Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Errorless learning'

This study investigates the use of response guidance for errorless learning of a perceptual motor task in normal elderly. It provides normative data for a study with stroke patients using this technique for cognitive rehabilitation. While errorless learning has been shown to be more effective on most tasks than trial and error learning for people with memory impairments, its use with normal individuals has received limited attention. The questions of interest were whether errorless training of the perceptual motor task was more effective for improving and retaining accuracy; and whether both accuracy and response speed were more resistant to the effects of increased cognitive demands. A sample of 43 normal elderly in the United Kingdom, ranging in age from 60 to 77, completed an assessment of intelligence, memory, and attention. They then received training, over two sessions one week apart, to mark the midpoint of Judd Arrows presented on a computer screen using a cross cursor moved by an active force feedback joystick (AFF). During training the errorless group received AFF guidance to the correct midpoint, while the errorful group received none, and both received auditory and visual knowledge of results. There was no AFF during baseline or post test measures. Training was to criterion in each session with a discontinue rule if accuracy did not improve. At the end of session two both groups were given a cognitively challenging task concurrent with the arrow bisection. Results revealed that both groups improved their accuracy through training with the errorless group being significantly more accurate and tending to be faster in the final post tests of both sessions. The errorless group was significantly faster than the errorful group under the cognitive challenge, without sacrificing accuracy. These results suggest not only that AFF is an effective means of implementing errorless perceptual motor learning, but elderly individuals trained in this manner do not sacrifice accuracy for speed. Implications of these results are discussed.

The aim of this thesis was to explore the benefits of errorless learning (EL) in comparison to learning by trial-and-error or errorful learning (EF) for people with mild cognitive impairment (PwMCI). The literature review was a meta-analysis of studies which compared EL and EF in neurodegenerative conditions, specifically mild cognitive impairment (MCI)and other dementias. Across the ten reviewed studies there was a moderate effect size for the benefit of EL over EF learning for people with MCI and dementia. Results were tentative as six of the reviewed studies had non-significant effect sizes which may have reflected small sample sizes or methodological issues, or indicate that EL may not be any more advantageous than EF for some individuals. Given that only three studies were identified in the review which explored EL with MCI participants, it seemed appropriate to explore the benefit of EL further with this population. The empirical study describes the results of an experimental study conducted with eleven participants with a clinical diagnosis of MCI. A word-list learning task was used and outcome was assessed by free recall, cued recall and recognition tasks. The findings of the empirical study showed that EL was not significantly superior to EF when undertaking a word-list task for PwMCI. A relationship was found between errormonitoring ability and the difference between EL and EF conditions. It was recommended that future research explore the role of error-monitoring further. A concluding discussion chapter focusses on the implications of these findings for future research and theory development as well as implications for clinical practice. Limitations of the thesis are considered and a concluding paragraph offers a personal reflection on the process of conducting this research.

Errorless learning has been demonstrated to be an effective strategy for the cognitive rehabilitation of people with memory impairment. This study aimed to determine whether errorless learning is an effective strategy for teaching a complex procedure. Cognitive impairment has been tentatively linked with outcome after rehabilitation for lower limb amputation. Addressing this impairment may improve outcome. The aim of this study was to determine whether using an errorless learning approach would be beneficial for individuals who are learning how to put on their prosthetic limb. Thirty participants from a prosthetic clinic (WestMARC) were randomly assigned to an intervention (n = 15) or control group (n = 15). Results suggest that errorless learning is beneficial in terms of increasing the number of correct steps recalled from a fitting sequence (Mann-Whitney U = 28; p = 0.000, 2-tailed) compared to the control group. In addition, the errorless learning group made fewer errors during the fitting sequence compared to the control group (Mann-Whitney U = 39; p = 0.002, 2-tailed). The findings suggest that errorless learning is a beneficial approach to use when individuals are learning a procedural memory task.

Equivalence based instruction (EBI) has been demonstrated as an effective method for teaching various skills to a wide range of clinical and non-clinical populations. Recent research suggests deictic framing, or perspective switching skills, can be taught to typically and atypically developing children using an EBI teaching paradigm, however the protocols for teaching deictic framing tend to be very long. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a brief EBI and errorless learning program to teach deictic framing to a young woman with learning disabilities. A secondary purpose of this study was to determine if training on one deictic framing program would improve responding on skills that involve other deictic frames. The participant completed a pre and post-test before and after mastering one of four tested EBI programs. Results indicate that EBI is effective in teaching deictic frames, as derived relations emerged following training. The participant’s performance on other skills did not improve. These results also lend support to multiple exemplar teaching. Limitations and future directions for research are discussed.

The effectiveness of errorless learning, trial-and-error learning (i.e., errorful learning), and a traditional method for recalling face-name associations was compared in early Alzheimer's disease patients. Alternating treatment designs were used to assess method effects for each participant. Face-name associations were learned using pictures from the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test, six pictures for each of the three learning procedures. The results of the study showed that the errorless learning procedure had a larger number of face-name associations learned in 2 out of the 3 participants, compared to the trial-and-error learning and the traditional method.

Recent studies have shown the effectiveness of errorless learning principles in memory rehabilitation for people with dementia whilst studies with people with KorsakotT s Syndrome support effortful methods. However, some effortful methods may elicit errors. so there may be a trade-off relationship between effort and error. The present study compares, in a within-subjects design, the efficacy of four different learning techniques that vary in the extent to which errors are minimised and the degree to which effort is required. The techniques (vanishing cues, forward cues, target selection, paired associate) were used to teach both previously familiar and novel face-name associations to ten people with a diagnosis of early-stage dementia. Best results were achieved in the procedures that elicited most errors whilst learning (forward cues, target selection). It was argued that these procedures also incurred more cognitive effort. thus leading to deeper levels of processing. compared to more passive or shallow processing involved in paired associations and vanishing cues. Recall was also better following cued recall and recognition tasks compared to free recall. which suggested that learning in dementia is facilitated with support at encoding and retrieval. There has also been much debate in current literature as to whether implicit or explicit memory, or both, facilitates interventions using errorless learning. This study aimed to explore this by assessing both implicit and explicit memory for the stimulus items. There was no correlation between recall using implicit and explicit memory tasks, which suggested success on explicit memory tasks might not be due to implicit memory, but this interpretation was challenged. Multiple single case analyses also highlighted the heterogeneity of learning in dementia and emphasised the importance of integrating interpersonal and social factors when developing successful individually-based cognitive rehabilitation techniques.

Prospective Memory (PM), or the ability to act upon delayed intentions, is cognitively complex as it requires a combination of mnemonic, attentional and executive abilities. PM tasks can be particularly challenging for people with cognitive impairment, and it is important to identify effective means of rehabilitation. Errorless Learning (EL) is an encoding technique that results in superior recall and recognition memory performance compared with ‘errorful’ learning in people with memory impairment. This so-called ‘Errorless Learning advantage’ (ELA) has been attributed to implicit memory processes (Page et al., 2006), and there is a basis for predicting a similar beneficial effect on PM performance. However, PM tasks vary in their retrieval demands, some involving environmentally-cued retrieval of a cue-action association (referred to as Event-based PM tasks), and some requiring self-cued retrieval of the action to be performed (referred to as Time-based PM tasks). Event-based PM performance may, therefore, be seen to rely more upon mnemonic processes, and Time-based PM performance on more executive processes. Given there is no evidence suggesting an ELA for executive tasks, differential effects of EL on Time- and Event-based PM tasks were predicted. This study investigated these predictions. Fourteen participants with neurological memory impairment completed four computer-based PM tasks in a within-subjects 2x2 factorial experiment, with each factor having two levels: encoding method (Errorless, Errorful), and PM task type (Timebased, Event-based). A significant ELA was observed for Event-based PM (d=.63), but not for Time-based PM (d=-.01), and the interaction between encoding condition and task type approached significance (d=.41). Errorless Learning also resulted in reduced accuracy in participants’ retrospective estimates of how many opportunities there had been to perform the PM tasks, suggesting that encoding manipulations can affect metacognitive awareness of PM performance. These findings extend the existing evidence for the benefits of Errorless Learning within cognitive rehabilitation, by showing for the first time that EL can benefit future action in addition to performance on purely retrospective learning and retrieval tasks. There are also clear clinical implications of these results; day-to-day Event-based PM tasks (e.g. take your medication with breakfast, check you’ve got your keys before you go out the front door), if learned with Errorless methods, are more likely to be acted upon than tasks where errors have been made during learning.

One way for students with disabilities to receive instructional support from someone other than the lead classroom teacher is through paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals who are not trained properly, however, can negatively impact student success rates. One intervention that has been explored has been the use of video modeling to train staff on various instructional and behavior management strategies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of using video training to teach paraprofessionals how to implement errorless learning strategies with students. The participants within this study were three female paraprofessionals that were of Caucasian, Latino, and Ukranian descent and had worked in a classroom for at least one year. The dependent variables within this study were evaluated by use of a single subject, multiple baseline design across participants. Results of this study revealed that video training with a focus on errorless learning was effective in increasing paraprofessional percent correct implementation of the strategy, as indicated by an increase in exhibition of the strategy throughout observation and generalization sessions. Paraprofessional implementation of errorless learning procedures increased from a mean of 12.5% accuracy during baseline to 84% accuracy during intervention sessions. Generalization probes maintained high accuracy rates as well, with a mean of 88% accuracy across all three participants. The social validity results provided to the participants at the end of the study indicated that all participants prefer video training over in person training.

The prevalence and sequelae of moderate-to-severe (M/S) traumatic brain injury (TBI) are significant and pervasive problems, and effective rehabilitation techniques are key. Errorless learning is regarded as a useful tool for memory impairments; however, the efficacy of errorless learning in a M/S TBI population is unclear. The primary goal (aim 1) of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a single session of errorless vs. errorful learning in a group of M/S TBI survivors and matched controls. A secondary goal (aim 2) was to investigate the neural time course of errorless learning in participants with M/S TBI by analyzing the error-related negativity (ERN) component of the scalp-recorded event-related potential (ERP). The ERN is an electrophysiological measure of error processing that is disrupted in M/S TBI survivors. Measures of neuropsychological performance, self- and informant-report of executive functioning, and affect further informed both study aims. Data from 28 M/S TBI survivors (9 female) and 28 controls (9 female) were analyzed for aim 1, with data from 19 M/S TBI survivors (6 female) and 20 controls (8 female) analyzed for aim 2. There were significant differences between the TBI and control groups with regard to executive, mood, and neuropsychological functioning. Results from aim 1 indicated that TBI participants were slower across learning conditions, while both groups had significantly faster reaction times in the errorless condition. Regarding accuracy, there was not a statistically significant main effect of learning condition (p = .07), group (p = .06), or Group x Condition x Accuracy interaction (p = .33). Indices of memory and executive functioning, and group (TBI, Control) used in regressions predicted accuracy in both learning conditions (ps < .01). The memory composite was a significant independent predictor of errorless accuracy. Results from aim 2 indicated a reliable ERN was present across conditions, although there were no main effects of Condition, Group, or Group x Condition interactions on ERN amplitude or latency (ps > .22). ERN latency was not predictive of accuracy for either condition (ps > .08). Group was a significant independent predictor of accuracy in the errorless condition (p = .05), but not the errorful condition (p = .45). Findings indicate that memory functioning was a better predictor of accuracy than executive functioning or group membership. This suggests that the errorless learning benefit may be specific to memory functioning, rather than other cognitive variables. This conclusion aligns with research reporting that benefits of errorless learning depend upon the severity of memory impairments. Results from ERN analyses are only partially supported by previous research, and further work is needed to clarify the role of neural representations of errorless learning in M/S TBI.

This study examines the effects of two teaching procedures and two testing procedures (“Skip” and “Guess”) on acquisition, retention and generalization of learning. Three typically developing females between the ages of 8 and 11 learned the 24 lower case letters of the Greek alphabet. Half of the letters were taught with the “Skip” procedure and the other half with the “Guess” procedure. The “Skip” procedure produced faster and more efficient learning than the “Guess” procedure. The “Skip” procedure also resulted in better initial retention (4 weeks), but this effect disappeared in subsequent retention tests. The training conditions did not have differential effects on generalization tests across learning channels, except for the Free/Say channel.

Research investigating behavioural-variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) has concentrated on identifying and quantifying people’s difficulties; yet few studies have considered how people with bvFTD make sense of their difficulties. This study elicited the subjective experiences of five people living with bvFTD. Participants were interviewed and interpretive phenomenological analysis was used to analyze the data. Two super-ordinate themes emerged: ‘Bewilderment’ and ‘Relationships with others’. These were discussed in relation to the known difficulties encountered by those with bvFTD. ‘Bewilderment’ reflected the feelings of the participants from the start of their dementia journey and was divided into two main themes (1) ‘Awareness of change: What’s the problem?: Awareness of changes in behaviour or lifestyle, and (2) Threats to self: This is not me: Changes in behaviour or lifestyle which negatively impact on their sense of self. The second super-ordinate theme, ‘Relationships with others’, reflected difficulties with social relationships and comprised two main themes (1) ‘Family and friends: Things haven’t changed… but do I say anything wrong?’: Paradox between feeling their relationships were unchanged but an awareness that something was not as it were previously, and (2) Coping with threats to self: Blame others or just avoid them: Ways participants sought to cope.

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The study bellow is a sysmatic replication, magnified by the researcher of the reading program proposed by Iñesta (1980), based on methods of choosing by the gradual fading visual aid, colors of the stimulus e reinforcement, providing errorless learning, with the purpose of verifying your effect in the aquisition of the textual behavior of kids with autism diagnosis. Two kids in ages of 10 and 11 years, with autism diagnosis took part of the study and the behavior of reading was not part of their repertory. For the program application, file folders with A4 paper with printed stimuli, registration protocols, Sodré Primer, e revision texts were used. The program was applied in 5 steps, in all of them, baselines were applied to follow the participants performances. The data was analyzed and was verified that both kids learned to read. Four months after the program application finished, a follow up session was performed, confirming the learning conservation and generalization, and the increase of the textual behavior learned from the baseline 1. The hypothesis that the people with autismo learn when the learning proceedings are appropriate for the disorder features, was confirmed.
O presente estudo é uma replicação sistemática, ampliada pela pesquisadora, do programa de leitura proposto por Iñesta (1980), baseado nos métodos de escolha de acordo com o modelo com esvanecimento gradual de ajuda visual, cor dos estímulos e reforço, proporcionando uma aprendizagem sem erro, com o objetivo de verificar seu efeito na aquisição do comportamento textual de crianças com diagnóstico de autismo. Participaram do estudo duas crianças, 10 e 11 anos, com diagnóstico de autismo e o comportamento de ler não fazia parte do repertório delas. Para a aplicação do programa foram utilizadas pastas fichário, com folhas A4 com os estímulos impressos, protocolos de registro, Cartilha Sodré e texto de revisão. O programa foi aplicado em 5 etapas, em todas foram aplicadas linhas de base para acompanhar o desempenho dos participantes. Os dados foram analisados e verificou-se que as duas crianças aprenderam a ler. Depois de 4 meses de terminada a aplicação do programa, foi realizada uma sessão de follow up, confirmando a manutenção e generalização da aprendizagem e aumento do comportamento textual aprendido em relação à linha de base 1. É confirmada a hipótese de que as pessoas com autismo aprendem quando os procedimentos de ensino são adequados às características do transtorno.

Very few behavior-change programs with canines produce effects that persist beyond the training condition. The present study is an experimental demonstration of a constructional program that established calm patterns of behavior as alternatives to hyperactive ones. Three dogs that exhibited hyperactive patterns were chosen as subjects. Seven conditions common to canine-caretaker relationships were used to determine which factors resulted in the hyperactive patterns. Then, sitting and lying down were taught as beginning points using touch as a reinforcer. The final behavior, maintained by naturally occurring reinforcers, was established errorlessly. The study used a control-analysis strategy of behavior change with a changing-criterion design. The intervention resulted in an immediate reduction in hyperactivity and an increase in sitting and lying down for all dogs.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the use of a constant time delay procedure to teach core content words in braille to a student with a visual impairment. A multiple probe (conditions) across behaviors design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the training and follow-up sessions. The results showed the procedure was effective in teaching core content braille words within a resource setting and the student was able to generalize the information to an inclusive setting.

The present study compared the effects of an errorless stimulus shaping procedure to an errorful fluency based procedure for teaching difficult letter sound discriminations using a counterbalanced multielement experimental design. For 2 participants, letters fsteai were taught using the errorless procedure and letters bpdvou were taught using the errorful procedure. For the other 2 participants the conditions were reversed. All participants had considerably fewer errors and fewer trials to criterion with the errorless than with the errorful procedure. Tests of retention and generalization indicate that the errorful procedure generalized and was retained at a higher frequency than the errorless procedure. For 3 participants preference for the errorless procedure over the errorful procedure was demonstrated; whereas, the fourth participant demonstrated preference for the errorful procedure.

Feral and fearful cats and kittens in animal shelters are not likely to be adopted as companion animals because they emit fearful or aggressive behaviors in the presence of humans. The purpose of the fearful to friendly (F2F) research was to investigate a shaping procedure to increase friendly behaviors of feral and fearful domestic cats and kittens with the goal of achieving animal shelters’ adoptability criteria. The results showed the F2F procedure was a safe and very effective procedure to quickly tame feral kittens deemed unadoptable. The day after implementing F2F, three out of four kittens approached me and accepted petting and holding without any additional training.

Numerous studies have evaluated and confirmed many benefits of errorless learning and fluency-based procedures. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the benefits of combining an errorless learning procedure, stimulus shaping, and fluency-based procedures to teach see/say letter sound discriminations to three preschool children. Participants were taught 6 letter sounds using a hear/point stimulus shaping procedure followed by a see/say fluency-based procedure. A second letter set was taught using only the fluency-based procedure. Results showed that combining the procedures reduced the amount of teaching time by up to 40% and the percent of errors by up to 50%. This preliminary evidence shows exceptional promise in application of this combination of procedures to teach letter sounds to preschool children.

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This study is a systematic replication of the reading program proposed by Iñesta (1980), extended by the researcher, based on the methods of learning errorless and stimulus control using the techniques of disappearance and equalization of the model in order to verify the effect in increasing the reading repertoire in children presenting developmental delay. The study included four children from seven to nine years old, students in the first stage of basic education of a public school in the country of Goiás. All participants were referred by the school with complaints of delay in reading development, not getting reports that would justify it. To implement the program paper sheets with words or phrases and record protocol were used. The reading program was applied in three stages and four parallel lines were established in order to compare the results. The data were analyzed and it was found that the four children learned to discriminate the textual stimuli presented. Thirty days after the application of the program follow-up sessions were carried out, which confirmed that the increase of the participants reading repertoire in relation to the repertoire obtained at baseline 1. It was confirmed that the hypothesis that children with delayed reading development may have a broader repertoire, since it is possible to maintain control of the stimuli through errorless education programs.
O presente estudo é uma replicação sistemática do programa de leitura proposto por Iñesta (1980), estendido pela pesquisadora, baseado nos métodos de aprendizagem sem erro e controle de estímulos utilizando as técnicas de esvanecimento e igualação do modelo, objetivando verificar seu efeito no aumento do repertório de leitura em crianças com atraso no desenvolvimento. Participaram do estudo quatro crianças com idades entre sete e nove anos, estudantes da primeira fase do Ensino Fundamental de uma escola pública municipal do interior de Goiás. Todos os participantes foram encaminhados pela escola com queixa de atraso no desenvolvimento da leitura não obtendo laudos que a justificassem. Para a aplicação do programa foram utilizadas fichas com palavras ou frases e protocolos de registros. O programa de leitura foi aplicado em três etapas e paralelamente a elas foram estabelecidas quatro linhas de base a fim de comparar os resultados. Os dados foram analisados e verificou-se que as quatro crianças aprenderam a discriminar os estímulos textuais apresentados sem responderem aos estímulos negativos. Trinta dias após a aplicação do programa foram realizadas sessões de follow-up que confirmaram o aumento do repertório de leitura dos participantes em relação ao repertório obtido na linha de base 1. É confirmada a hipótese de que crianças com atraso no desenvolvimento da leitura podem ter um repertório mais amplo, uma vez que se consegue manter o controle dos estímulos por meio de programas de ensino sem erros.

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Research has shown inconsistent results about the effect of errors on discrimination learning. Two studies were conducted with the general purpose of verifying the effect of errors during the acquisition of one set of conditional discriminations upon the performance on a second set that had been learned with few errors. In both studies children of 6 to 8 years of age learned two sets of arbitrary relations between Greek letters. The first study sought to produce errorless learning by way of a sample stimulus shaping procedure. One group learned all relations with stimulus shaping. A second group learned the first set in this manner and the second set through trial and error. Both groups were then tested on the first set of relations. The percentage of correct responses was higher for the relations learned with stimulus shaping than for those learned with trial and error. However, no consistent differences between procedures were found with regards to the total number of errors in the acquisition of each discrimination, which made it difficult to evaluate the effect of errors in the acquisition of the second set of discriminations upon later performance on the first set. Study 2 was a systematic replication of Study 1. The stimulus shaping procedure was substituted by an instruction procedure, and participants were tested to check for emerging equivalence classes. Group 1 learned all stimulus relations through instruction. Group 2 received instruction for the first set of relations, and learned the second set through trial and error. Groups 3 learned all relations through trial and error. Children who learned relations with the instruction procedure made fewer errors in later tests and trials involving these relations than children from Groups 2 and 3, thus indicating the detrimental effect of errors in conditional discrimination learning. There were no clear differences between groups with regards to performance on equivalence tests. High scores on some equivalence tests and average scores on others suggest that some responses were being controlled by the S- and not the S+
Pesquisas têm mostrado resultados inconsistentes sobre o efeito do erro na aprendizagem de discriminações. Realizaram-se dois estudos com o objetivo geral de verificar o efeito de erros na aprendizagem de um conjunto de discriminações condicionais sobre o desempenho em outro, anteriormente aprendido com poucos erros. Em ambos os estudos, crianças de 6 a 8 anos aprenderam dois conjuntos de relações arbitrárias entre letras gregas. No primeiro estudo, buscou-se produzir uma aprendizagem com poucos erros por meio de um procedimento de modelagem do estímulo modelo. Um grupo aprendeu todas as relações com a modelagem do estímulo. Um segundo grupo aprendeu o primeiro conjunto dessa mesma forma e o segundo, por meio de tentativa e erro. Posteriormente fizeram um teste do primeiro conjunto de relações. A porcentagem de acertos das relações aprendidas com modelagem do estímulo foi mais alta do que a das relações aprendidas com tentativa e erro. No entanto, não houve diferenças consistentes entre os procedimentos quanto ao número total de erros na aquisição das discriminações, o que dificultou a avaliação do efeito do erro na aprendizagem do segundo conjunto de relações sobre o desempenho posterior no primeiro. O Estudo 2 foi uma replicação sistemática do Estudo 1. O procedimento de modelagem do estímulo foi substituído por um de instrução, e acrescentaram-se testes para avaliar a emergência de classes de equivalência. O Grupo 1 aprendeu todas as relações por meio de instrução. O Grupo 2 teve instrução apenas para o primeiro conjunto de relações e aprendeu o segundo por tentativa e erro. Já o Grupo 3 aprendeu todas as relações por tentativa e erro. A instrução proporcionou, no geral, um número menor de erros do que o procedimento de tentativa e erro. Crianças que aprenderam todas as relações com instrução mantiveram um desempenho com menos erros em testes e treinos posteriores dessas relações do que as crianças dos Grupos 2 e 3, o que indica o efeito deletério do erro na aprendizagem de discriminações condicionais. Não houve diferença clara de desempenho entre os grupos nos testes de equivalência. Alta porcentagem de acertos em alguns testes e porcentagens medianas ou baixas em outros sugerem que algumas respostas estavam sob controle do S- e não do S+

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This study evaluated three procedures to teach single digit addition to three children diagnosed with Autism. It was intended to specifically compare a parallel design of independent variables for the three procedures including Constant Time Delay, Simultaneous Prompting and No-No Prompting. With the simultaneous model, a matching procedure was used to train the children to point to the sum (model) when given a field of three numbers to compare, one being the correct answer. Prior to teaching, a complete probe of all additions of all blocks was implemented to determine baseline levels. Then the children were taught three additions in each block for each procedure, ensuring that the number of training trials for all teaching sessions remained constant for each procedure in each session. Daily probes were also conducted, as they were considered the most effective to achieve 100% accuracy in three consecutive daily sessions. Results indicate that the Constant Time Delay procedure was the most effective for teaching two participants whereas Simultaneous Prompting was most effective for the other participant. Theses results also demonstrate the need for more comparative studies to further evaluate the optimal teaching procedure
Este estudo ensinou somas por meio dos procedimentos Atraso de Tempo Constante, Simultaneous Prompting e No-No Prompting para três crianças com diagnóstico de autismo. Utilizou-se o emparelhamento com o modelo simultâneo no qual as crianças foram treinadas a apontar o resultado de uma soma (modelo) quando apresentados três números comparação, sendo um deles a resposta correta. O presente estudo pretendeu comparar por meio de um delineamento de tratamento paralelo de variáveis independentes os três procedimentos. Foram ensinadas três somas em cada bloco para cada procedimento. O número de tentativas nas sessões de ensino permanecia o mesmo em cada sessão para cada procedimento. Antes do início do ensino era aplicada uma sonda completa composta por todas as somas de todos os blocos. Também foram realizadas sondas diárias. Considerava-se mais eficaz o procedimento de ensino que atingisse 100% de acertos em três sessões diárias consecutivas. Os resultados mostraram que o procedimento Atraso de Tempo Constante foi o mais efetivo para o ensino desta tarefa para dois participantes e o Simultaneous Prompting para um participante. Os resultados indicam a necessidade de mais estudos comparativos de procedimentos de ensino

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In a literate society like ours there are many advantages for both the individual and for the community in knowing how to read and write. Brazil's high illiteracy rates are well known, and eradicating functional illiteracy is a major ethical and political goal that studies and researches can help to reach. The present dissertation is an attempt to advance in this direction. We conducted a comparative analysis of the concept of reading and the method for teaching to read from the viewpoints of Leonard loomfield's structural linguistics and of B. F. Skinner's behavioral analysis. We worked on representative texts about the concept of reading and teaching to read by these two scholars. In behavior analysis, as a result of the findings of this research, we went beyond Skinner's texts, and entered the field of errorless learning. Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949), one of the most important linguists of the twentieth century, was a behaviorist and influenced many aspects of B. F. Skinner’s work. In the 1930s Bloomfield developed a method for teaching reading, which culminated in the publication of “Let’s Read” in 1961. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), the founder of behavior analysis, has been considered by many as the most prominent psychologist of the twentieth century. In the 1950s Skinner published "Verbal Behavior" (1957/1992), in which he addressed the study of language conceived as verbal behavior. Bloomfield considered the basic repertoire of reading as alphabetic habit, which consists in emitting vocal verbal responses corresponding to the printed text, a concept that is compatible with the design of Skinner's concept of textual (one of the units of analysis of verbal behavior). Both Bloomfield and Skinner considered the basic repertoire of reading, the alphabetic habit or textual behavior, as a prerequisite for reading comprehension. Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondences as an essential part of a reading instruction program was advocated by Bloomfield and is nowadays widely accepted by researchers in the field of reading instruction. The fundamental principle that guides Bloomfield's reading instruction method is the systematic organization of the words presented for reading, based on the degree of regularity of grapheme-phoneme correspondences, from the alphabetic principle to reaching correspondences that deviate far from this principle. The basic teaching procedure is to present pairs of words that contrast in just one or a few letters. This procedure is compatible with differential reinforcement of responses in the presence of specific stimuli procedures used in establishing discrimination in Skinner's behavioral analysis. In addition, we identified in Bloomfield's reading instruction method principles of programmed instruction, which Skinner formulated in the 1950s. For example, requiring the learner to present at least one active response in every step of teaching, reinforcing correct answers immediately after their emission and preparing teaching materials in a gradual progression to enhance the learner's performance in every step of the teaching program. We identified that in Bloomfield's method he advocated errorless learning or learning with few errors, an element that appears in Skinner's behavioral analysis. We concluded that Bloomfield and Skinner's reading concepts are very similar and that Bloomfield's reading instruction method is compatible with behavioral analytical teaching procedures. Bloomfield designed a behavioral reading instruction method, advocated errorless learning or with a minimum of errors and attributed the emission of wrong answers by the learner to teaching method, as supported by the field of errorless learning. It should not be considered that Bloomfield's reading instruction method has actually been tested. Skinner's behavior analysis can contribute to refinements in Bloomfield's reading instruction method, for example, by systematizing the use of extrinsic reinforcers. The adaptation of Bloomfield's reading instruction method to the Portuguese language and its systematic combination with principles and procedures of behavior analysis require the collaborative work of linguists and behavior analysts (at least) and would have great potential, as shown by our analysis, towards solving the problem of Brazil's high rates of functional illiteracy.
Numa sociedade letrada como a nossa, saber ler e escrever traz muitas vantagens tanto para o indivíduo quanto para a comunidade. Os elevados níveis de analfabetismo no Brasil são bem conhecidos e erradicar o analfabetismo funcional é uma importante meta ético-política, que estudos e pesquisas podem ajudar a alcançar. A presente tese é uma tentativa nesta direção. Realizamos uma análise comparativa das concepções de leitura e método preconizado para seu ensino na perspectiva da linguística estrutural de Leonard Bloomfield e da análise comportamental de B. F. Skinner. Trabalhamos com textos representativos da concepção de leitura e de ensino de leitura desses dois autores. Na análise comportamental, como consequência dos próprios achados da pesquisa, avançamos além dos textos de Skinner, ingressando no campo da aprendizagem sem erros. Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) foi um dos mais importantes linguistas do século XX, era behaviorista e influenciou vários aspectos da obra de B. F. Skinner. Na década de 1930, Bloomfield elaborou um método de ensino de leitura, culminando na publicação de “Let’s Read” em 1961. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), o fundador da análise do comportamento, tem sido considerado por muitos como o psicólogo mais proeminente do século XX. Na década de 1950, Skinner publicou "Verbal Behavior" (1957/1992) em que abordou o estudo da linguagem considerada como comportamento verbal. Bloomfield concebeu o repertório básico de leitura como hábito alfabético, consistindo na emissão das respostas verbais vocais correspondentes ao texto impresso, conceito compatível com a concepção de Skinner de textual (uma das unidades de análise do comportamento verbal). Tanto Bloomfield quanto Skinner consideram o repertório básico de leitura (o hábito alfabético ou o comportamento textual) como um pré-requisito para a leitura com compreensão. O ensino das correspondências grafema-fonema como parte essencial de um programa de ensino de leitura foi defendido por Bloomfield e é, hoje em dia, amplamente aceito por pesquisadores no campo do ensino de leitura. O princípio fundamental que norteia o método de ensino de leitura bloomfieldiano é a organização sistemática das palavras apresentadas para leitura em função do grau de regularidade das correspondências grafemafonema, partindo do princípio alfabético até serem atingidas correspondências que se afastam muito deste princípio. O procedimento de ensino básico consiste em apresentar pares de palavras que cotrastam em apenas uma ou algumas letras. Este procedimento é compatível com procedimentos de reforçamento diferencial de respostas na presença de estímulos específicos, empregado no estabelecimento de discriminações numa análise comportamental skinneriana. Além disto, identificamos no método de ensino de leitura bloomfieldiano a presença de princípios da instrução programada, que Skinner formulou na década de 1950. Por exemplo, exigir que o aprendiz emita ao menos uma reposta ativa a cada passo do ensino, reforçando as respostas corretas imediatamente após sua emissão, e elaborar materiais de ensino, numa progressão gradual, que fomente o desempenho preciso do aprendiz a cada passo do programa de ensino. Encontramos no método de Bloomfield a defesa do ensino sem erros ou com poucos erros, um elemento que também aparece na análise comportamental skinneriana. Concluímos que as concepções de leitura de Bloomfield e de Skinner são muito semelhantes e o método bloomfieldiano para seu ensino é compatível com os procedimentos de ensino utilizados na análise do comportamento. Bloomfield elaborou um método comportamental de ensino de leitura, defendeu a aprendizagem sem erros ou com um mínimo de erros, e relacionou a apresentação de respostas erradas pelo aprendiz ao método de ensino, tal como se defende no campo da aprendizagem sem erros. Não se pode considerar que o método de ensino de leitura elaborado por Bloomfield tenha sido efetivamente testado. A análise do comportamento skinneriana pode contribuir para refinar o método de ensino de leitura bloomfieldiano, por exemplo, pela sistematização do uso de reforçadores extrínsecos. A adaptação do método de ensino de leitura bloomfieldiano à língua portuguesa e sua combinação sistemática com princípios e procedimentos analítico-comportamentais requer o trabalho colaborativo de linguistas e analistas do comportamento (no mínimo) e tem grande potencial, como mostram nossas análises, para participar do enfrentamento do problema dos altos índices de analfabetismo funcional no Brasil.

Tese de doutoramento em Psicologia (área de conhecimento em Psicologia Experimental e Ciências Cognitivas)
Two of the most well-known accounts of nonhuman timing are the cognitive Scalar Expectancy Theory (SET) and the behavioral Learning-to-Time (LeT) model. In this thesis I compared them by using a task called double bisection. In this procedure, subjects are exposed to two conditional discriminations, for example, 1 s (red) versus 4 s (green), and 4 s (blue) versus 16 s (yellow). During testing, sample durations ranging from 1 s to 16 s are presented, followed by the choice between the green and the blue stimuli, which are both associated during training with 4-s durations. Previous research (e.g., Machado & Arantes, 2006; Machado & Keen, 1999) has shown that as the sample duration increases, preference for the green stimulus also increases. This result is known as the context effect, and is predicted by LeT but not SET. My goals were to test the robustness of the context effect, and – because LeT, contrary to SET, attributes an important role to the errors made during learning – to investigate the role of errors in temporal discriminations, specifically their impact on the context effect. For that, in Experiment 1 and 2 two common features from the prior experiments that used the double bisection task were modified in order to analyze if the context effect depends on procedural details or if it is a general phenomenon. Specifically, in Experiment 1 the two conditional discriminations, 1 s versus 4 s and 4 s versus 16 s, were always presented in different sessions throughout the training and testing phases, instead of being intermixed within the same session. In Experiment 2, only one stimulus was presented on each trial, and subjects had to learn whether to respond or not depending on the prior duration. Results showed that the context effect remained even with these procedural changes, suggesting that it is a robust phenomenon. LeT is strengthened because it predicts the context effect, whereas SET is weakened because it cannot predict this phenomenon. In Experiment 3 and 4 an errorless learning procedure – which consisted of training subjects on a simplified version of the task, and then gradually increasing its complexity – was used in order to teach temporal discriminations with a small number of errors and compare the animals‟ performance with those that learned with a larger number of errors. Specifically, in Experiment 3 errorless learning was used to teach pigeons a single conditional discrimination, 2 s versus 10 s. Results showed that it is possible to teach a conditional temporal discrimination with few and even no errors. In addition, the performance during testing of the pigeons that learned with few or no errors was mostly similar to that of animals that made a larger number of errors, suggesting that the number of errors was not crucial for learning. In Experiment 4 pigeons learned a double bisection task through the errorless procedure and made significantly fewer errors than a group of pigeons that learned it via trial and error. Results from testing showed that the context effect was obtained with similar form and magnitude for the two groups of pigeons. Furthermore, there was no systematic relationship between the magnitude of the context effect and the number of errors, suggesting that the context effect is independent of the errors made during discrimination learning. Implications for SET and LeT are discussed.
O objectivo principal desta tese é o teste de dois modelos fundamentais das regulações temporais: o “Scalar Expectancy Theory” (SET) e o “Learning to Time” (LeT). Para isso utilizei a tarefa de dupla bissecção, que consiste na apresentação de duas discriminações temporais na mesma sessão. Por exemplo, nos ensaios Tipo 1 um animal aprende a escolher uma tecla vermelha após um estímulo de 1 s e uma tecla verde após um estímulo de 4 s, e nos ensaios Tipo 2 aprende a escolher uma tecla azul depois de um estímulo de 4 s e uma tecla amarela depois de um estímulo de 16 s. Na fase de teste o animal é exposto a estímulos de 1 a 16 s e tem de escolher entre as teclas verde e azul (particularmente significativas uma vez que, durante o treino, ambas estavam associadas à mesma duração de estímulo de 4 s). Enquanto que SET prevê que a escolha não é afectada pela duração do estímulo, LeT prevê que a preferência pela tecla verde aumenta monotonicamente com a duração do estímulo. Experiências prévias onde esta tarefa foi utilizada (Machado & Arantes, 2006; Machado & Keen, 1999; Machado & Pata, 2005) obtiveram resultados consistentes com LeT, mas não com SET, isto é, à medida que a duração do estímulo aumentava, a preferência pela tecla verde também aumentava – um resultado conhecido como efeito de contexto. O meu objectivo geral divide-se em dois: 1) analisar se o efeito de contexto é um fenómeno robusto; e 2) investigar o papel dos erros nas discriminações temporais, em particular o impacto que estes têm no efeito de contexto, uma vez que o modelo LeT, contrariamente a SET, atribui um papel importante aos erros dados durante a aprendizagem. Para isso, nas Experiências 1 e 2 alterei parcialmente a tarefa de dupla bissecção de modo a determinar se o efeito de contexto é um fenómeno geral ou se depende de detalhes experimentais. Especificamente, na Experiência 1 apresentei as duas discriminações, Tipo 1 e Tipo 2, em sessões separadas. Na Experiência 2 apresentei as teclas (vermelha, verde, azul e amarela) sucessivamente, isto é, o animal era exposto a apenas uma tecla iluminada em cada ensaio. Os resultados mostraram que apesar das alterações nos procedimentos, o efeito de contexto foi observado em ambas as experiências, o que sugere que é um fenómeno robusto. Uma vez que o efeito de contexto é apenas previsto pelo LeT, os resultados das Experiências 1 e 2 fortalecem este modelo e enfraquecem SET. Nas Experiências 3 e 4 utilizei um procedimento de aprendizagem sem erros – que consiste em apresentar uma versão simplificada da tarefa, e gradualmente aumentar a sua complexidade – de modo a ensinar discriminações temporais com um número reduzido de erros a um grupo de pombos e comparar a performance destes animais com um grupo que deu um número mais elevado de erros durante a aquisição da tarefa. Em particular, na Experiência 3 os animais aprenderam uma discriminação entre 2 s e 10 s e posteriormente foram expostos a três tipos de teste de modo a analisar se existiam diferenças comportamentais entre os dois grupos. Os resultados mostraram que é possível ensinar uma discriminação temporal condicional com zero ou poucos erros através do procedimento de aprendizagem sem erros. Além disso, a performance destes animais na fase de teste foi semelhante à performance daqueles que aprenderam a discriminação através do método tradicional de tentativa-erro, e que deram um número mais elevado de erros. Estes resultados sugerem que o número de erros não é crucial para a aprendizagem. Na Experiência 4 ensinei uma tarefa de dupla bissecção a um grupo de pombos através de um procedimento de aprendizagem sem erros semelhante àquele utilizado na Experiencia 3 e, comparado com um grupo que aprendeu a tarefa através de tentativa-erro, estes animais deram um número reduzido de erros. Os resultados mostraram ainda que o efeito de contexto foi obtido em ambos os grupos com uma forma e magnitude semelhante, e a inexistência de uma relação sistemática entre a magnitude do efeito de contexto e o número de erros, o que sugere que o efeito de contexto é independente do número de erros dados durante a aquisição das discriminações. As implicações destes resultados para os modelos LeT e SET são discutidas em detalhe.

碩士
美和科技大學
社會工作系碩士班
105
Objective: Dementia care has developed some non-pharmacological treatments, including reality orientation, validation therapy and errorless learning, etc. This study aimed to develop a serial of errorless-learn program to solve the problems that those dementia patients may encounter in their daily life, and to improve the cognitive funciotn and quality of life. Method: Action research was used in the paper. 8 participants involved in this study. Activity 1 and activity 2 were in groups, in progress at the same time, 60 minutes for each time. Activity 3 is one by one, 40 minutes for each time. Group and one-on-one activities conduct three times a week respectively, for a period of two weeks, 12 samples in total. Result: the SPMSQ indicated that the average has risen by 0.5 point, but no significant. MMSE indicated that the average has risen by 4.5 points and come up to the significant standard (p=.043). QoL-AD indicated that the average has risen by 7.75 points (p=.012) and also reached the significant standard. As for the aspect of brainwave indexes—both sleep (p =.035) and fatigue (p=.028) are improved prominently. Conclusion: Errorless learning indeed helps the elderly solve their daily problems and improves their cognitive function. The elderly can avoid confusing the time, the place and the people around them. Likewise, It is helpful for the elderly to have a well sleep at night. Through this paper, we expect that caregivers could employ the errorless learn in care service and improve the senior in the quality of life.

Thesis (M.A.)--York University, 2003. Graduate Programme in Psychology.
Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 51-57). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/yorku/fullcit?pMQ99351

碩士
美和科技大學
社會工作系碩士班
107
Based on the review of literature,the purpose of this study was design and practice a set of errorless learning cognitive activities for the reality orientation group of elderly with dementia in the community. The effectiveness assess includes the cognitive function, depression ,frailty and quality of life。 Quasi-experimental design was used for this study. The participant were 20 whom had evaluated with mild or intermediate dementing disorder, and divided into the experimental group and the control group by random sampling. The experimental group (n=10） is the reality orientation group and practice with erroless learning cognitive activities. The control group (n=10) is in general daily activities. Evaluates their effectiveness after fourteen activities. There are the Montreal Cognitive Assessment（MOCA）,Geriatric Depression Scale（GDS）,Kihon Check List（KCL）,and Quality of Life-Alzheimer’s Disease Scale （QOL-AD）used for evaluates the effectness . These scales test results shows that on cognitive function ,the experimental group has improve effects obviously( Z=-1.963，P=.050）; on the depression, the experimental group did not reach the difference of significant level（Z=-.946，P=.344）;on the frailty, the experimental group did not have difference of significant level（Z=-1.826，Z=.068）;on the quality of life, the experimental group did not have difference significant（Z=-1.367，P=.172）. The comprehensive result shows that reality orientation group practice with designed locally errorless learning cognitive activities, will potentially improve the cognitive function for elderly with dementia in community. It is recommended that the domestic community should augment the further design and implementation of the reality orientation group with errorless learning cognitive activities. The long-term care services industry, the academic and the community have to be strengthen the cooperation, more local researches have to be made, and the practice guidelines of reality orientation group with errorless learning cognitive activities have to be established for domestic community.

碩士
國立中央大學
認知與神經科學研究所
105
According to previous studies, testing produced better long-term retention than repeated studying because retrieval practices are needed in testing which is known as testing effect. However, it is not clear whether and how retrieval errors affect the mnemonic benefits of testing. The very few studies that examined this issue gave rise to inconsistent results. Therefore, this thesis employed Chinese pseudocharacters- ZhuYin FuHao associations to examine the following issues in the same task: (a) Does test-errorless learning and test-errorful learning benefits memory retention compared with study-only (no-test) learning? (b) How does the errorful and errorless learning affect by cue-target constraint levels? (c) How does the information conveyed by words modulate electrophysiological correlates of the testing effect? In the current study, orthography-to-phonology consistency was applied to define the constraints between Chinese pseudocharacters-ZhuYin FuHao associations. In both high-constraint and low-constraint associations, half of associations was assigned to no-test learning condition, the other half was assigned to testing condition. During analysis, the recall rates of testing condition were further calculated for errorful and errorless trials. In Experiment 1 to 3, participants’ performance on high-constraint characters was always better than low-constraint characters. The results of Experiment 2 revealed that no-test (study-only) learning group and test self-generated learning group led to better performance than test with 2 alternatives learning group. The results of the Experiment 2-2 and 3 both revealed that errorless learning led to better performance than no-test (study-only) learning, and no-test learning led to better performance than errorful learning. The ERP results revealed that high-constraint characters elicited a more negative N400 wave than low-constraint characters, and the mean amplitudes of low-constraint characters were more positive than high-constraint characters in the time windows from 1000 to1900ms. The ERPs elicited by the ZhuYin FuHao revealed that common pronunciations marginally elicited more positive P300 than uncommon pronunciations for low-constraint condition but not for high-constraint condition. In addition, mean amplitudes difference between common and uncommon pronunciations was greater on high-constraint characters in the time windows from 1200 to1900ms. The current findings suggested that test with error occurred decreased the benefit of testing on learning. Errorful learning led to the worse retention, and errorless learning led to better retention than no-test learning whether the cue-target constraint was high or low. In addition, except for ERP results revealed consistency (cue-target constraint) and oddball effects at N400 and P300, the novel prolonged pN400FP like effects were found, which might suggested that more efforts were needed to override a strongly held prediction than weakly held prediction.