismes éclairés qui trouvent leurs racines juridiques dans la théorie du droit naturel. Elaborée pour une large part par Voltaire qui la mettait directement en relation avec l’idéologie des absolutismes « classiques », l’idéologie des absolutismes éclairés avait pour but principal la création d’un Etat fort. Ayant accepté les propositions des philosophes les « rois philosophes » ou « monarques éclairés » fondèrent les justificatifs d’une telle politique sur la langue, la mode, et surtout sur la confiance dans un progrès que la France avait su promouvoir
The French philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, especially in the second part of the eighteenth century, endeavoured to specify the cases in which inequality and the limitations of freedom would be in accordance with natural laws in order to propose precepts for a blossoming life. By doing so, they opened the way to the formation of enlightened absolutism, a model of government that finds its legal foundations in the Natural Law Theory Developed largely part by Voltaire, who put it in the direct relation with the ideology of “classical” absolutism, the ideology of enlightened absolutism had as its principal goal the creation of a strong state. Having embraced the philosophers’ precepts, the “enlightened monarchs” or “philosopher kings” founded the evidence of such a policy on language, fashion, and especially on the confidence in a progress that France had been able to promote

碩士
國立成功大學
歷史學系
105
SUMMARY This thesis attempts to discuss the reason why Frederick the Great who grew up in the autocratic royal house would be willing to accept and try to practice the enlightenment ideas in his mind? Is the role and duties of a ruler differ from the traditional autocratic monarchy under the influence of the Enlightenment thought? What is the real interests of Prussia and how did Frederick achieve that? Still, this thesis try to discuss that how Frederick to integrate his thought about the duties of the ruler into his rule. And when personal ideals and national interests is in conflict, how do Frederick make the choice? This thesis plans to understand the conditions of Prussia under the rule of Frederick the Great and the evaluation of contemporary and later generations to Frederick as the model of enlightened absolutism ruler and its contribution to Prussia. Keyword: Frederick the Great, Enlightened Absolutism, Enlightenment, Prussia, anti-machievelli INTRODUCTION In the process of the development and rise of Prussia, Frederick the Great is one of the most important figures. During his reign, Frederick the Great not only enlarged the territory and population of Prussia but also raise Prussia to the main state of Europe. On the other hand, Frederick the Great is also a model of enlightened absolutism. He realized his enlightenment ideals through domestic policy in order to promote the welfare of his people. But in the process of the rise of Prussia, what are the main objects which Prussia needs and how could the rulers from the Great Elector to Frederick the Great achieve that? Furthermore, as the model of enlightened absolutism ruler, Frederick view himself as ‘the first servant of state’, and he look how to promote the welfare of his people as an important purpose of rulers. Meanwhile, Frederick also put the national interests of Prussia in the first place. So this thesis wants to understand how Frederick the Great combined the national interests and enlightened ideals in his policies. MATERIALS AND METHODS This thesis mainly use the original works of Frederick the Great ,and those works were collected in “Die Werke Friedrichs des Großen“ (ten volumes) .These works contain most of the writings of Frederick the Great, and in that we can see the thoughts of Frederick the Great about politics, economics, military, finance, philosophy, even literature. Among these works, the political testament of 1752 is the most important resource provided the principles of the Frederick’s rule. Frederick’s other works finished after the Seven Years War also provided the concepts or the considerations about how Frederick the Great face the crises in 1770s and 1780s. Besides, this thesis also use many biographies of Frederick the Great in order to more understand the pass research. Conclusion Although Frederick William I and Frederick II are quite different from the character and preferences, there are still many similarities in their ways of rule. The differences and similarities of Frederick and his father to a certain extent came from his education and growth process. The education from Rocoulle and Duhan and the military education from General Fenkenstein and Colonel Kalckstein made Frederick love French culture and literature, on the other hand, also made Frederick know about the operation of Prussia's military-centered system. Frederick also affected by the works of the enlightenment thinkers. For instance, in the work of Wolf, he emphasis that the ruler should rule according to the rational principle, and need to establishment the welfare of his people under the principle of reason. The more important thing is because of the correspondence with Voltaire Frederick express his pursuit of a rational way of ruling the state in his anti-Machievelli. In this article ,Frederick thinks that the rulers must have a noble character, like honesty, justice. However, because of the experiences in the administrative and military services, Frederick realized that he must consider from a higher perspective to insight into various events in order to obtain the real interests of Prussia. From this point of view, Frederick's rule is different from the traditional despotism monarch. Frederick the Great thought that the ruler must be the head of the family of the state, the father of the people, the last refuge of the unfortunate, the father of the orphan, the husband of the widow, and the help of all the poor people. As the ruler of government, he must be the first commander of the army, the first minister of the internal affairs, more importantly, his actions must be in line with his responsibilities, and fulfill his duties with prudent and correct attitude. Indeed, under the initiative of Frederick, the territory and population of Prussia both expended. Frederick, with his astonishing energies, made use of and developed everything he had inherited, and raised Prussia into the first-rank power of Europe . This might be the most important contribution of Frederick the Great in Prussia's history.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
This thesis reads Karl Barth’s work as being concerned with the healing of the Enlightenment ‘absolute’ subject, manifesting itself both in the individual subject, and politically in the formation of the modern nation state. The ‘turn to the subject’ is indicative for Barth of the turn to forms of contractual political relation that inevitably absolutise ideological agendas in their failure to be attentive to their own fragility and particularity by virtue of the structuring of power as possession. The dominant reading of Barth at present is concerned to locate him within a Kantian epistemic frame of reference; this thesis challenges this reading by locating him as respondent, from the outset of his Church Dogmatics, to the problem of German Idealism’s framing of subjectivity. Not only this, it sees locating Barth within this Kantian tradition as deeply problematic in the way it structures consciousness prior to the event of revelation. Consequently, Barth’s dislocation of persona in favour of Seinsweise is seen not as a move toward absolutising the subject, but as a generalised way of unsettling the stability of the Idealist subject. In speaking of a singular subject in three ‘modes’ he reframes the relation between known and knower, subject and object. By the grounding revelation in the doctrine of the Trinity, the subject’s knowing is located in a divine work of dispossessive judgement. Reading Barth’s doctrine of reconciliation we can see his intense interest in themes of judgement and dispossession coming to give shape to an account of the subject refigured in the Christ event. Donald MacKinnon’s interrogative Christological reflections serve to illuminate Barth’s critical project by providing conversation within the kenotic traditions. It is as the grammar of God is moved away from an abstract theism toward the concrete particularity of the incarnation that language of both the subject and God are unsettled by Christ’s death and resurrection. MacKinnon provides a window into a reading of kenosis that need not fall into the problems of revisionist readings of Barth’s doctrine of election and its ontological consequence. We find in Barth a form of dispossessive knowing that radically challenges the individuated ‘I’ of the absolute subject by re-ordering speech about God in attention to concrete historicity. Christ cannot be abstracted from his historical particularity, and yet we must find ways of speaking of the communication of the Gestalt of Christ’s life to us. Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s literary art serves to dramatise the ways narrative and history function as the theatre for the formation of the subject in dialogical action. This forms an implicit theology of divine presence in history that embraces the tensive relation between a particular historical locale as the site of divine self-disclosure and the historical as constituted by this event. It is Barth’s construal of the Spirit that is critical for the healing of the absolute subject, for it is the Spirit who drives us back into attention to ethical performance that is responsive to the object of theological inquiry in creative ways. It is in the Spirit that we are dispossessed of our subjectivity as we return again and again to the judgement of God.

Tese de doutoramento em História da Arte apresentada à Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Coimbra
Quando, em 1492, sob a engenhosa vontade de D. João II, se lançou a primeira pedra do realengo hospital de Todos-os-Santos, encetou-se no reino uma reforma de fundo da assistência, na qual germinariam as linhas-mestras do hospital moderno. Ademais, no processo de centralização da assistência, o Estado encontraria nas Misericórdias a coadjuvação esperada e determinante no êxito do mesmo, quer em Portugal, quer no Império. Partindo desta premissa – antecedentes que encerram a letra de forma do trabalho que se apresenta – estamos convictos de que o hospital real de Todos-os-Santos enforma o esquema-matriz perfilhado por vários hospitais, tanto coevos, como posteriores. Não se tratou, porém, de um decalque do plano em cruz proposto - e tão singrado especialmente na Europa católica - antes do aproveitamento de uma célula ou unidade desse mesmo programa - o pátio – e de uma certa predisposição que carateriza a relação planimétrica deste com outros espaços do hospital de então, nevrálgicos por natureza, casos das enfermarias e do templo. Com efeito, a partir do conjunto significativo de edifícios hospitalares carreado para este estudo, inferimos que o pátio, na sua secular função de elemento centrípeto, forçou a ortogonalidade das dependências, em especial as enfermarias, e se articulou – em muitos exemplos, embora nem sempre numa parceria ou complementaridade sinestésica, antes numa latente medição de forças - com o elemento religioso na arrumação espacial. Por um lado, relevamos o replicar da expressividade alcançada pela igreja no hospital real de Todos-os-Santos; em resultado da posição a eixo na fachada e do programa iconográfico plasmado no portal; em Santarém, no hospital de Jesus Cristo ou de João Afonso, no rescaldo das campanhas manuelinas empreendidas no edifício, e, bem mais tarde, no hospital de São João Marcos, Braga, e no hospital militar de Runa. Por outro – e não obstante o que atrás se afirma - admitimos em primeira análise que a predominância do pátio define a tipologia palaciana, prolongada num arco temporal culminante na ascensão do Liberalismo, ao passo que a igreja ou capela ocupa, de modo não linear, um lugar menos relevante na cultura arquitetónica hospitalar, ficando confinada ao seu interior, sem marcas evidentes da sua presença. Embora se trate de um conceito recoberto pela complexidade e pela progressiva – e não contingencial – maturidade encontrada em ampliado segmento temporal, a afirmação do hospital moderno significou a regressão – com as irregularidades anotadas – do papel do templo no espaço hospitalar, fazendo-o mesmo capitular mediante o ascendente da prática clínica em prejuízo dos cuidados com a alma. No cruzamento do programa arquitetónico inscrito nos hospitais com a macroestrutura, seja política, económica, urbanística ou no plano das ideias, concluímos que os hospitais são arquiteturas de poder, comprometidas com os desígnios de visibilidade e de apreço sociais das elites representadas nas Misericórdias, instrumentalizadas pelo sistema político-ideológico vigente assestado no Absolutismo Esclarecido e salientes no tecido urbano. São, de igual modo, estaleiros do corpus higienista e de saúde pública postulado pelos avanços científicos e sob os auspícios do iluminismo, daqui refulgindo o sentido utilitário do hospital. Eis o enquadramento, a um tempo, tangível e simbólico do ciclo de reformas empreendidas nas preexistências e da construção de raiz de hospitais no termo do Antigo Regime.
When, in 1492, under the ingenious determination of D. João II, the first stone was laid for the All Saints Royal Hospital (Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos), a fundamental reform in assistance was initiated in the kingdom, giving rise to the general outlines of the modern hospital. Furthermore, in the process of centralizing assistance, the State found the expected and decisive support for its success in the Houses of Mercy, both in Portugal, as well as in the Empire. Starting from this premise – the background for the work being presented – we are convinced that the All Saints Royal Hospital shaped the matrix scheme of various hospitals, both at the time, as well as in the future. It was not, however, a decal of the proposed cross plan – that was so successful in Catholic Europe – but, instead, it employed a cell or unit of that same programme - the courtyard – and a certain predisposition that characterized its planimetric relationship with other hospital spaces of the time, neuralgic by nature, as was the case of the infirmaries and the temple. In effect, from the significant set of hospital buildings contemplated in this study, it is inferred that the courtyard, in its secular function as a centripetal element, forced the rooms to be orthogonal, particularly the infirmaries, and articulated itself – in many examples, although not always in a partnership or kinaesthetic complementarity and, instead, in a latent power struggle – with the religious element in the arrangement of the space. On the one hand, we highlight the replication of expression achieved by the church in the All Saints Royal Hospital; as a result of the axis position in the façade and the iconographic programme embodied in the portal; in Santarém, at the hospital of Jesus Christ or João Afonso Hospital, in the aftermath of the Manueline initiatives undertaken on the building and, much later on, on the São João Marcos Hospital, in Braga, and in the Runa Military Hospital. On the other hand – and despite what was previously stated – upon first analysis, we admit that the predominance of the courtyard defines the palatial typology, extended in a temporal arc culminating in the ascension of Liberalism, while the church or chapel occupies, non-linearly, a less relevant place in the architectural culture of the hospitals, confining itself to their interior, without clear signs of its presence. Although this is a concept covered by the complex and progressive - and not contingent – maturity found in a wide time segment, the affirmation of the modern hospital meant the regression – with the noted irregularities – of the role of the temple in the hospital space, making it capitulate given the strengthening of clinical practice in detriment of caring for the soul. In crossing the architectural programme inscribed in the hospitals with the macrostructure, be it political, economic, urban or within the realm of ideas, it is concluded that the hospitals are architectures of power, committed to the goals of visibility and social appreciation of the elite represented in the Houses of Mercy, instrumentalized by the political-ideological system in force, grounded on Enlightened Absolutism and prominent in the urban fabric. They are, similarly, yards of hygienist corpus and of public health postulated by scientific advances, and under the auspices of Enlightenment, from which emerged the utilitarian sense of the hospitals. This is the framework - at the time tangible and symbolic - of the cycle of reforms initiated in the original surroundings and in the building constructed from the ground up of hospitals at the end of the Old Regime.

This thesis deals with the issues of military deserters from the imperial-royal army at the period of the enlightened absolutism, thus during the reign of Maria Theresa and her sons Joseph II and Leopold II. Based on written as well as printed sources, originated mainly from the activity of the supreme provincial offices of the Kingdom of Bohemia at this time, an explanation on the questions of deserters' punishments, their limited pardons and mutual exchanges, made between the Habsburg Monarchy and her allies, has been offered. Moreover, the attention has been paid to the state's approach to the inhabitants that either provided aid to the deserters, or vice versa participated in their pursuit and capture. The last part of the text has been devoted to the registries of military deserters who originated from Bohemia, with the main emphasis on the Seven Years' War, because these registries have been preserved mostly for this conflict. Key words military deserters, enlightened absolutism, enlightened reforms, Czech Gubernium, War of the Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, Maria Theresa, Joseph II

статья посвящена применению метода сравнительного анализа при преподавании двух базовых модулей дисциплины «Истории» для студентов неисторических направлений подготовки – истории России и всеобщей истории. Политические процессы, характерные для мира, и в первую очередь, для стран Европы, сопоставимы с процессами, происходившими в России, и являются перспективным объектом анализа. Политогенез, раннефеодальные монархии, сословно-представительные монархии, абсолютные монархии, монархии в условиях просвещенного абсолютизма, конституционные монархии, революции, республиканские государства и др. – дидактические единицы, в равной степени значимые для понимания эволюции своего и иных государств, ключ к анализу общего и особенного в развитии разных стран мира. the article is devoted to using of comparative analysis method in teaching two basic modules of the subject “History” for the students of non-history training directions – History of Russia and World History. Political processes typical for the world and firstly for the European countries can be compared with ones that took place in Russia and are promising objects for the analysis. Political genesis, early feudal monarchies, estate-representative monarchies, absolute monarchies, monarchies of enlightened absolutism, constitutional monarchies, revolutions, republic states an etc. are didactical units equally important for understanding of evolution in native country and other states, clue to the analysis of common and special in the development of different countries in the world.