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Journal articles on the topic 'Equine influenza vaccines'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 18 February 2022

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1

BOUNTOURI (Μ. ΜΠΟΥΝΤΟΥΡΗ), M., E. FRAGKIADAKI (Ε. ΦΡΑΓΚΙΑΔΑΚΗ), V. DAFIS (Β. ΝΤΑΦΗΣ), and E. XYLOURI (Ε. ΞΥΛΟΥΡΗ). "Equine influenza." Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society 62, no. 2 (November 10, 2017): 161. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.14847.

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Equine Influenza (ΕΙ) is an acute, highly contagious, respiratory disease of equine. The causative agent of EI infections is a type A influenza virus, classified into the family Orthomyxovirìdae. Up to today two subtypes of EI are known, subtype 1 (H7N7) and subtype 2 (H3N8). Subtype 1 has not been isolated since 1977 and is presumed that has been replaced by the subtype 2, which is the causative agent of many recent outbreaks. Antigenic drift of H3N8 viruses resulted in the divergence of strains into two distinct evolutionary lineages, which co-circulate. The high morbidity of equine influenza disease was demonstrated in all resent widespread outbreaks all over the world. On the other hand, the mortality rate of influenza disease in equids is generally low, unless secondary bacterial infections occurred. Devastating economic loss of the disease in breeding and race animals reinforced the importance of vaccination. Despite the extensive use of vaccines, outbreaks of equine influenza continue to occur. In 2003 there were widespread outbreaks of equine influenza among un vaccinates and regularly vaccinated horses in Europe and later all over the world, even in regions that rarely report equine influenza outbreaks. However, studies have shown that vaccination does not prevent transmission and on the other hand multiple booster doses could result to paralysis of the immune system. Furthermore, all these developments including transmission to swine and dogs, shows the unpredictable evolutionary pathways the equine influenza virus follows. In conclusion, influenza surveillance and research should go on and provide useful tools to better evaluate when vaccine strains should be updated.

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2

Oladunni, Fatai S., Saheed Oluwasina Oseni, Luis Martinez-Sobrido, and Thomas M. Chambers. "Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines." Viruses 13, no. 8 (August 20, 2021): 1657. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13081657.

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Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a constantly evolving viral pathogen that is responsible for yearly outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses termed equine influenza (EI). There is currently no evidence of circulation of the original H7N7 strain of EIV worldwide; however, the EIV H3N8 strain, which was first isolated in the early 1960s, remains a major threat to most of the world’s horse populations. It can also infect dogs. The ability of EIV to constantly accumulate mutations in its antibody-binding sites enables it to evade host protective immunity, making it a successful viral pathogen. Clinical and virological protection against EIV is achieved by stimulation of strong cellular and humoral immunity in vaccinated horses. However, despite EI vaccine updates over the years, EIV remains relevant, because the protective effects of vaccines decay and permit subclinical infections that facilitate transmission into susceptible populations. In this review, we describe how the evolution of EIV drives repeated EI outbreaks even in horse populations with supposedly high vaccination coverage. Next, we discuss the approaches employed to develop efficacious EI vaccines for commercial use and the existing system for recommendations on updating vaccines based on available clinical and virological data to improve protective immunity in vaccinated horse populations. Understanding how EIV biology can be better harnessed to improve EI vaccines is central to controlling EI.

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Kostina, L. V., T. V. Grebennikova, A. D. Zaberezhnyi, and T. I. Aliper. "VACCINES AGAINST EQUINE INFLUENZA." sel'skokhozyaistvennaya Biologiya 54, no. 2 (May 2019): 216–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2019.2.216eng.

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4

Entenfellner, Johanna, Jacinta Gahan, Marie Garvey, Cathal Walsh, Monica Venner, and Ann Cullinane. "Response of Sport Horses to Different Formulations of Equine Influenza Vaccine." Vaccines 8, no. 3 (July 10, 2020): 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030372.

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The international governing body of equestrian sports requires that horses be vaccinated against equine influenza within 6 months and 21 days of competing. The aim of this study was to compare the antibody response of young sport horses to six-monthly booster vaccination with equine influenza vaccines of different formulations. An inactivated vaccine was allocated to 35 horses and subunit and recombinant vaccines were allocated to 34 horses each. After vaccination, all horses were monitored for evidence of adverse reactions. Whole blood samples were collected at the time of vaccination and on nine occasions up to six months and 21 days post vaccination. Antibodies against equine influenza were measured by single radial haemolysis. Transient fever and injection site reactions were observed in several horses vaccinated with each vaccine. Only two horses failed to seroconvert post booster vaccination but there was a delayed response to the recombinant vaccine. The antibody response to the recombinant vaccine was lower than that induced by the whole-inactivated and subunit vaccines up to three months post vaccination. Thereafter, there was no significant difference. By six months post vaccination, the majority of horses in all three groups were clinically but not virologically protected. There was minimal decline in antibody titres within the 21-day grace period.

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5

Mumford, J. A., H. Wilson, D. Hannant, and D. M. Jessett. "Antigenicity and immunogenicity of equine influenza vaccines containing a Carbomer adjuvant." Epidemiology and Infection 112, no. 2 (April 1994): 421–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268800057848.

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SUMMARYEquine influenza vaccines containing inactivated whole virus and Carbomer adjuvant stimulated higher levels and longer lasting antibody to haemagglutinin in ponies than vaccines of equivalent antigenic content containing aluminium phosphate adjuvants. Five months after the third dose of vaccine containing Carbomer adjuvant, ponies were protected against clinical disease induced by an aerosol of virulent influenza virus (A/equine/Newmarket/79, H3N8). In contrast ponies which received vaccine containing aluminium phosphate adjuvant were susceptible to infection and disease. There was an inverse correlation between prechallenge levels of antibody detected by single radial haemolysis (SRH) and duration of virus excretion, pyrexia and coughing. All ponies with antibody levels equivalent to SRH zones of ≥ 154 mm2 were protected against infection and all those with levels ≤ 85 mm2 were protected from disease.

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6

Olguin-Perglione, Cecilia, and María Edith Barrandeguy. "An Overview of Equine Influenza in South America." Viruses 13, no. 5 (May 12, 2021): 888. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13050888.

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Equine influenza virus (EIV) is one of the most important respiratory pathogens of horses as outbreaks of the disease lead to significant economic losses worldwide. In this review, we summarize the information available on equine influenza (EI) in South America. In the region, the major events of EI occurred almost in the same period in the different countries, and the EIV isolated showed high genetic identity at the hemagglutinin gene level. It is highly likely that the continuous movement of horses, some of them subclinically infected, among South American countries, facilitated the spread of the virus. Although EI vaccination is mandatory for mobile or congregates equine populations in the region, EI outbreaks continuously threaten the equine industry. Vaccine breakdown could be related to the fact that many of the commercial vaccines available in the region contain out-of-date EIV strains, and some of them even lack reliable information about immunogenicity and efficacy. This review highlights the importance of disease surveillance and reinforces the need to harmonize quarantine and biosecurity protocols, and encourage vaccine manufacturer companies to carry out quality control procedures and update the EIV strains in their products.

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7

Elton, D., and A. Cullinane. "Equine influenza: Antigenic drift and implications for vaccines." Equine Veterinary Journal 45, no. 6 (October 14, 2013): 768–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evj.12148.

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8

Webster, Robert G., and Timothy L. Thomas. "Efficacy of equine influenza vaccines for protection against A/Equine/Jilin/89 (H3N8) — A new equine influenza virus." Vaccine 11, no. 10 (January 1993): 987–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-410x(93)90122-e.

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9

Blanco-Lobo, Pilar, Laura Rodriguez, Stephanie Reedy, Fatai S. Oladunni, Aitor Nogales, Pablo R. Murcia, Thomas M. Chambers, and Luis Martinez-Sobrido. "A Bivalent Live-Attenuated Vaccine for the Prevention of Equine Influenza Virus." Viruses 11, no. 10 (October 11, 2019): 933. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11100933.

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Vaccination remains the most effective approach for preventing and controlling equine influenza virus (EIV) in horses. However, the ongoing evolution of EIV has increased the genetic and antigenic differences between currently available vaccines and circulating strains, resulting in suboptimal vaccine efficacy. As recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the inclusion of representative strains from clade 1 and clade 2 Florida sublineages of EIV in vaccines may maximize the protection against presently circulating viral strains. In this study, we used reverse genetics technologies to generate a bivalent EIV live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). We combined our previously described clade 1 EIV LAIV A/equine/Ohio/2003 H3N8 (Ohio/03 LAIV) with a newly generated clade 2 EIV LAIV that contains the six internal genes of Ohio/03 LAIV and the HA and NA of A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 H3N8 (Rich/07 LAIV). The safety profile, immunogenicity, and protection efficacy of this bivalent EIV LAIV was tested in the natural host, horses. Vaccination of horses with the bivalent EIV LAIV, following a prime-boost regimen, was safe and able to confer protection against challenge with clade 1 (A/equine/Kentucky/2014 H3N8) and clade 2 (A/equine/Richmond/2007) wild-type (WT) EIVs, as evidenced by a reduction of clinical signs, fever, and virus excretion. This is the first description of a bivalent LAIV for the prevention of EIV in horses that follows OIE recommendations. In addition, since our bivalent EIV LAIV is based on the use of reverse genetics approaches, our results demonstrate the feasibility of using the backbone of clade 1 Ohio/03 LAIV as a master donor virus (MDV) for the production and rapid update of LAIVs for the control and protection against other EIV strains of epidemiological relevance to horses.

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10

Daly, J. M., and P. R. Murcia. "Strategic implementation of vaccines for control of equine influenza." Equine Veterinary Journal 50, no. 2 (February 2, 2018): 153–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evj.12794.

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11

MUMFORD, J., D. JESSETT, U. DUNLEAVY, J. WOOD, D. HANNANT, B. SUNDQUIST, and R. COOK. "Antigenicity and immunogenicity of experimental equine influenza ISCOM vaccines." Vaccine 12, no. 9 (1994): 857–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-410x(94)90297-6.

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12

Holmes, Mark A., Hugh G. G. Townsend, Andrea K. Kohler, Steve Hussey, Cormac Breathnach, Craig Barnett, Robert Holland, and D. P. Lunn. "Immune responses to commercial equine vaccines against equine herpesvirus-1, equine influenza virus, eastern equine encephalomyelitis, and tetanus." Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 111, no. 1-2 (May 2006): 67–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2006.01.010.

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13

Chambers, T. "Cross-reactivity of existing equine influenza vaccines with a new strain of equine influenza virus from China." Veterinary Record 131, no. 17 (October 24, 1992): 388–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.131.17.388.

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14

Caldevilla, C. A., Y. L. Paredes Rojas, L. I. Ibañez, and N. Mattion. "Equine Influenza vaccines based on conserved regions of the HA glycoprotein." Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 39 (April 2016): S75—S76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2016.02.162.

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15

Mumford, J., D. Jessett, E. Rollinson, D. Hannant, and M. Draper. "Duration of protective efficacy of equine influenza immunostimulating complex/tetanus vaccines." Veterinary Record 134, no. 7 (February 12, 1994): 158–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.134.7.158.

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16

Rozek, Wojciech, Malgorzata Kwasnik, Wojciech Socha, Pawel Sztromwasser, and Jerzy Rola. "Analysis of Single Nucleotide Variants (SNVs) Induced by Passages of Equine Influenza Virus H3N8 in Embryonated Chicken Eggs." Viruses 13, no. 8 (August 5, 2021): 1551. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13081551.

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Vaccination is an effective method for the prevention of influenza virus infection. Many manufacturers use embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) for the propagation of vaccine strains. However, the adaptation of viral strains during subsequent passages can lead to additional virus evolution and lower effectiveness of the resulting vaccines. In our study, we analyzed the distribution of single nucleotide variants (SNVs) of equine influenza virus (EIV) during passaging in ECE. Viral RNA from passage 0 (nasal swabs), passage 2 and 5 was sequenced using next generation technology. In total, 50 SNVs with an occurrence frequency above 2% were observed, 29 of which resulted in amino acid changes. The highest variability was found in passage 2, with the most variable segment being IV encoding hemagglutinin (HA). Three variants, HA (W222G), PB2 (A377E) and PA (R531K), had clearly increased frequency with the subsequent passages, becoming dominant. None of the five nonsynonymous HA variants directly affected the major antigenic sites; however, S227P was previously reported to influence the antigenicity of EIV. Our results suggest that although host-specific adaptation was observed in low passages of EIV in ECE, it should not pose a significant risk to influenza vaccine efficacy.

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17

Donofrio, James C., J. Donald Coonrod, and Thomas M. Chambers. "Diagnosis of Equine Influenza by the Polymerase Chain Reaction." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 6, no. 1 (January 1994): 39–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104063879400600108.

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Influenza A is a common respiratory infection of horses, and rapid diagnosis is important for its detection and control. Sensitive detection of influenza currently requires viral culture and is not always feasible. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect DNA produced by reverse transcription of equine influenza in stored nasal secretions, vaccines, and allantoic fluids. Primers directed at a target of 212 bp on conserved segment 7 (matrix gene) of human influenza A/Bangkok/ 1/79 (H3N2) produced amplification products of appropriate size with influenza A/Equine/Prague/ 1/56 (H7N7), A/Equine/Miami/63 (H3N8), A/Equine/ Kentucky/79 (H3N8), and A/Equine/Kentucky/2/91 (H3N8) in infected frozen allantoic fluids and in frozen extracts of nasal swabs of 2 horses with naturally acquired influenza. The products bound a 32P-labeled hybridization probe to an inner region of the target. Control samples, including nasal secretions from a horse infected with herpesvirus, were negative. In a prospective study, 2 ponies inhaled aerosols of influenza A/Equine/ Kentucky/2/91 (H3N8), and thereafter supernatants of nasal swabs in transport medium were obtained daily for 10 days for culture and PCR. Amplification products were evaluated by size and binding of a 32P-labeled probe and also by dotblotting and binding of a biotin-labeled probe. Culture detected influenza more consistently than did PCR in the first 2 days of infection, but PCR detected virus more often later in infection. Gels were the most sensitive, but radiometric and biotin-labeled probes gave specific results and were consistently positive from days 3–6. PCR is suitable for detection of equine influenza in clinical samples.

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Reemers, Sylvia, Denny Sonnemans, Linda Horspool, Sander van Bommel, Qi Cao, and Saskia van de Zande. "Determining Equine Influenza Virus Vaccine Efficacy—The Specific Contribution of Strain Versus Other Vaccine Attributes." Vaccines 8, no. 3 (September 3, 2020): 501. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030501.

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Vaccination is an effective tool to limit equine influenza virus (EIV H3N8) infection, a contagious respiratory disease with potentially huge economic impact. The study assessed the effects of antigenic change on vaccine efficacy and the need for strain update. Horses were vaccinated (V1 and V2) with an ISCOMatrix-adjuvanted, whole inactivated virus vaccine (Equilis Prequenza, group 2, FC1 and European strains) or a carbomer-adjuvanted, modified vector vaccine (ProteqFlu, group 3, FC1 and FC2 HA genes). Serology (SRH, HI, VN), clinical signs and viral shedding were assessed in comparison to unvaccinated control horses. The hypothesis was that group 2 (no FC2 vaccine strain) would be less well protected than group 3 following experimental infection with a recent FC2 field strain (A/equi-2/Wexford/14) 4.5 months after vaccination. All vaccinated horses had antibody titres to FC1 and FC2. After challenge, serology increased more markedly in group 3 than in group 2. Vaccinated horses had significantly lower total clinical scores and viral shedding. Unexpectedly, viral RNA shedding was significantly lower in group 2 than in group 3. Vaccination induced protective antibody titres to FC1 and FC2 and reduced clinical signs and viral shedding. The two tested vaccines provided equivalent protection against a recent FC2 EIV field strain.

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Horspool, L. J. I., and A. King. "Equine influenza vaccines in Europe: A view from the animal health industry." Equine Veterinary Journal 45, no. 6 (October 14, 2013): 774–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evj.12171.

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Uematsu, Yasushi, Michael Vajdy, Ying Lian, Silvia Perri, Catherine E. Greer, Harold S. Legg, Grazia Galli, et al. "Lack of Interference with Immunogenicity of a Chimeric Alphavirus Replicon Particle-Based Influenza Vaccine by Preexisting Antivector Immunity." Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 19, no. 7 (May 23, 2012): 991–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cvi.00031-12.

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ABSTRACTAntivector immunity has been recognized as a potential caveat of using virus-based vaccines. In the present study, an alphavirus-based replicon particle vaccine platform, which has demonstrated robust immunogenicity in animal models, was tested for effects of antivector immunity on immunogenicity against hemagglutinin of influenza virus as a target antigen and efficacy for protection against lethal challenge with the virus. Chimeric alphavirus-based replicon particles, comprising Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus nonstructural and Sindbis virus structural components, induced efficient protective antibody responses, which were not adversely influenced after multiple immunizations with the same vector expressing various antigens.

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21

Baz, Mariana, Myeisha Paskel, Yumiko Matsuoka, James Zengel, Xing Cheng, John J. Treanor, Hong Jin, and Kanta Subbarao. "A Live Attenuated Equine H3N8 Influenza Vaccine Is Highly Immunogenic and Efficacious in Mice and Ferrets." Journal of Virology 89, no. 3 (November 19, 2014): 1652–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.02449-14.

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ABSTRACTEquine influenza viruses (EIV) are responsible for rapidly spreading outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses. Although natural infections of humans with EIV have not been reported, experimental inoculation of humans with these viruses can lead to a productive infection and elicit a neutralizing antibody response. Moreover, EIV have crossed the species barrier to infect dogs, pigs, and camels and therefore may also pose a threat to humans. Based on serologic cross-reactivity of H3N8 EIV from different lineages and sublineages, A/equine/Georgia/1/1981 (eq/GA/81) was selected to produce a live attenuated candidate vaccine by reverse genetics with the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes of the eq/GA/81 wild-type (wt) virus and the six internal protein genes of the cold-adapted (ca) A/Ann Arbor/6/60 (H2N2) vaccine donor virus, which is the backbone of the licensed seasonal live attenuated influenza vaccine. In both mice and ferrets, intranasal administration of a single dose of the eq/GA/81cavaccine virus induced neutralizing antibodies and conferred complete protection from homologous wt virus challenge in the upper respiratory tract. One dose of the eq/GA/81cavaccine also induced neutralizing antibodies and conferred complete protection in mice and nearly complete protection in ferrets upon heterologous challenge with the H3N8 (eq/Newmarket/03) wt virus. These data support further evaluation of the eq/GA/81cavaccine in humans for use in the event of transmission of an equine H3N8 influenza virus to humans.IMPORTANCEEquine influenza viruses have crossed the species barrier to infect other mammals such as dogs, pigs, and camels and therefore may also pose a threat to humans. We believe that it is important to develop vaccines against equine influenza viruses in the event that an EIV evolves, adapts, and spreads in humans, causing disease. We generated a live attenuated H3N8 vaccine candidate and demonstrated that the vaccine was immunogenic and protected mice and ferrets against homologous and heterologous EIV.

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Reemers, Sylvia, Sander van Bommel, Qi Cao, David Sutton, and Saskia van de Zande. "Protection against the New Equine Influenza Virus Florida Clade I Outbreak Strain Provided by a Whole Inactivated Virus Vaccine." Vaccines 8, no. 4 (December 21, 2020): 784. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8040784.

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Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a major cause of respiratory disease in horses. Vaccination is an effective tool for infection control. Although various EIV vaccines are widely available, major outbreaks occurred in Europe in 2018 involving a new EIV H3N8 FC1 strain. In France, it was reported that both unvaccinated and vaccinated horses were affected despite >80% vaccination coverage and most horses being vaccinated with a vaccine expressing FC1 antigen. This study assessed whether vaccine type, next to antigenic difference between vaccine and field strain, plays a role. Horses were vaccinated with an ISCOMatrix-adjuvanted, whole inactivated virus vaccine (Equilis Prequenza) and experimentally infected with the new FC1 outbreak strain. Serology (HI), clinical signs, and virus shedding were evaluated in vaccinated compared to unvaccinated horses. Results showed a significant reduction in clinical signs and a lack of virus shedding in vaccinated horses compared to unvaccinated controls. From these results, it can be concluded that Equilis Prequenza provides a high level of protection to challenge with the new FC1 outbreak strain. This suggests that, apart from antigenic differences between vaccine and field strain, other aspects of the vaccine may also play an important role in determining field efficacy.

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Cullinane, Ann, Jacinta Gahan, Cathal Walsh, Manabu Nemoto, Johanna Entenfellner, Cecilia Olguin-Perglione, Marie Garvey, et al. "Evaluation of Current Equine Influenza Vaccination Protocols Prior to Shipment, Guided by OIE Standards." Vaccines 8, no. 1 (February 29, 2020): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8010107.

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To facilitate the temporary importation of horses for competition and racing purposes, with a minimum risk of transmitting equine influenza, the World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties, or OIE), formally engaged in a public–private partnership with the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) and the International Federation for Horseracing Authorities (IFHA) to establish, within the context of existing OIE standards, a science-based rationale to identify the ideal time period for equine influenza vaccination prior to shipment. Field trials using vaccines based on different technologies were carried out on three continents. The antibody response post-booster vaccination at intervals aligned with the different rules/recommendations of the OIE, FEI, and IFHA, was monitored by single radial haemolysis. It was determined that 14 days was the optimum period necessary to allow horses adequate time to respond to booster vaccination and for horses that have previously received four or more doses of vaccine and are older than four years, it is adequate to allow vaccination within 180 days of shipment. In contrast, the results indicate that there is a potential benefit to younger (four years old or younger) horses in requiring booster vaccination within 90 days of shipment, consistent with the current OIE standard.

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Dilai, Mohamed, Mohammed Piro, Mehdi El Harrak, Stéphanie Fougerolle, Mohammed Dehhaoui, Asmaa Dikrallah, Loïc Legrand, Romain Paillot, and Ouafaa Fassi Fihri. "Impact of Mixed Equine Influenza Vaccination on Correlate of Protection in Horses." Vaccines 6, no. 4 (October 4, 2018): 71. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6040071.

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To evaluate the humoral immune response to mixed Equine Influenza vaccination, a common practice in the field, an experimental study was carried out on 42 unvaccinated thoroughbred weanling foals divided into six groups of seven. Three groups were vaccinated using a non-mixed protocol (Equilis® Prequenza-Te, Proteqflu-Te® or Calvenza-03®) and three other groups were vaccinated using a mix of the three vaccines mentioned previously. Each weanling underwent a primary EI vaccination schedule composed of two primary immunisations (V1 and V2) four weeks apart followed by a third boost immunisation (V3) six months later. Antibody responses were monitored until one-year post-V3 by single radial haemolysis (SRH). The results showed similar antibody responses for all groups using mixed EI vaccination and the group exclusively vaccinated with Equilis® Prequenza-TE, which were significantly higher than the other two groups vaccinated with Proteqflu-TE® and Calvenza-03®. All weanlings (100%) failed to seroconvert after V1 and 21% (9/42) still had low or no SRH antibody titres two weeks post-V2. All weanlings had seroconverted and exceeded the clinical protection threshold one month after V3. The poor response to vaccination was primarily observed in groups exclusively vaccinated with Proteqflu-Te® and Calvenza-03®. A large window of susceptibility (3–4.5-month duration) usually called immunity gap was observed after V2 and prior to V3 for all groups. The SRH antibody level was maintained above the clinical protection threshold for three months post-V3 for the groups exclusively vaccinated with Proteqflu-Te® and Calvenza-03®, and six months to one year for groups using mixed EI vaccination or exclusively vaccinated with Equilis® Prequenza-Te. This study demonstrates for the first time that the mix of EI vaccines during the primary vaccination schedule has no detrimental impact on the correlate of protection against EIV infection.

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OXBURGH, L., L. ÅIKERBLOM, T. FRIDBERGER, B. KLINGEBORN, and T. LINNÉ. "Identification of two antigenically and genetically distinct lineages of H3N8 equine influenza virus in Sweden." Epidemiology and Infection 120, no. 1 (February 1998): 61–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268897008315.

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Four Swedish strains of equine H3N8 influenza virus isolated from outbreaks during the last 4 years were characterized. Antigenic typing using monoclonal antibodies raised against a variety of H3N8 strains showed that the viruses are heterogeneous, the 1993 isolate being closely related to the 1991 Swedish isolate TAB/91 and the other three isolates from 1994 and 1996 being more closely related to each other. This pattern is reflected in the phylogenetic data calculated from nucleotide sequencing of the haemagglutinin genes. H3N8 equine influenza can be seen to be evolving in two distinct lineages, one European and one American. The 1993 isolate is closely related to the European lineage and is the most recent Swedish strain of this lineage to be isolated. The 1994 and 1996 isolates fit into the American lineage, which contains recent isolates from the United States and also Britain. These results indicate that American-type H3N8 viruses have become endemic in Sweden and, in light of the antigenic differences which can be observed between viruses belonging to the two lineages, we believe that equine influenza virus vaccines should be updated with an American-type virus strain.

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BAKER, DEBORAH J. "Rationale for the use of influenza vaccines in horses and the importance of antigenic drift." Equine Veterinary Journal 18, no. 2 (March 1986): 93–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1986.tb03554.x.

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27

Yamanaka, T., A. Cullinane, S. Gildea, H. Bannai, M. Nemoto, K. Tsujimura, T. Kondo, and T. Matsumura. "The potential impact of a single amino-acid substitution on the efficacy of equine influenza vaccines." Equine Veterinary Journal 47, no. 4 (June 3, 2014): 456–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evj.12290.

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28

Olsen, Christopher W., Martha W. McGregor, Naomi Dybdahl-Sissoko, Brian R. Schram, Kathryn M. Nelson, D. Paul Lunn, Michael D. Macklin, William F. Swain, and Virginia S. Hinshaw. "Immunogenicity and efficacy of baculovirus-expressed and DNA-based equine influenza virus hemagglutinin vaccines in mice." Vaccine 15, no. 10 (July 1997): 1149–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0264-410x(96)00309-x.

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29

Sahoo, Sankalpa. "A Study of the Structure, Organization, Genome, Life cycle, Pathogenicity and Vaccines of the Influenza A virus." International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 12, no. 08 (August 25, 2021): 889–903. http://dx.doi.org/10.14299/ijser.2021.08.04.

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SahooInfluenza A virus (IAV) is a well-known human respiratory pathogen of the family Orthomyxoviridae. Though infection is primarily considered to be limited only to the respiratory system where it can cause very severe pulmonary problems and ultimately can lead to death, extrapulmonary complications such as myocarditis and encephalitis have also been observed. As IAV targets various hosts, including human, swine, avian, equine and poultry, the emergence of novel strains is highly expected, which generates a constant threat of the emergence of unpredictable pandemics.

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Bryant, Neil A., Romain Paillot, Adam S. Rash, Elizabeth Medcalf, Fernando Montesso, Julie Ross, James Watson, et al. "Comparison of two modern vaccines and previous influenza infection against challenge with an equine influenza virus from the Australian 2007 outbreak." Veterinary Research 41, no. 2 (October 29, 2009): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/vetres/2009067.

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Chambers, T. M., M. Quinlivan, T. Sturgill, A. Cullinane, D. W. Horohov, D. Zamarin, S. Arkins, A. García‐Sastre, and P. Palese. "Influenza A viruses with truncated NS1 as modified live virus vaccines: Pilot studies of safety and efficacy in horses." Equine Veterinary Journal 41, no. 1 (January 2009): 87–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2746/042516408x371937.

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Karaca, Kemal, Edward J. Dubovi, Leonardo Siger, Amy Robles, Jean-Christophe Audonnet, Yao Jiansheng, Robert Nordgren, and Jules M. Minke. "Evaluation of the ability of canarypox-vectored equine influenza virus vaccines to induce humoral immune responses against canine influenza viruses in dogs." American Journal of Veterinary Research 68, no. 2 (February 2007): 208–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.68.2.208.

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YAMANAKA, Takashi, Hiroshi BANNAI, Manabu NEMOTO, Koji TSUJIMURA, Takashi KONDO, and Tomio MATSUMURA. "Antibody Responses Induced by Japanese Whole Inactivated Vaccines against Equine Influenza Virus (H3N8) Belonging to Florida Sublineage Clade2." Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 73, no. 4 (2011): 483–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1292/jvms.10-0408.

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Mumford, J. A., J. M. Wood, C. Folkers, and G. C. Schild. "Protection against experimental infection with influenza virus A/equine/Miami/63 (H3N8) provided by inactivated whole virus vaccines containing homologous virus." Epidemiology and Infection 100, no. 3 (June 1988): 501–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268800067236.

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SummaryThirty-one ponies immunized with inactivated virus vaccine containing A/equine/Miami/63 (H3N8) virus and six seronegative ponies were experimentally challenged with the homologous virus strain. All G unvaccinated ponies and 11 out of 31 vaccinated ponies became infected. A clear relationship between pre-challenge antibody, measured by single radial haemolysis (SRH), and protection was demonstrated as judged by virus excretion, febrile responses and antibody responses. Those ponies with SRH antibody levels > 74 mm2 were completely protected against challenge infection by the intranasal route.

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Мартинова, О. Л. "ІМУНОПРОФІЛАКТИКА ГРИПУ КОНЕЙ." Вісник Полтавської державної аграрної академії, no. 4 (December 27, 2012): 177–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.31210/visnyk2012.04.41.

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Детально розглянуто зареєстровані в Україні вак-цини, що використовуються для імунопрофілакти-ки грипу коней. Було проведено порівняння їх анти-генної структури та складу. Досліджено схемивакцинацій, запропоновані виробниками даних іму-нобіологічних препаратів (Форт додж ЕнімалХелз, США; АТ «Біовета», Чехія). Розглянуто мо-жливі причини прориву імунітету за вакцинацій.Згідно з цим даються рекомендації щодо застосу-вання окремих вакцин проти грипу коней у конего-сподарствах України. Виявлено, що для активноїімунізації коней доцільно використовувати вакци-ни з тим набором антигенів, що відповідає вірус-ному пейзажу конкретного господарства, а та-кож залежить від того, чи є необхідність вакци-нувати коней проти правця кожен рік. The vaccines registered in Ukraine and used for immunoprophylaxis of equine influenza are examined in details. Comparison of their anti-gene structure and composition was carried out.The schemes of vaccination offered by producers of thesepreparations are considered. The possible reasons of break ofimmunity at vaccination are assumed. According to these recommendations concerning using of vaccines against equineinfluenza in farms are made. It is defined that for active immunization of horses it is necessary to use vaccines from subjects of anti-genes sets which correspond to a virus landscape of aconcrete farm, and also depends on, whether there is a need tovaccinate horses from tetanus every year.

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Singha, Harisankar, Sachin K. Goyal, Praveen Malik, and Raj K. Singh. "Use of Heavy Water (D2O) in Developing Thermostable Recombinant p26 Protein Based Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Serodiagnosis of Equine Infectious Anemia Virus Infection." Scientific World Journal 2014 (2014): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/620906.

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Thermostabilizing effect of heavy water (D2O) or deuterium oxide has been demonstrated previously on several enzymes and vaccines like oral poliovirus vaccine and influenza virus vaccine. In view of the above observations, effect of heavy water onin situthermostabilization of recombinant p26 protein on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for serodiagnosis of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) infection was investigated in the present study. The carbonate-bicarbonate coating buffer was prepared in 60% and 80% D2O for coating the p26 protein in 96-well ELISA plate and thermal stability was examined at 4°C, 37°C, 42°C, and 45°C over a storage time from 2 weeks to 10 months. A set of positive serum (n=12) consisting of strong, medium, and weak titer strength (4 samples in each category) and negative serum (n=30) were assessed in ELISA during the study period. At each time point, ELISA results were compared with fresh plate to assess thermal protective effect of D2O. Gradual increase in the stabilizing effect of 80% D2O at elevated temperature (37°C < 42°C < 45°C) was observed. The 80% D2O provides the thermal protection to rp26 protein in ELISA plate up to 2 months of incubation at 45°C. The findings of the present study have the future implication of adopting cost effective strategies for generating more heat tolerable ELISA reagents with extended shelf life.

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Ibañez, Lorena Itatí, Cecilia Andrea Caldevilla, Yesica Paredes Rojas, and Nora Mattion. "Genetic and subunit vaccines based on the stem domain of the equine influenza hemagglutinin provide homosubtypic protection against heterologous strains." Vaccine 36, no. 12 (March 2018): 1592–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.02.019.

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Gildea, Sarah, Sean Arkins, Cathal Walsh, and Ann Cullinane. "A comparison of antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines following primary vaccination of Thoroughbred weanlings—A randomised blind study." Vaccine 29, no. 49 (November 2011): 9214–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.101.

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DALY, J. "Evidence supporting the inclusion of strains from each of the two co-circulating lineages of H3N8 equine influenza virus in vaccines." Vaccine 22, no. 29-30 (September 2004): 4101–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.02.048.

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DALY, J. M., P. J. YATES, G. BROWSE, Z. SWANN, J. R. NEWTON, D. JESSETT, N. DAVIS-POYNTER, and J. A. MUMFORD. "Comparison of hamster and pony challenge models for evaluation of effect of antigenic drift on cross protection afforded by equine influenza vaccines." Equine Veterinary Journal 35, no. 5 (January 5, 2010): 458–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2746/042516403775600433.

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41

Gildea, Sarah, Sean Arkins, Cathal Walsh, and Ann Cullinane. "A comparison of antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines following annual booster vaccination of National Hunt Horses – a randomised blind study." Vaccine 29, no. 22 (May 2011): 3917–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.03.003.

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Heldens, J. G. M., M. W. Weststrate, and R. van den Hoven. "Area under the curve calculations as a tool to compare the efficacy of equine influenza vaccines—a retrospective analysis of three independent field trials." Journal of Immunological Methods 264, no. 1-2 (June 2002): 11–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1759(01)00571-3.

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43

Belgrave, J., and R. Allpress. "Reactions to equine influenza vaccine." Veterinary Record 118, no. 18 (May 3, 1986): 519–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.118.18.519-b.

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44

Durham, Andy. "Choosing an equine influenza vaccine." In Practice 41, no. 2 (February 28, 2019): 84–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/inp.l695.

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45

Yamanaka, Takashi, Takashi Kondo, and Tomio Matsumura. "Equine Influenza: Prevention and Control." Journal of Disaster Research 7, no. 3 (April 1, 2012): 281–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2012.p0281.

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Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious selflimiting respiratory disease in horses that is caused by equine influenza virus (EIV) infection. EIV is presented by horses worldwide and has a huge financial impact on the horse industry in many countries. Although an outbreak of EI can be controlled by prior immunization by using vaccination, the efficacy of the vaccine is influenced by antigenic differences between epidemic strains and vaccine strains. Thus, to keep the vaccine effective, the vaccine strains should be reviewed periodically on the basis of global surveillance, such as the epidemiological report issued annually in the bulletin of the World Organization for Animal Health. Once an outbreak occurs, sanitary management, including the restriction of horse movement, should be conducted to eliminate the source of the causative virus and protect susceptible horses. The rapid identification of EIV in respiratory tract secretions enables the prompt administration of sanitary management. Although commercially available rapid antigen detection tests should be improved in terms of sensitivity, one of the tests (ESPLINE Flu A+B) worked as a convenient method for the rapid diagnosis and screening of a number of horses for EI during the 2007 outbreak in Japan, in addition to laboratory tests such as virus isolation. A more sensitive test must be developed that can be performed easily without special equipment or technical expertise.

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Cullinane, A. A. "Updating equine influenza strains in a combined equine influenza and herpesvirus vaccine." Veterinary Journal 167, no. 2 (March 2004): 118–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1090-0233(03)00034-0.

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47

Yondonjamts, Enkhmandakh, Erdenechimeg Dashzevge, Batmagnai Enkhbaatar, Ariunbold Gantulga, Odonchimeg Myagmarsuren, Numsuren Tsend-Ayuush, Usukhgerel Sukhbaatar, and Boldbaatar Bazartseren. "Cell culture model vaccine trial against equine influenza." Mongolian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 31, no. 3 (February 15, 2021): 27–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5564/mjas.v31i3.1528.

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The main goal of our study was to develop a cell culture based vaccine model for equine influenza virus and within the purpose, a total of 161 equine nasal swabs were collected to detect the equine influenza virus and 15 (9.3%) samples were tested as positive with haemagglutination test (HA assay). From these positive swabs, equine influenza virus (EIV) was inoculated in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell line. The infected cell-culture fluid was inactivated with 2-Bromoethylamine Hydrobromide and mixed with MONTANIDE ISA 206 oil-based adjuvant (acid) at ratio 1: 1. The purity, toxicity, viscosity, stability, and activity of the newly prepared vaccine model was analyzed. According to our experimental results, the vaccinated horse developed an antibody titer against equine influenza 1:64-1: 128 at 30 days after the first injection, and the titer was increased at 1: 128-1: 256 at 60 days after the first injection and gradually decreased to 1: 16-1:32 at 180 days. These results showed that the vaccine model is active for 6 months. Адууны томуу өвчний эсийн өсгөвөрт вакцины загвар бэлтгэн туршсан дүн Бидний судалгааны ажлын гол зорилго нь адууны томуу өвчний эсийн өсгөвөрт вакцины загвар гарган авах бөгөөд зорилгын хүрээнд адууны томуу өвчний нутгийн үүсгэгчийг илрүүлэхээр нийт 161 адууны хамрын арчдас цуглуулж, цус наалдуулах урвалаар шалгахад 15(9.3%) дээж эерэг дүн үзүүлсэн. Эдгээр эерэг дүн үзүүлсэн арчдаснаас MDCK дамжмал эсийн өсгөвөрт халдвар хийв. Хураан авсан эмгэгт шингэнийг 2-Bromoethylamine Hydrobromide бодисоор идэвхгүйжүүлээд, MONTANIDE ISA 206 тосон суурьт адьювант (хүчлүүр) бодистой 1:1 харьцаатай хольж вакцины загварыг бэлтгэсэн. Бэлтгэсэн вакцины загварын ариун чанар, хорон чанар, зуурамтгай байдал, тогтвортой байдал болон идэвхит чанарыг шалгалаа. Бидний хийсэн туршилтын дүнгээс үзвэл вакцин таригдсан адууны анхны тарилтын дараа 30 хоногтоо 1.64-1:128 таньцтай дархлаа тогтсон бөгөөд 60 дахь хоногтоо 1:128-1:256 таньцтай болж хадгалагдан тэр нь аажмаар буурч 180 хоногтоо 1:16-1:32 таньцтай болсон байна. Үр дүнгээс харахад бидний бэлтгэсэн вакцины загвар нь 6 сарын хугацаанд хамгаалах идэвхитэй байна. Түлхүүр үг: Томуу, вирус, MDCK эс , вакцин

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Bryant, N., A. Rash, N. Lewis, D. Elton, F. Montesso, J. Ross, R. Newton, R. Paillot, J. Watson, and M. Jeggo. "Australian equine influenza: vaccine protection in the UK." Veterinary Record 162, no. 15 (April 12, 2008): 491–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.162.15.491-b.

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Pavulraj, Selvaraj, Tobias Bergmann, Claudia Maria Trombetta, Serena Marchi, Emanuele Montomoli, Sidi Sefiane El Alami, Roberto Ragni-Alunni, Nikolaus Osterrieder, and Walid Azab. "Immunogenicity of Calvenza-03 EIV/EHV® Vaccine in Horses: Comparative In Vivo Study." Vaccines 9, no. 2 (February 17, 2021): 166. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9020166.

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Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease of equines that is caused mainly by the H3N8 subtype of influenza A virus. Vaccinating horses against EI is the most effective strategy to prevent the infection. The current study aimed to compare the kinetics of EI-specific humoral- and cell-mediated immunity (CMI) in horses receiving either identical or mixed vaccinations. Two groups of horses were previously (six months prior) vaccinated with either Calvenza 03 EIV EHV® (G1) or Fluvac Innovator® (G2) vaccine. Subsequently, both groups received a booster single dose of Calvenza 03 EIV EHV®. Immune responses were assessed after 10 weeks using single radial hemolysis (SRH), virus neutralization (VN), and EliSpot assays. Our results revealed that Calvenza-03 EIV/EHV®-immunized horses had significantly higher protective EI-specific SRH antibodies and VN antibodies. Booster immunization with Calvenza-03 EIV/EHV® vaccine significantly stimulated cell-mediated immune response as evidenced by significant increase in interferon-γ-secreting peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In conclusion, Calvenza-03 EIV/EHV® vaccine can be safely and effectively used for booster immunization to elicit optimal long persisting humoral and CMI responses even if the horses were previously immunized with a heterogeneous vaccine.

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Warda, Fatma, eman shosha, aml abdelraouf, and Magda Anes Kalad. "Immunogenicity of inactivated Equine Influenza (H3N8) virus vaccine with different adjuvents in equine." Benha Veterinary Medical Journal 40, no. 2 (July 1, 2021): 5–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/bvmj.2021.66190.1350.

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