Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Ethiopia – Economic conditions – 1974-'

This thesis explores the relationship between identity, social interaction, and social practice, through a case study of young diasporans of Ethiopian origin (YDEOs) from North America and their engagements in Ethiopian development initiatives. Specifically, I examine the ways in which people of Ethiopian descent born and/or raised in Canada and the U.S. construct a diasporic identity and engage with Ethiopian development initiatives through a mutually constitutive process. My methods were qualitative and involved conducting semi-structured in-depth interviews with 55 YDEOs and attending 8 community events in Toronto, Washington, D.C., and Addis Ababa. All of the YDEOs I interviewed had actively engaged in initiatives (based in North America or Ethiopia) intended to contribute towards the social, political, and/or economic development of Ethiopia. Their initiatives included fundraising events, establishing local NGOs, volunteer missions, and taking professional positions within the Ethiopian development sector, among others. Utilising an interactionist theoretical framework, I unpack YDEO motivations for engaging in Ethiopian development, the nature of the development activities themselves, and the ways in which these experiences have shaped YDEO relationships, identities, and trajectories in life so far. Engaging in Ethiopian development was rarely expressed as an extension of a pre-existing sense of Ethiopian patriotism; rather, YDEOs used these practices to explore, test, or build a sense of connection to their country of origin. Further, the development framework made it possible for them to forge a relationship that also resonated with their other social identities, and could even be leveraged to further other personal and professional goals. YDEO engagements in Ethiopian development were not simply interventions; they were fundamentally social processes defined by social interactions. In the process of organising fundraising events, volunteering at orphanages, and working on project reports, YDEOs were also building personal connections, gaining social capital, and redefining attitudes towards their families, communities, development, and Ethiopia itself. This thesis contributes an in-depth and critical analysis of the diaspora/development nexus - a nexus that emerges as a contested space, where people act and are acted upon, where identities are reified and transformed, and where institutions and social structures are both strengthened and challenged. The insights from migrant descendant experiences, such as YDEOs, highlights the ways in which diasporic identities take shape and are imbued with meaning through social practice, and how these practices are connected to broader human psychosocial needs, aspirations, and behaviours.

I demonstrate that household investments in children's education in Ethiopia are affected by parents' self-beliefs (such as their locus of control), parents' aspirations for children's educational attainment, children's conceptions of their roles and identities in the household and at school, and children's own preferences, all concepts not widely studied in development economics. Two empirical chapters report on a field experiment in which randomly selected adults watched documentaries about role models who were poor but succeeded in agriculture or small business. Six months later, parents' self-beliefs and aspirations for children's education were higher in the treatment than in the placebo and control groups. Enrolment of children in school, spending on education, saving and use of credit also increased. A third empirical chapter draws on longitudinal qualitative research to argue that children's preferences for their time allocation between work and school are strongly influenced by the desire to comply with valued identities as students and as independent earners and contributors to the household. The fourth chapter suggests that understanding children's preferences might improve predictions about their reaction to education policies. The literature predicts an increase in time in school will not improve test scores: children will reduce effort because they desire a limited amount of learning. I find a reform to lengthen the Ethiopian primary school day improves test scores. Although this could occur through many mechanisms, one possibility is that children do not prefer to limit their desired amount of learning. This suggests that better evidence on children's preferences might improve prediction of the effects of policies to alter school inputs. The conclusion reflects on whether the empirical relevance of concepts of self-beliefs, aspirations and identities implies that assumptions in standard models of decision-making in economics about the characteristics of beliefs and preferences ought to be rejected. I argue that these ideas can be captured by existing economic concepts of beliefs and preferences and by standard assumptions about these concepts. I suggest that, contrary to recent accounts building on human capital theory, self-beliefs should be viewed as beliefs, not non-cognitive skills. I consider aspirations as a type of preference, shaped by both objective constraints and self-beliefs. I consider identity as a preference for complying with a social role, but highlight that such preferences are often altruistic, rather than self-interested. In conclusion, I argue that economics should draw further on other social sciences, including psychology, to develop substantive theories of the formation and characteristics of beliefs and preferences. Doing so will suggest when it is appropriate to apply standard models and how their assumptions can be modified if their predictions do not hold.

The system of cereal grain production in Ethiopia has been stratified into private, cooperative and state farms since the 1975 land reform. The private farms are being gradually replaced by the cooperative farms while the state farms are receiving increased technical and budgetary assistance by the Ethiopian government. lt is, however, not clear if these policies are consistent with the technical characteristics of these three modes of production. This study, therefore, evaluated technical efficiency, impacts of known and latent input factors, and returns to scale parameters for each farm type. Sample data were collected from Ethiopia on five cereal crops, namely, barley, com, sorghum, teff and wheat and several input factors, including labor, land, oxen, traditional farm implements, tractors, machinery services, modern yield·increasing inputs, livestock, education and rainfall over 77 awrajjas for the 1980-1986 production period. A covariance regression model was applied with these data to determine an appropriate functional form between the Cobb-Douglas and translog production functions. The Translog functional form was selected for the analysis on the basis of statistical tests. Results of the analysis suggest that the producer cooperatives collectively appear to have a potential to generate increased gross income per hectare at a declining rate with respect to an equiproportionate increase in all inputs, except land, upon an increasing average cost of production per unit of cereal output. The private and state farms appear to be operating with a close to fixed proportions type of production technology with a constant average cost of production per unit of cereal output per hectare. Moreover, the range of substitutability between input factors tends towards a complementary relationship as the institutional transformations and management techniques of the cereal producing farms shift from the traditional to a more advanced and centrally managed state mode of production. Partial income elasticity parameters suggest that (a) the private sector’s gross income per hectare is most responsive to traditional hand tools, fertilizer, labor, human capital at primary level of education, and rain in August and September; (b) the cooperative sector’s gross income per hectare is most responsive to the use of tractors and September rain; whereas (c) gross income per hectare of the state farms is most responsive to the use of traditional labor, machinery services and rain in June and August. Thus, Ethiopia’s agricultural income production per hectare is likely to be revitalized by: (a) qualitative changes in the traditional inputs, water management, and introduction of modem technical inputs such as fertilizer and farmer education in the private sector; (b) increased traditional labor employment, improved management of water, machinery and modem yield-increasing inputs on the state farms; and (c) a better usage of tractors and collaborative input factors, improved water management, and a substantial increase in capital investment to achieve full employment of the seemingly redundant labor and oxen input factors on the cooperative farms. It seems unlikely that the producer cooperatives will achieve the goal of maximum cereal output per hectare with the most prevalent composition of the redundant traditional input factors which contribute insignificantly at the margin without a major change in the current production techniques and structural policies of the sector.
Ph. D.

This study attempts to document the state and nature of inequality and poverty in Greece using the primary consumption expenditure data of two Household Expenditure Surveys conducted in 1974 and 1982. Chapter 1 provides an outline of recent developments in the Greek economy, a survey of the literature on inequality and poverty in Greece and a comparison of the above data with data from other sources. In Chapter 2 it is argued that the distribution of consumption expenditure per equivalent adult is a fairly good approximation to the (unobservable) distribution of economic welfare, and three models of equivalence scales for the cost of children are estimated. Based on these results, the distributions of consumption expenditure per equivalent adult are constructed for both survey years. Chapter 3 provides the results of measurement and decomposition of inequality. One-way decomposition is carried out when the population is grouped according to ten factors, of which five are used to subdivide the population into small homogeneous socioeconomic groups for the purposes of the multivariate decomposition of inequality. The main finding of the one-way decompositions is that disparities "between groups" play a far less important role in determining aggregate inequality than disparities "within-groups". Even in the multivariate decomposition, variations "between-groups" account for only one third of aggregate inequality in 1974 and for even less in 1982. The results of measuremenat nd decompositiono f poverty, reportedi n Chapter4 , suggest that poverty is closely associated with certain occupational characteristics of the household head. These characteristics are employment in the agricultural sector or no employment. Households headed by farmers and retired persons account for around two thirds of aggregate poverty in both survey years. Intertemporal changesi n inequality and poverty are examined in Chapter5 . It is demonstrated that inequality and relative poverty declined substantially between 1974 and 1982, while the decline in absolute poverty was spectacular. The impact on inequality of changes in the structure of the population was negligible, but the improvement in the educational level of HH heads had a strong negative effect on poverty. Further, the results of some cross-country inequality and welfare comparisons presented in this chapter show that inequality is higher, and welfare lower, in Greece than in most of the other EEC countries. Finally, Chapter 6 summarizes the principal findings and discusses briefly their policy implications

Since the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, Ethiopia has undergone a remarkable economic transformation. Shunning liberal policy advice yet avoiding the pathologies of patrimonialism, its experience is increasingly presented as an example for others to follow. However, there has been surprisingly little research, and even less consensus, on what actually constitutes this 'Ethiopian model.' The present thesis provides an answer to this question by focusing on the role of the EPRDF - the former insurgency movement which has governed Ethiopia since 1991 - and the fundamental reconstruction of state and market it has overseen. It argues that the resulting political economy is best characterised as a form of 'vanguard capitalism,' which combines the centralising political logic of a Leninist movement party with the expansive logic of capitalist markets. At its base lies the monopolisation of state-society relations by the EPRDF which, in turn, allows for the creation, centralisation and strategic use of economic rents by its administration. The two processes of illiberal state- and market-building are complementary, and their outcomes mutually reinforcing: a state that seeks to derive legitimacy from 'developmental' interventions in the economy, and an economy that advances a particular vision of the Ethiopian state. To bear out this argument, the thesis traces the evolving relationship between party, state, and market through four distinct periods in the EPRDF's Ethiopia. While the administrative and economic institutions built during the wartime years were all subsumed into the movement's thrust toward military victory, structural adjustment during the 1990s led to a gradual differentiation between party, state, and market. The propagation of an Ethiopian 'developmental state' in the early 2000s implied a re-centralisation of economic rents, yet without a corresponding degree of control over society the party was left vulnerable. After the electoral near-defeat of 2005 the EPRDF thus reclaimed its 'vanguard' role, again fusing party, state, and market into a campaign for economic transformation that it presents as a logical extension of the original struggle for liberation. The thesis draws on over one hundred stakeholder interviews conducted during ten months of field research in Addis Ababa, Mekelle, and among the Ethiopian diaspora, as well as on extensive archival research.

Over the past decade, road construction has come to represent Chinese engagement with Ethiopia. This study considers the lives of Chinese workers at the lower end of one such project in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. By examining the ways in which Chinese road workers tried to make sense of daily life on the construction site, I reveal the inherent contradictions of a state rhetoric that promoted 'win-win cooperation' ('huying huli hezuo') and 'friendly collaboration' ('youhao hezuo') between China and Africa, and demonstrate the local manifestations of the much-debated 'China Model'. Initial expectations coloured by state narratives, as well as the migrants' own experiences with domestic development, stood in sharp contrast to realities on the ground. Convinced of the goodwill nature of their activities, Chinese workers were puzzled by and resentful of the apparent ingratitude of local Ethiopians, their lack of cooperation, and, worse, repeated attempts to sabotage the construction work. Chinese workers' struggles with development in Africa, I argue, should be understood in relation to their background as upwardly mobile rural migrants at the bottom of the corporate hierarchy, successors of engineers dispatched under Mao Zedong who had enjoyed a respectable reputation at home - a reputation current workers felt they were about to lose - and as citizens aware of their country's status in the world as superior to Africa and inferior to the West. The workers sought to live up to Chinese ideals of development by demonstrating and promoting the virtues of self-development, simultaneous development, and entrepreneurialism. Ethiopians, however, did not concede to these ideas, and their lack of cooperation stirred resentment and expressions of self-pity on the part of the Chinese, who blamed the Ethiopian labourers, their suzhi (human quality), and wenhua (culture) for the limited success of the projects. What Chinese workers failed to realise was that the attitude of Ethiopians was in fact a response to asymmetrical and contested power relations that did not allow for win-win cooperation and friendly collaboration.

Following the global oil crisis of October 1973 the UK government funded and administered a range of R&D programmes in renewable energy. Despite the discoveries of large deposits of oil and gas in the North Sea during the late 1960s and continuing faith in nuclear energy the government was keen to explore the potential of renewable energy as what it described as an ‘insurance technology’. This thesis examines the creation and evolution of the UK renewable energy programme from 1974 until its demise prior to the privatisation of the UK’s nationalised energy industries in the late 1980s. The thesis shows the important role that social movements - in this case, the new environmentalism - played in the promotion of renewable energy in the UK. This will suggest that the programme can be seen in some senses as a tokenistic gesture by the government acting within the uncertain political, social, and economic landscape of the 1970s. This thesis shows that government decisions on renewable energy were continually driven by socio-political factors which overwhelmed the unreliable economic case for renewables at that time. This is achieved by a close historical account of the two key elements of the wider programme: the Wave Energy Programme and the Wind Energy Programme. Using a mix of the existing literature, historical archive and interviews this thesis builds a historical account of renewable energy R&D in the UK between 1974 and 1988.

This thesis examines the economic aftermath of ethno-national conflict in a small European economy. Events in 1963 and 1974, led to the de facto division of a small nation-state, ethnically and geographically. Since the conflict, the different communities have remained on a war footing, having had no normal communications. For each, one of these watersheds is perceived as an economic catastrophe. The effect of arbitrarily dividing an already small economy was significant. It has been argued, however, that the large-scale uprooting of one community was seized on as a development opportunity, so the thesis examines the recovery mechanisms employed by both communities and assesses their relative economic impact. In a comparative context, economic growth and development are compared before and after de facto division, both across the ethnic division and with similar small and regional economies that have, in the period, largely retained conflict within the politicai process. Despite Problems, economic growth both sides of a UN Buffer Zone compare favourably with ali of the selected peer economies. However, with both communities having a clear perception of the cost of division, a dynamic model has been created to determine a benchmark for all-island, integrated economic growth. How would the economy have performed, if growth had not been disrupted by ethno-national conflict? How sustainable are two competing, non-communicating economies, sharing one small Mediterranean island?

Thesis (MPA)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Misunderstanding of poverty and lack of sound poverty alleviating strategy, among others, are problems of some of the few NGOs existing in Ethiopia. There is a problem of understanding their roles in relation to the State and other stakeholders. The principles they apply in their intervention are other problems. These are the issues that were researched in the PRO PRIDE case study. The legitimacy of PRO PRIDE as a poverty-alleviating programme in view of global and Ethiopian poverty and the consequent policy focuses is justified. The principles of PRO PRIDE - community participation, gender equity, intersectoral collaboration, appropriate technology, focus on prevention, participatory management, cost effectiveness and sustainability of programmes - are sound principles. Reviewing the practices of PRO PRIDE as guided by the aforementioned principles it is understood that the community development principles - human orientation, public participation, empowerment, ownership, release, social learning, adaptiveness and simplicity - are commendably achieved. PRO PRIDE well dealt with understanding poverty and its interwoven nature. Issues such as the deprivation trap that the poor are entangled in; the general explanation of poverty that are given by different authors; vicious cycles of poverty and social, economic and political causes of poverty which are operating at local, national and international levels; and the rural-urban dynamics that work in exacerbating the urban poverty are covered in its socio-economic study. The study of the programme areas shows that they depict a dismal picture as a result of the operation of these poverty dynamics. Regarding the integrated rural-urban poverty alleviation strategy, the State has made favourable policies and itself dwelled on rural poverty due to lack of financial capacity to cover both rural and urban areas. The State's rural focus is accepted to impact on the urban poverty through changing the migration pattern. PRO PRIDE is operating in the urban setting to connect the nexus - the rural-urban strategy. PRO PRIDE is operating with an integrated urban development strategy encompassing income generation, basic education, primary health care, HIV IAIDS prevention and control and environmental sanitation. Through integrating these areas of intervention PRO PRIDE is improving the quality of life, promoting sustainable urban economic growth, creating income and employment generating opportunities, giving people access to resources and opportunities, improving the distribution of income and welfare, and applying sound developmental principles. The functioning of PRO PRIDE is proven to be in a well compliance with the requirement for organisations alike. It is functioning in collaboration and participation with the popular sector - the people themselves and their community leaders. It operates with the agreement of the State bodies such as FRDCB and with other line bureaus such as Health, Education, Environmental Development, and Labour and Social Affairs. It collaborates with donors the major being ActionAid - Ethiopia (AAE). Internal components of PRO PRIDE such as the Board and the staff as well as its organisational development influence its operation. All the programmes and the projects are managed through PRO PRIDE's interaction with its internal and external stakeho lders. PRO PRIDE as an agent of development has played as a catalyst to initiate development, focused on empowerment and using the people's latent potential, materialised capacity building and facilitation. These are basically the requirements that the current NGOs should fulfill, which PRO PRIDE commendably did. The study has indicated that although PRO PRIDE is an organisation of overall success, there are some areas of future focus both by the State and PRO PRIDE. Recommendations are made as to what both parties should do in their future focuses.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wanopvattings oor armoede en die gebrek aan gesonde strategieë vir die verligting van armoede, onder andere, is swakhede van sommige van die paar bestaande NGO's in Ethiopië. Verder ondervind hulle ook probleme om hulle rol met betrekking tot die Staat en ander deelhouers te verstaan; ook die beginsels wat hulle by intervensie beoefen, is problematies. Hierdie is die kwessies wat deur die PRO PRIDE gevallestudie ondersoek word. Die legitimiteit van PRO PRIDE as 'n armoede-verligtende program, gesien in die lig van die globale en Ethiopiese armoede en die voortspruitende beleidsfokusse, word geregverdig. Die beginsels van PRO PRIDE - gemeenskapsdeelname, geslagsgelykheid, intersektorale samewerking, geskikte tegnologie, fokus op voorkoming, deelnemende bestuur, koste-effektiwiteit en die volhoubaarheid van programme - is gesonde beginsels. Oorweging van die praktyke van PRO PRIDE aan die hand van voorgenoemde beginsels toon dat die beginsels van gemeenskapsontwikkeling - menslike oriëntasie, openbare deelname, bemagtiging, eienaarskap, bevryding, sosiale leer, aanpasbaarheid en eenvoudigheid - noemenswaardig verwesenlik is. PRO PRIDE het goed daarin geslaag om armoede en die verweefde aard daarvan te verstaan. Kwessies soos die ontberingsvalstrik waarin die armes vasgevang is; die algemene verklarings vir armoede deur verskillende skrywers; die bose kringloop van armoede en die sosiale, ekonomiese en politieke oorsake van armoede, aangetref op plaaslike, nasionale en internasionale vlakke; asook die landelik-stedelike dinamika wat meewerk tot die verergering van stedelike armoede word gedek in die sosio-ekonomiese studie. Die bestudering van die programareas verbeeld 'n droewige prentjie te wyte aan die operering van hierdie armoede- dinamiek. Betreffende die geïntegreerde landelik-stedelike armoede-verligtingstrategie, het die Staat gunstige beleide gemaak en oorheersend gefokus op landelike armoede vanweë 'n gebrek aan finansiële kapasiteit vir die aanspreking van die probleem in beide landelike en stedelike gebiede. Die Staat se landelike fokus is aanneemlik gevind vir die impak wat dit op stedelike armoede kon hê deur verandering van die migrasiepatroon. PRO PRIDE opereer vanuit 'n stedelike omgewing om die verbinding, landelik-stedelike strategie, te bewerkstellig. Dit opereer binne 'n geïntegreerde stedelike ontwikkelingstrategie behelsende inkomstegenerering, basiese opvoeding, primêre gesondheidsorg, VIGS-voorkoming en -beheer, asook omgewingsanitasie. Deur integrering van hierdie tussenkomsgebiede verbeter PRO PRIDE lewenskwaliteit, bevorder dit volhoubare stedelike ekonomiese groei, genereer dit inkomste- en indiensnemingsgeleenthede, maak dit hulpbronne en geleenthede toeganklik vir mense, verbeter dit die distribusie van inkomste en welvaart en pas dit gesonde ontwikkelingsbeginsels toe. Die funksionering van PRO PRIDE is bewys te voldoen aan die vereistes gestel vir ooreenstemmende organisasies. Dit funksioneer met die samewerking en deelname van die volksektor - die mense en hulle gemeenskapsleiers. Dit opereer met die instemming van Staatsorgane soos FRDCB en ander lynstaatsinstansies soos dié van Gesondheid, Opvoeding, Omgewingsontwikkeling en Arbeid en Sosiale Aangeleenthede. PRO PRIDE werk ook saam met donateurs van wie die vernaamste ActionAid-Ethiopië (AAE) is. Interne komponente soos die Raad en personeel, asook die organisatoriese ontwikkeling van PRO PRIDE beïnvloed die operering daarvan. Alle programme en projekte word bestuur deur PRO PRIDE se interaksie met sy interne en eksterne deelhouers. PRO PRIDE as 'n ontwikkelingsagent het as 'n katalisator opgetree om ontwikkeling te inisieer, het gefokus op bemagtiging en gebruik van die mense se latente potensiaal en het kapasiteitsbou en fasilitering bewerkstellig. Hierdie basiese vereistes waaraan NGO's behoort te voldoen is noemenswaardig deur PRO PRIDE gerealiseer. Die studie het getoon dat hoewel PRO PRIDE in die geheel geslaag het as organisasie, daar tog sommige gebiede is wat toekomstige aandag van beide die Staat en PRO PRIDE verdien. Aanbevelings word gemaak oor wat beide partye in hul toekomstige fokus behoort te onderneem.

Region 5 is one of the most impoverished and insecure regions of Ethiopia. For decades, the region has suffered from a multitude of armed conflicts involving state and non-state actors. Region 5 is also one of the most underserved states of Ethiopia with some of the lowest levels of human development indicators nationwide. Although the adversities of poverty and conflict are widely acknowledged in their own respect, there has been little or no inquest into why poverty and conflict have prevailed under the same space for decades. Poverty and conflict have often been seen as separate phenomena that are dealt with using different sets of theories and practices in the real world. Nonetheless, a closer look at poverty and conflict in Region 5 reveals that both are strongly connected to each other. The poverty-conflict trap has been an on-going cycle in the region for the last five decades. The main intent of this research paper is analyzing the two-way relationship between poverty and conflict in Region 5. By studying this relationship, this analysis seeks to contribute to a new framework that brings peacebuilding and development closer.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research study aims to approach illicit market activity, particularly transnational organ-ised crime, from a political-economy point of view. The study of illicit market activity is characterised by various and often ambiguous concepts and approaches. The benefits of a political-economy approach include the provision of an alternative view of the illicit, combin-ing aspects from these various approaches. The study of the Global Political Economy (GPE) examines the relationship between authority, mostly in the form of states, and markets. This thesis looks at the relationship between the state and illicit markets. It does so by using the concept Illicit Global Political Economy (IGPE), which is defined as concerning the social, political and economic arrangements affecting the global systems of illicit production, ex-change and distribution, and the mix of values reflected therein. States, illicit markets and criminal actors are considered here as interdependent and interrelated parts of the IGPE spe-cifically, and the overall GPE. Within this relationship several „roles‟ of the state are identi-fied: the state as a creator and regulator of the illicit, through its legislative and executive au-thorities; the state as a locale of the illicit, as home, host, transhipment or service state for transnational criminal activities; the state as a victim of the illicit, for example, through the inherent nature of crime denying the state´s jurisdiction over its territory and also through the use of violence or corruption by criminals; and the state as a facilitator for illicit activity, meaning that certain characteristics of states can enable illicit activity. This thesis is primarily concerned with the last role of the state. It is argued that certain characteristics of states, par-ticularly weak and transitional states, enable the state´s exploitation by criminal actors. In the framework provided by Phil Williams (2002) seven of these characteristics are referred to as capacity gaps, which can result in functional holes, possibly enabling illicit activity. The pri-mary research question of this thesis is, consequently: Is the role of the state as a facilitator in the IGPE enabled by the existence of capacity gaps and functional holes? The West African state of Guinea-Bissau has been chosen as a case study for its role as a transhipment state in the global cocaine trade. In the first part of the analytical process of this thesis, the global cocaine trade and its historical development are described and analysed for the social, political and economic arrangements affecting it. This highlights the im-portance of taking into account these arrangements for a full understanding of the illicit. Addi-tionally, an analysis of the political-economy of Guinea-Bissau provides the necessary back-ground for understanding the second part of this thesis´ approach. Here, the state of Guinea-Bissau is examined firstly for the existence of capacity gaps and functional holes. If they are found to exist, whether and how they are being used by cocaine traffickers is examined. It was found that six out of seven capacity gaps exist in Guinea-Bissau, most of which are being used by the cocaine traffickers. The involvement of the military in the drug trade in combina-tion with its apparent extra-judicial standing is found to be of particular importance for the cocaine traffickers. This analysis allows for the research question to be answered positively. Moreover, the thesis can be considered to generally affirm the usefulness of a political-economy approach to analysing the illicit and affirms specifically the usefulness of the con-cept of the IGPE.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie navorsingstudie poog om onwettige markaktiwiteite, spesifiek transnasionale georganiseerde misdaad, uit 'n politiek-ekonomiese standpunt te benader. Die studie van die onwettige word gekarakteriseer deur verskeie en dikwels dubbelsinnige konsepte en benaderings. Die voordele van 'n politiek-ekonomiese benadering sluit die voorsiening van 'n alternatiewe beskouing van die onwettige dus 'n kombinasie van aspekte van die verskillende benaderings. Die studie van Globale Politieke Ekonomie (GPE) fokus op die verhouding tussen gesag, meestal in die vorm van die state en markte. Hierdie tesis fokus op die verhouding tussen die staat en onwettige markte. Dit word gedoen deur gebruik te maak van die konsep Onwettige Globale Politieke Ekonomie (OGPE), wat gedefinieer kan word as die sosiale, politieke en ekonomiese reëlings wat die globale sisteem van onwettige produksie, wisseling en dustribusie affekteer, en die vermenging van waardes wat daardeur gereflekteer word. State, markte en kriminele akteurs word hier beskou as afhanklike en onderliggende dele van die OGPE, spesifiek, en die algehele GPE. Binne hierdie verhouding kan daar verskeie „rolle‟ van die staat geïdentifiseer word: die staat as skepper en reguleerder van die onwettige deur die wetgewende en uitvoerende gesag; die staat as lokaliteit van die onwettige, as tuiste, gasheer, oorskeping of diens staat vir transnasionale georganiseerde misdaadaktiwiteite; die staat as slagoffer van die onwettige, byvoorbeeld deur die inherente natuur van misdaad wat die staat se jurisdiksie oor sy grense ontneem asook deur die gebruik van geweld of korrupsie deur kriminele; en die staat as fasiliteerder vir onwettige aktiwiteite, wat beteken dat sekere eienskappe van die staat onwettige aktiwiteite moontlik maak. Hierdie tesis fokus spesifiek op laasgenoemde rol van die staat. Daar word geargumenteer dat sekere eienskappe van state, meer spesifiek swak en oorgangstate, dit makliker maak vir kriminele akteurs om die staat uit te buit. In die raamwerk wat voorgestel word deur Phil Williams (2002) word daar sewe van hierdie eienskappe geïdentifiseer en verwys na as kapasiteitsopeninge wat funksionele gapings kan veroorsaak, en so onwettinge aktiwiteite moontlik maak. Die primêre navorsingsvraag van hierdie tesis is gevolglik: Word die rol van die staat as fasiliteerder in die OGPE moontlik gemaak deur die teenwoordigheid van kapasiteitsopeninge en funksionele gapings? Die Wes-Afrika staat Guinee-Bissau dien as gevallestudie vir sy rol as oorskeep staat in globale handel in kokaïen. In die eerste gedeelte van die analitiese proses van hierdie tesis, word globale handel in kokaïen en die historiese ontwikkeling daarvan beskryf en geanaliseer vir die sosiale, politieke en ekonomiese reëlings wat ‟n impak daarop het. Dit bring die belangrikheid van die inagneming van hierdie reëlings, indien die onwettige verstaan wil word, na vore. 'n Addisonele analiese van die politieke ekonomie van Guinee-Bissau verskaf die nodige agtergrond- informasie om die tweede gedeelte van hierdie tesis se benadering te verstaan. Hier die staat Guinee-Bissau word eerstens ondersoek vir die teenwoordigheid van kapasiteitsopeninge en funksionele gapings, en tweedens hoe dit gebruik word deur kokaïen smokkelaars. Die studie vind dat ses vanuit die sewe kapasiteitsopeninge wel in Guinee-Bissau voorkom en gebruik word deur smokkelaars. Die wederregtelike rol van die landmag, wat gewoonlik die smokkelaars ondersteun, is vir die smokkelaars baie belangrik. Hierdie analiese laat dit toe dat die navorsingsvraag positief beantwoord word. Verder, in hierdie tesis word die bruikbaarheid van 'n politiek-ekonomiese aanslag tot die onwettige en die spesifieke teoretiese fondasies daarvan bevestig.

A presente pesquisa tem por objetivo apresentar a trajetória profissional de José Garrido Torres e, a partir dela, compreender o debate em torno do desenvolvimento econômico no Brasil entre o início dos anos 1940 e a primeira metade da década de 1970. Investigamos a produção intelectual e as atividades desempenhadas por Garrido Torres em diversos órgãos públicos e privados, no Brasil e no exterior, e, através dela, pretendemos discutir de que maneira uma determinada proposta de modernização econômica e social trouxe consigo uma clara proposta política calcada na luta contra o comunismo, o totalitarismo, através da disseminação de valores que pregavam a reestruturação da economia brasileira e suas formas de financiamentos tendo em vista os pressupostos da livre iniciativa. Examinamos ainda, como se articulou um projeto de modernização que se consolidou no aparato do Estado brasileiro a partir do golpe civil-militar de 1964. Tal projeto, sistematicamente discutido a partir da formação do IPES, é fundamental para o entendimento do conjunto de reformas colocadas em práticas após o golpe de Estado.
This research aims to present the professional career of José Garrido Torres and, from it, understand the debate on the economic development in Brazil between the early 1940s and the first half of the 1970s. We investigated the intellectual production and the activities performed by Garrido Torres in various public and private institutions in Brazil and abroad. We intend to discuss how a specific proposal for economic and social modernization has brought a clear policy proposal squashed in fight against communism, totalitarianism, through the dissemination of values they preached the restructuring of the Brazilian economy and its forms of financing in view of the assumptions of free enterprise. We have also audited, as articulated a modernization project that was consolidated in the Brazilian state apparatus from the civil-military coup of 1964. This project, systematically discussed from the formation of the IPES is fundamental to understanding the set of reforms put in practice after the coup.
Bibliografia: p. 133-139
Autorizado a reprodução e divulgação total ou parcial deste trabalho, por qualquer meio convencional ou eletrônico, para fins de estudo e pesquisa, desde de que citada a fonte.
Texto em português e resumos em inglês e português

In this doctoral thesis I advance a new interpretation of the social and economic history of Ethiopia beginning with the turn of the twentieth century and ending with the third decade of that century. One of my achievements in this study is the careful utilization of property documents in the reconstruction of the modern social history of Ethiopia, more precisely Däbrä Marqos (Gojjam) in northwestern Ethiopia. Besides original use of property documents in my study, I have used new and less conventional genre of sources, viz., courtroom observation, images, biblical references, private documents, and old sayings. Combining these genre of sources and oral data helped me to provide a plausible story and advance a new interpretation of the property system and the socioeconomic and power relations arising from modern Däbrä Marqos (Gojjam). I emphasize the continued relevance of tax appropriation in contemporary Däbrä Marqos (Gojjam). This is to counter an adverse claim to tribute in kind and services as well as the resilience of old practices relating to land use, political power, exploitation, social domination, landholding and violence. All these served as the background to impede changes, in the course of progress of the imperial policy, mostly, between liberation in 1941 and revolution in 1974. As the main argument embedded in my study is that despite the attempt of the imperial state to figure out what the content of land tenure and surplus appropriation in Däbrä Marqos (Gojjam) was like, in actual fact what the effort produced was the people's multiple reaction. New measures relating to property reform which the imperial state tried to codify and fix failed to achieve stability and order, precipitated a revolution leading to the end of the imperial rule with broadly similar historical trajectory to what many scholars viewed on the subject.
History
D. Phil. (History)

This thesis is a critical review of educated women’s leadership in their emancipation in Ethiopia. Did they provide leadership and to what extent? It is to be noted that educated women’s leadership has been of great importance to women’s emancipation worldwide. Strong leadership was also the driving force behind women’s movements and feminism everywhere. However, the role of educated women in Ethiopia is hard to discern and their leadership efforts are largely invisible. On the other hand, many among the educated also lack the passion and desire to commit themselves in the fight for women’s emancipation. In this thesis I researched the settings and frameworks of women’s leadership and discussed the factors that function as limitations and/or opportunities. Overall there were more limitations than opportunities. These limitations are often historically rooted in the country’s religious, cultural, economic, political and traditional systems. And, as much as history and religion can be a source of strength and pride for many, they can also be a serious obstacle. The political regime of the Derg also scarred an entire population to the extent that despite the currently proclaimed ‘freedom’ of the EPRDF ruling party, women remain reluctant to step forward and claim their rights. The ruling party appears to appropriate women’s emancipation as a “private” interest and to use it for political gain, in the same manner as the Derg regime had done before it. Nowhere is there any sign of genuine freedom and equality for women in practice. Rhetoric reigns supreme through laws and policy documents, but they are not matched by genuine actions and concrete strategies. The traditional religious base of society is also making it more difficult to challenge autocratic tendencies of the ruling elite. The effect is that civil society is slowly being pushed to extinction, leaving the ruling party in charge as the main actor in all public services. This has serious consequences for the genuine emancipation of women in the country. The thesis finds that women’s leadership is not a luxury or personal demand, but a crucial step for the development of the country at large. It is encouraging to note that there are different sections of active women in the country waiting for strong leadership, leadership that can unite them into a movement and guide them on their unique emancipation paths. After all, it is only women themselves who, with their existing epistemic advantage, can transform their situation and change their status.
Sociology
D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

This study was carried out to examine the significance of Coffee-based agriculture in the socio-economic development of rural livelihoods in Ethiopia, with particular emphasis on households in the Borecha District of the Illubabor Zone, Oromia Regional State. In this dissertation, three randomly selected study kebeles2 were considered. The primary data were collected using household questionnaires, observation and key informant interviews. The secondary data were acquired from a review of the diverse and extensive literature contained in journals, textbooks and published and unpublished documents. The target population encompasses 1,600 coffee-growing households in the Borecha District, although the sample included only 120 coffee-growing farmers. Sample selection was performed using a stratified sampling technique to select three kebeles. The data analysis was both qualitative and quantitative, which involved descriptive statistics and general linear model (UNIANOVA, MANOVA). The data are presented as tables, bar charts, and line graphs accompanied by correlations and multiple comparisons that help to interpret the findings and to generate conclusions that support solutions to the identified problems. The findings show that coffee growing has increased the income generated from direct sales and associated employment opportunities. The social contributions realised include that over the past two years, households trend in spending on education increased. Moreover, sampled households access to health facilities changed after they started growing coffee.
Development Studies
M.A. (Development Studies)

Thesis (M.Com. (Development Theory and Policy))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Economic and Business Sciences, 2016
The role of international trade in countries development process is well documented. In this era of globalisation, the notion of free international trade has dominated both the political and economic discourse. It is presumed that integration of poor countries into the world economy will be advantageous to sustain economic development. A growing number of economists however, doubted the benefit that could emanate by engaging in trade liberalisation most importantly multilateral trade agreements. Primarily because membership necessitates opening up their immature economy to stiff foreign competition. Nevertheless, many developing countries have joined the WTO with its perceive benefits of increasing market access and integration into the global market. Theoretically, both the Classical and Neo-classical trade theories signify the benefits of unrestricted trade towards the development of economies. This research report investigates the rationality or otherwise of Ethiopia’s accession into the WTO. Specifically, the research has looked at the possible economic benefits of joining WTO as a result of increased market access and pinpoint the challenges the country could face with regard to current account BOP disequilibrium. The economic rationale of the integration of developing countries has been closely linked to the benefits to be derived from increasing market size. The study employed secondary data to answer the research questions and reach at conclusion. The results indicate that for the country to be benefited from the increased market access, there is a need to diversify the export basis as well as adding value to the existing export commodities. The trend analysis with regard to BOP current account deficit illustrate that the trade deficit is widening in the recent time. Appropriate measures should be in place to reduce the aggravated BOP disequilibrium.
MT2017

A large number of adult women living in rural parts of the country had neither the free time nor the opportunity to receive basic education at their early ages. As a result, despite the women's numerical significance, and their remarkable contribution to the economic development, women faced social and cultural challenges that undermine their human worth and dignity. These problems result mainly from lack of education among the majority of women and can possibly cause poverty and inequality. To address these problems, adult education and literacy programs that incorporate functional adult literacy, vocational training, and entrepreneurial support was implemented. Such a program is believed, would promote socioeconomic empowerment of women. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the impact of this adult literacy program on the rural women's socioeconomic empowerment. Conscientization and dialogue theory of Paulo Freire was adopted as a theoretical framework. A case study method was used with a purpose to determine the impact of adult literacy on the socioeconomic life of rural women. For sampling purpose, three adult literacy supervisors, five adult literacy facilitators, and twenty women were included. Data collection tools were in-depth interviews, focus group discussion and personal field notes. To analyze the data, the researcher took the rules proposed by Huberman and Miles (1994) and Marshall and Ross (1995).The analysis of the data resulted in two major themes, five categories, and twenty-one sub-categories. The result showed that the adult literacy program enhanced the following components of women's life: At the individual level, it improved, the ability to read, write and calculate; self-confidence to express one's feeling and idea; a positive self-concept; and confidence to challenge the already established wrong meaning about women. At the social level, literacy changed women's negative attitude towards children's education; improved their ability to persuade/communicate their spouses; it improved women's knowledge of family planning and health matters. Furthermore, it improved women's social networking ability and mobility; and changed women's attitude towards commonly practiced social evils like female child genital mutilation; and also increased women's participation in social affairs. At an economic level, adult literacy equipped women with the knowledge and skills to engage in different income generating activities like poultry production, honey production and growing different types of vegetables. Moreover, adult literacy advanced women's knowledge of saving and effective utilization of resources. However, it was found that that specific adult literacy program could not equip women adequately to exercise their decision-making right in financial management.
Language Education, Arts and Culture
D. Ed. (Comparative Education)

Villagisation and large-scale agricultural investments in Gambella region has been a major concern of human right groups. The Ethiopian government argues that villagisation program is voluntary and part of Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) which attempts to bring development to indigenous communities and nothing to do with large-scale agricultural investment. On the contrary, human right groups and local civil society organizations claim that the Ethiopian government is forcefully relocating indigenous people from their ancestral land under the disguise of development while the true motive of the government is to expand agricultural investment in the region at the expense of the livelihood of the local communities. This research is an attempt to investigate the controversial villagisation and large-scale agricultural investment in Gambella regional state by looking into the link between large-scale agricultural investment and villagisation. The main focus of the research is to examine the impacts of agricultural investment and villagisation in Gambella region the light of the Ethiopian government policy in the region and the alleged development induced human right violations. The research is based on a qualitative method to capture data from 32 villagisation sites using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and field observations. For the purpose of this study, 241 participants were selected from the study sites to participate in the research. Out of the 241 participants 75 of them were participated in in-depth interviews and the rest were included in focus group discussions and informal discussions based on the participants’ knowledge, views, experience and feelings associated with villagisation and large-scale agricultural investment in the region. The findings of this study show no indication of involuntary villagisation, no significant relationship between villagisation and investment, or no evidence of previously occupied land being leased to investors. However, the study reveals that there has been serious lack of communication and misinformation from the government side in the process of planning and implementing the villagisation program. Owing to this, suspicion and lack of trust between government officials and the local communities characterized implementation of the villagisation project.
Geography

With an increasing rate of urbanisation in East Africa, and with the highest prevalence rate of undernourished population than any region in the developing world, the issue of food access insecurity in urban areas has received considerable attention. While there are noticeable differences between big, medium- and small-sized towns, the variation in the household’s response to food access insecurity across urban hierarchies remains largely unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the social, economic and demographic factors in coping with food access insecurity among households in urban slum areas of Ethiopia. The study used both secondary and primary data sources. The national surveys of household consumption and expenditure survey and welfare monitoring surveys of 2004/5, 2010/11, and 2015/16 was used to analyse the food security situation in Ethiopia across time and urban hierarchies. Primary data of 500 households and three focus group discussions were conducted from slum areas of Addis Ababa, Hawassa, and Sheki representing a big city, medium- and small-sized town, respectively. The household survey data were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis and a standard regression model to investigate the relationship between factors such as household structure and composition, economic resources, social protection programmes and projects, and urban-rural linkages with coping with food access insecurity across urban hierarchies. A global model and three site-specific regression models were constructed. Descriptive results from both the primary and the secondary data sources have revealed that the proportion of the households affected by food shortage varies across the urban hierarchy that food insecurity was highest in the small-sized town as compared with the medium-sized town and the big city. The quality of food consumed was consistently low among female-headed households regardless of their socio-economic characteristics when compared with male-headed households. The result of the regression analysis for the global model has shown that economic resources (asset and source of income) predict nearly half of the variability in coping with food access insecurity. Household structure and composition such as gender and education of the head of the household, family structure (nuclear/extended), and the ratio of young children in the household predict a quarter of the variability in coping. Social protection programs and services predict one-tenth; the remaining variability in coping is explained by the combined effect of all the factors involved. The significance of these factors in predicting coping with food access insecurity, however, varies across the urban hierarchies. The contribution of economic factors in predicting coping is the highest at the big city (Addis Ababa); household structure and composition took the leading role in predicting coping at the small-sized town (Sheki); the significant factors in predicting coping at the mediumsized town (Hawassa) was the combined effect of all the factors involved. Household characteristics such as female headship, a higher ratio of young children, low education of the household head, lack of access to the financial loan, asset and income poverty, and weak linkages with kin structure at rural areas increase vulnerability to food insecurity and put households under stress to cope with food access insecurity. The study results show that the traditional urban-rural dichotomy may not suffice to portray the degree of food insecurity, as well as the mechanisms how food insecure households strive to cope with food access insecurity, which varies across the continuum of urban hierarchies. Those who wish to support food insecurity challenges need to be sensitive to the variability of factors in coping with food access insecurity across urban hierarchies. During policy, design and program implementation policymakers and international partners need to consider that the needs and coping mechanisms of urban households vary across urban hierarchies besides the other social, economic and demographic variables.
Development Studies
Ph. D. (Development Studies)

The transformation of rural people and land to urban land and culture is a natural discourse and inevitable process. In the process, more than half of the current world population are living in urban centres. The number of urban centres and their population is rapidly increasing while the situation of integrated development of urban centres and rural areas such URELs for sustainable development have given less attention in agricultural based countries (ABCs). Multi-disciplinary (agriculture and agro-industries) integration, multi-spatial (urban centre and its hinterlands) linkages, multiscalar (micromeso and macro) levels, multi-actors and stakeholders involvement are the noteworthy innovations in the field of development studies. This study mainly focused on URELs for agribusiness and value chains under the development themes of governance and development as well as contemporary debates. Policies, institutional settings and practical implementation strategies of integrated and balanced development discourse of basic sectoral and urban-rural economic linkages (URELs) missed in ABCs such as Ethiopia‟s comprehensive development policy ADLI neglecting the rapidly growing urban centres. Owing to this, this study is designed to examine the challenges and problems, status and agribusiness and efficiencies of URELs for exploring theoretical empirical model for virtuous circle URELs. Methodologically, the study used sequential explanatory mixed methods research and cross-sectional survey design. The sequential approach was quantitative method, qualitative method and integrating the two findings on interpretation and discussion. The findings present truncated BPLs and FPLs of agriculture and agroindustries. It was was mainly due to poor and greater ranges of efficiency from TE, AE and EE for both agriculture and agro-industries, form of government as ethnic-federalism and regionalism, violation of the existing institutional frameworks, dejure-defacto discrminatin, government businesses, policy and institutional settings, lack of R&D, many paradoxical acts and poor resources mobilization and utilization. These problems and challenges are taken as potential opportunities for improvement and new lens of developing empirical model. The overall recommendation lies on creating enabling environment for virtuous circle URELs and integrated regional development using regional development approach, avoiding illegal interventions, import-export balance, proper resource mobilization and utilization.
Development Studies
D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

This study examines rural household food security and its determinants in drought-prone Amhara Region of Ethiopia by focusing on Lay Gaint district as a case study site. A range of factors from physical environmental circumstances to policy and institutions-related issues determine households‟ vulnerability to food insecurity and livelihood outcomes. The survey results showed that the majority (74%) of the sampled households experienced food insecurity. The situation was worse among female-headed households such that 86% of them were food insecure. The study revealed that, despite the low level of productivity related to local environmental constraints, rural livelihoods remain undiversified with small scale rain-fed agriculture to provide the primary source of livelihood for the large majority of households (~93% of respondents). Only about 25% of the respondents participated in some form of non-farm or off-farm activities, but with only little contribution to their total annual incomes. Food insecurity is a chronic problem in that, on average, households in the study area consume from own production for only about six months. The study found out that the majority of households (about 80%) perceived annual rainfall to be inadequate to support the growing of crops and grazing of animals. The main adaptive strategies employed by the majority of households included diversifying livestock kept, planting trees and diversifying crops. The study revealed that incidence, depth and severity of food insecurity of the food insecure households showed that Woina-Dega and Kolla agro-ecologies are prone to vulnerability to food insecurity. This suggests that development interventions that are geographically differentiated; and build household assets will improve household food security in the study area, and in other similar environments in the country.
Geography
D.Phil.

This research explores the perception and practice of participatory communication for development. To this end, the study focuses on a leading local Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) named Organisation for Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara (ORDA), Ethiopia. This qualitative case study was based on the participatory development communication model which has been assumed to bring about sustainable socio-economic change of a country (Melkote & Steeves, 2001; Mefalopulos, 2008; Servaes, 2008). The data were collected using in-depth interviews, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), document analysis and field observation. The collected data were organised and analysed in the form of content and thematic analysis. The results revealed economic oriented and top down approach to development communication as the dominant conceptions, and majority of the research participants perceived the concept ‘participation’ as mere contributions of labour and materials which are not real participation, but co-option. Only a few of the management members of ORDA conceptualized the idea of ‘participation’ as an empowerment process in which the organisation’s official document is also stated. Besides, the results showed no genuine participation of the local community in ORDA’s development process. Generally, these results could lead us to conclude that participatory communication was the missing link in the development process. That is, communication was perceived as a transmission of development information and an image building activity, not a process of empowerment. The major communications practices of ORDA were also best described as one-way top down which could reveal the legacy of modernisation and dependency theories of the development literature. The study further indicated pressing factors such as individual, organisational and environmental related affecting the implementation of ORDA’s participatory development communication. The results of study further indicated that participatory development communication was not used a means of liberation from the chain of poverty, dependency syndrome and other underdevelopment problems which deeply persist in the region. Based on the findings, the study commends the mainstreaming of participatory development communication both at the perceptual and practical level for achieving sustainable development in rural Amhara region, Ethiopia.
D. Litt. et Phil. (Communication)
Communication

Executive summary: last page (unnumbered)
The Sustainable Livelihood framework approach is a comprehensive method for determination of food insecurity and poverty at household level. The objective of this study was to determine the livelihood strategies and the coping mechanisms used by rural households in Abela Lida PA, Shebedino district, Southern Ethiopia. This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods to estimate the contribution of different resources to total food access and cash income, detailing expenditure patterns, asset holdings and capacity to cope with shocks. Simple random sampling was used for selecting 72 households for the survey. The data was collected during the hunger season using the checklists designed for livelihood and coping strategies. The study showed only 30% households had all the adults as working members, due to poor work skill, low awareness and lack of job opportunities. The main sources of income are sale of cash crops mainly coffee (55.6%) followed by sale of cash crops plus livestock (18%), labour (12.5%), PSNP (8.3%). The average annual income for the households was found to be birr 4,727.92 (~$293.34) and agriculture is the main livelihood strategy. Awareness and access to basic social services has improved and escalated price of staple foods, has negatively affected poor households and safety net beneficiaries who rely on purchase. Seasonality has also affected agricultural activities, prices and employment opportunities. The increase in fuel price was found to be the main shock followed by coffee price fluctuations and failure in purchasing power of money. About (63%) households faced shortage of food or money to buy food, medical expenses, cooking fuel and school fees.
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
M.A. (Human Ecology)

Text in English with appendices in Afaan Oromoo (Oromo language)
Despite the imperative of reintegration assistance for returnees of illegal migration, which will enable them to become independent and productive members of the community, the reintegration needs and experiences of returned illegal migrants are neglected in academic studies. The objectives of the study were to explore the socio-contextual factors that gave rise to the illegal migration of the study participants; their illegal migration abuse and exploitation experiences; the reintegration needs they sought after return; and the responses of relevant stakeholders to meet the reintegration needs of the returnees and help them reintegrate into the community. To this end, I conducted a qualitative study in Omo Nada district in 2017. I collected the data by means of indepth interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. I used thematic analysis to analyze the findings. The study revealed that the decision to migrate ‘illegally’ was the result of numerous drivers: poverty, unemployment, political discrimination, family pressure, and absence of legal means, the influence of brokers and smugglers, and socio-cultural and religious factors. The returned migrants experienced various types of abuse and exploitation, including physical abuse, economic, labour and sexual exploitation both on the migration journey and at the place of destination. The long periods of isolation some experienced also resulted in the disintegration of their families. Participants identified the need for support in the form of health services, counselling, housing, employment, skills training, finances, loans and social support from relevant stakeholders such as family, the community, the government and non-governmental organizations. Despite the many needs identified, the relevant bodies provided very little reintegration support. Due to this, the returnees were not able to reintegrate into their communities. Returning to the premigration conditions which drove them to migrate ‘illegally' in the first place, with no hope of any reintegration assistance, led some returnees to re-migrate illegally. Reintegration is a key aspect for return migration. Therefore, to be sustainable and for the reintegration process to be successful it must be widely supported. The consequences of illegal migration and reintegration support must be taken seriously and supported by the government in all its aspects. Government agencies such as the Labour and Social Affairs Office must be capacitated to provide the necessary assistance and supports to effect sustainable integration.
Sociology
Ph. D. (Sociology)

Police expenditure has a direct effect on the efforts of the police to prevent and investigate crime. It also contributes a lot to run various programs used to enhance public awareness of crime to affect the national development of the country. This doctoral study aims at investigating the relationship between police expenditure and crime in the context of Tigray Regional State of Ethiopia. The study is a qualitative study by design. Data pertinent to the study were gathered through interview schedule, which was prepared first in Tigrigna and translated into English later, given to relevant sets of two groups of participants, namely zone and district participants referred hereunder as sample A and Sample B, respectively. Participants of the study have been selected purposively. Data generated from the interview schedule were analysed subject to thematic analysis. Major findings of the study indicate that budget allocation is mainly made on the basis of police functions and activities; many of the workers in police are not aware of the national guideline in planning and preparing budgets, and believe that the national security situation predominantly determines the budget allocation rather than the standards set in the country. A considerable number of the police staff are not aware of the procedures in formulating the budget. They agreed that even though there are clear strategies to prevent and investigate crimes, they are not fully implemented. However, they consensually agreed that priority should be given to crime prevention in allocating budget to police. It further discusses the community participation in raising funds through the community policing program is high, and the aim is to strengthen the police to effectively discharge its responsibilities in maintaining social order and safeguarding the people from crime and crime-related problems. Major recommendations include improving the budget, which is mandatory, and enhancing the community and police partnership is essential. It is also necessary to give much attention to enhance the institutional capacity of police to address community problems adequately through installing various police technologies to which budget improvement is mandatory. The input of the study is finally useful to policymakers to look at the police expenditure and bring their attention into the procedures to avoid budget scarcity apparent in the police institutions not only in the region but also across the country. It helps the police develop various programs inactive due to a shortage in the budget.
ፅሟቕ ወፃኢታት ፖሊስ ኣብ ምክልኻልን ምርመራን ገበን ኣብ ዝግበር ፃዕሪ ብቀጥታ ፅልዋ አለዎም፡፡ ከምኡ ውን ኣብ ብሄራዊ ዕብየት ሀገር ናይ ባዕሉ ብፅሒት እንትህልዎ ፖሊስ ኣብቲ ዕብየት እኹል ግንዛበ ክህልዎን ዝወፁ መደባት ብኣግባቡ ክፍፀሙን አቶም ወፃኢታት ዓብይ ረብሓ ኣለዎም፡፡ በዚ ምኽንያት ውን እዚ ናይ ዶክትሬት ድግሪ መፅናዕቲ ኣብ ሞንጎ ወፃኢታት ፖሊስ ብሄራዊ ክልላዊ መንግስቲ ትግራይን ኣብታ ክልል ዝፍፀም ገበንን እንታይ ዓይነት ርክብ ኣለዎም ኣብ ዝብል ርእሲ ዘድህብ እዩ፡፡ ንድፊ ወይም ዲዛይን ናይቲ መፅናዕቲ ንባባዊ /ኳሊታቲቭ/ እንትኾን እቶም ናይ መፅናዕቲ ሓበሬታት ብቃለ መሕትትን ፅሑፍ መሕትትን ተዳልዮም በቶም ናይ ተሳተፍቲ ቋንቋ ዝኾነ ትግርኛ ተቶርጊሙ ናብ ተሳተፍቲ ተበቲኑ እዩ፡፡ ምስተኣከበ ውን እንደገና ናብ እግሊዝኛ ተተርጊሙ እዩ፡፡ እቶም ዝነበሩ ተሳተፍቲ ኣብ ዞባን ወረዳን ኮይኖም ናሙና Aን ናሙና Bን ተባሂሎም ኣብ 2ተ ጉጅለ ተኸፊሎም እዮም፡፡ ኣመራርፃ ናይቶም ተሳተፍቲ ምኽንያታዊ ወይ ከዓ ይፈልጡ እዮም ዝብል እንትኾን አቲ ዝተኣከበ ሓበሬታ (ቃለ መሕትትን ፅሑፍ መሕትትን) ጭብጡ ብምዝርዛር እቲ ዝተኣከበ ሓበሬታ ተተንቲኑ እዩ፡፡ ዋና ናይቲ መፅናዕቲ ርካቦት ከምዝሕብሮ ንፖሊስ ተባሂሉ ዝብጀት በጀት መበገሲኡ ፖሊስ ንዝሰርሖምን ዝነጥፎምን ነገራት ዘማእኸለ እዩ፡፡ ኮይኑ ግና መብዛሕቲኦም ኣባላት ፖሊስ በጀት ከመይ ከምዝብጀትን ከመይ ከምዝዳለውን ኣብ ዝግለፅ መብርሂ እኹል ዝኾነ ፍልጠት የብሎምን፡፡ በቲ ናይ ፖሊስ ስታንዳርድ እንተይኮነስ በጀት ዝብጀት በቲ ቢሮ ፀጥታን ምምሕዳርን ዘውፅኦ መምርሒ መሰረት እዩ ኢሎም ይኣምኑ፡፡ ከምኡውን ብዙሓት ፖሊሳት ንበጀት መበጀቲ ቀመር ከመይ ከምዝዳለው ኣይፈልጥዎን፡፡ ብመዳይ ምክልኻልን ምፅራይን ገበን እውን ግልፂ ዝኾነ መምርሒን መሳርሒን ዋላ ኳ እንተሃለወ ኣብ ኣፈፃፅሙኡ ጉድለት ይረኣይ እዩ፡፡ በዚ ውን ኩሎም ተሳተፍቲ ከምዘስማዕምዑሉ ንምክልኻልገበን ዝለዓለ በጀት ክብጀተሉ ኣለዎ ኢሎም፡፡ ተሳትፎ ማሕበረሰብ ኣብ ፖሊስ ኮሚኒቲ መደባት ዝለዓለ እንትኸውን በዚ ውን ዕላማ ፖሊስ ኮሚኒቲ ሽትኡ ክወቅዕ ገይርዎ እዩ፡፡ እዙይ ብምህላው ውን ፖሊስ ዋርድያ ህዝቢ ኮይኑ ካብ ገበንን ስግኣት ገበንን ህዝቢ ነፃ ክኾኑ ሓላፍነት ወሲዱ በርቲዑ ንክሰርሕ ሓጊዙዎ እዩ፡፡ ብመዳይ ፅንዓት መቅረቢ እንትድህስስ ንፖሊስ ስራሕቲ ዝለዓለ በጀት ከምዘደልዮን እዚ ውን ፖሊስን ማሕበረሰብን ሓቢሮም ክሰርሑ ኣብ ምግባር ዕዙዝ ተራ ኣለዎ፡፡ ዓቅሚ ፖሊስ ንምዕባይ ኣብ ዝግበር ፃዕሪ እኹል ቆላሕታ ክወሃብ ኣለዎ ፣ ምክንያቱ ‘ውን ዘመኑ ዝጠልቦ ቴክኖሎጂ ንምዕባይ በጀት ወሳኒ እዩ፡፡ እዚ መፅናዕቲ ንፖሊሲ መውፃእቲ ውን ዓብይ ረብሓ እንትህልዎ ንናይ ፖሊስ በጀት ቆላሕታ ክህቡን ዋሐዲ በጀት ፖሊስ ኣብ ምዕባይን ከም ግብኣት ይጠቕሞም እዩ፡፡ እዚ ፀገም ውን ኣብ ትግራይ ክልል ንዘሎ ጥራሕ እንተይኾነስ ኣብ መላእ እታ ሃገር ንዘሎ ፀገም ክፈትሕ ይኽእል እዩ ተባሂሉ ተፀኒዑ ኣሎ፡፡ በዚ ውን ብሰንኪ ሕፅረት በጀት ንዝጎድል ስራሕቲ ፖሊስ ብእዋኑ ክማላእን ክብ ክብልን ዓብይ ጥቅሚ ኣለዎ፡፡
Police Practice
D. Litt. et Phil. (Police Science)

Abstracts in English, Afrikaans and Zulu
This thesis investigates gender relations in agricultural value chains by examining gender differentials in terms of gender roles in agricultural production and marketing, gender division of labour within the household, gendered daily and seasonal activities in the household, decision-making power within the household, and access to productive resources and agricultural support services. The study also assessed historical, socio-cultural, and institutional factors constraining gender equality and women’s empowerment in agricultural value chains. Employing critical theory, the study used a qualitative research approach, specifically basic classical ethnographic methods - participant observation, field notes, in-depth interviews, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and secondary documents. The study also used a time-use survey and seasonal calendar as its primary source of data. The study revealed that women are generally underrepresented in most profitable nodes of the value chains. However, agricultural value chain interventions have different outcomes for women in female-headed households (FHHs) and women in male-headed households (MHHs). The commercialization of agriculture, particularly in MHHs, has led women to lose control over the commodities they traditionally used to control, as these commodities have fallen into the hands of men. Therefore women in this category are either disempowered or at least not empowered by the value chain interventions. Nevertheless, for women of FHHs, gender mainstreaming in agricultural value chains has contributed to improving gender equality, employment, and women’s empowerment by boosting their economic, social, and personal empowerment levels, though they still lag behind the men in many aspects. The participation of women in managing and controlling high-value crops is constrained by unequal power relations within the household and society. This could be explained in terms of limited resources, low level of literacy, shortage of labour and time, limited access to productive inputs, technologies, market information and agricultural extension services, restriction of mobility, and other socio-cultural and institutional barriers.
Hierdie studie handel oor genderverhoudings in landbouwaardekettings deur genderkenmerke te ondersoek ten opsigte van genderrolle in landbouproduksie en -bemarking, die verdeling van take by die huis op grond van gender, daaglikse en seisoenale werksaamhede tuis volgens gender, besluitnemingsbevoegdheid in die huishouding, en toegang tot produktiewe hulpbronne en landbouhulpdienste. Die studie verreken ook die historiese, sosiaal-kulturele en institusionele faktore wat gendergelykheid en die bemagtiging van vroue in landbouwaardekettings belemmer. Genderverhoudings word deur die lens van die kritiese teorie bekyk. ʼn Kwalitatiewe navorsingsbenadering is gevolg en klassieke etnografiese metodes is toegepas, waaronder deelnemerwaarneming, veldaantekeninge, deurtastende en halfgestruktureerde onderhoude, onderhoude met sleutelinformante, fokusgroepbesprekings en sekondêre dokumente. ʼn Tydbenuttingsopname en seisoenale kalender was die primêre databronne. Uit die studie het geblyk dat vroue by die mees winsgewende skakels van die waardeketting grotendeels onderverteenwoordig is. Die uitkomste van landbouwaardekettingintervensies vir vrouehuishoudings (VH) (huishoudings waarin ʼn vrou die broodwinner is) verskil van dié vir mannehuishoudings (MH) (huishoudings waarin ʼn man die broodwinner is). Weens die kommersialisering van die landboubedryf, in veral MH’s, het beheer oor die kommoditeite van vroue se hande in dié van mans oorgegaan. Gevolglik word vroue in hierdie kategorie ontmagtig of ten minste nie deur die waarde van kettingintervensies bemagtig nie. Ofskoon ʼn groter genderbewustheid in die landbouwaardeketting gelyke indiensneming en die ekonomiese, maatskaplike en persoonlike bemagtiging van vroue bevorder het, het vroue steeds ʼn groot agterstand. Ongelyke magsverhoudings tuis en in die samelewing beperk vroue se bestuur van en beheer oor lonende gewasse. Die redes hiervoor is onder meer beperkte hulpbronne, ongeletterdheid, ʼn tekort aan arbeid en tyd, beperkte toegang tot produktiewe insette, tegnologieë, markinligting en landbouverlengingsdienste, beperkte mobiliteit en talle ander sosiaal-kulturele en institusionele struikelblokke.
Lolu cwaningo luphenya ubudlelwano kwezobulili kwezemisebenzi yokukhiqiza ngasemkhakheni wezolimo , lokhu kwenziwa ngokuthi kuhlolwe izimpawu ezahlukile kwezobulili, mayelana nezindima ezidlalwa ubulili emkhakheni wezemikhiqizo yezolimo kanye nokuthengiswa kwemikhiqizo, ukwehlukaniswa kwabasebenzi ngokobulili ngaphakathi kwekhaya kanye nokutholakala kwemithombo yokukhiqiza kanye nemisebenzi yokuxhasa ezolimo. Isifundo futhi sihlola izinto ezithinta umlando, inhlalakahle yabantu kwezolimo kanye nezimo/nezinto ezikumaziko ezidala ukungalingani kobulili kanye nokuhlonyiswa ngamandla kwabesimame emisebenzini yezokukhiqiza kwezolimo. Ukusebenzisa umqondo ogxekayo (critical theory), kusetshenziswe indlela yokucwaninga eyencike kwingxoxo, ikakhulukazi izindlela zokuqala ze-ethinogilafi, phecelezi (basic classical ethnographic methods) – ukubhekisisa izenzo zabadlalindima, ukuthatha amanothi wokwenzeka ezinkundleni zokusebenza ezingaphandle, ukwenza izinhlolo vo ezijulile, ukwenza izinhlolo vo ezimbaxambili, ukwenza izinhlolovo zomuntu onolwazi olunzulu, izingxoxo zeqembu eliqondiwe kanye nemibhalo yesigaba sesibili. Isaveyi yesikhathi ebizwa nge (time-use survey) kanye nekhalenda yenkathi (seasonal calendar ) zisetshenziswe njengemithombo yokuqala yedatha. Ucwaningo luveze ukuthi abesimame ngokwenjwayelo bamele inani elincane labesimame emikhakheni eminingi yezokukhiqiza, okuyimikhakha engenisa inzuzo eningi. Yize kunjalo, imizamo yokuxhasa imisebenzi yokukhiqiza kwezolimo inemiphumela eyehlukahlukene kwabesimame kumakhaya aphethwe abesimame (FHHs) futhi le mizamo inemiphumela eyehlukahlukene kwabesimame kumakhaya aphethwe ngabesilisa (MHHs). Ukufakwa kwemboni yezolimo kwibhizinisi, ikakhulukazi kwimizi ephathwe ngabesilisa (MHHs), sekuholele ekutheni abesimame balahlekelwe yilawulo kwimithombo yezomnotho ebebejwayele ukuyiphatha, njengoba le mithombo yezomnotho seyiwele ngaphansi kwezandla zabesilisa. Ngakho-ke abesimame kulo mkhakha mhlawumbe bephucwe amandla noma mhlawumbe abahlonyisiwe ngokwanele ngamandla ngamakhono okuxhasa imisebenzi yezokukhiqiza. Yize-kunjalo, ngasohlangothini lwabesimame abaphethe imizi FHHs, ukulinganisa amanani ngokobulili kwimisebenzi yezolimo sekube negalelo ekuthuthukiseni ukulingana ngokobulili, kwezemisebenzi kanye nokuhlomisa ngamandla kwabesimame ngokuxhasa amazinga abo ezomnotho, ukuhlonyiswa kwamazinga abantu kanye nomuntu ngamunye, yize abesimame basahamba emuva kwabesilisa emikhakheni eminingi. Ukubandakanyeka kwabesimame ekuphatheni kanye nasekulawuleni kwezitshalo zecophelo eliphezulu kukhinyabezwa ukungalingani ngamandla ngaphakathi kwekhaya kanye nomphakathi. Lokhu kungachazwa ngokwemithombo yomnotho emincane, ngokwamazinga aphansi emfundo, ngokusweleka kwabasebenzi kanye nesikhathi, ngokwamathuba amancane okufinyelela izinsiza zokukhiqiza, ngokwezixhobo zobuchwepheshengokuswela ulwazi lwezimakethe kanye nokwandiswa kwemisebenzi yezolimo, ngokwemigomo evimbezela ukuhamba kanye nezinye izihibe ezivimbela inhlalakahle yabantu kwezolimo kanye nezihibe zamaziko.
Development Studies
D. Phil. (Development Studies)