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Journal articles on the topic 'Ethnicité – Rwanda'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Riot, Thomas. "Pratiques du corps, ethnicité et métissages culturels dans le Rwanda colonial (1945-1952)." Cahiers d'études africaines 48, no. 192 (December 9, 2008): 815–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.15529.

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2

Eramian, Laura. "Ethnicity without labels?" Focaal 2014, no. 70 (December 1, 2014): 96–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2014.700108.

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Following the 1994 genocide, the government of Rwanda embarked on a “deethnicization” campaign to outlaw Tutsi, Hutu, and Twa labels and replace them with a pan-Rwandan national identity. Since then, to use ethnic labels means risking accusations of “divisionism” or perpetuating ethnic schisms. Based on one year of ethnographic fieldwork in the university town of Butare, I argue that the absence of ethnic labels produces practical interpretive problems for Rwandans because of the excess of possible ways of interpreting what people mean when they evaluate each other's conduct in everyday talk. I trace the historical entanglement of ethnicity with class, rural/urban, occupational, and moral distinctions such that the content of ethnic stereotypes can be evoked even without ethnic labels. In so doing, I aim to enrich understandings of both the power and danger inherent in the ambiguous place of ethnicity in Rwanda's “postethnic” moment.

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3

Jaji, Rose. "Under the shadow of genocide: Rwandans, ethnicity and refugee status." Ethnicities 17, no. 1 (July 25, 2016): 47–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468796815603754.

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This article discusses ethnicity and refugee status among Rwandan refugees self-settled in Nairobi, Kenya. It addresses conflation of Hutu fugitives who participated in the 1994 Rwandan genocide and refugees, and critiques perception of Hutu and Tutsi as mutually exclusive ethnicities with no points of intersection. Framed within the social constructivist approach to identity, the article problematizes ethnic essentialism and wholesale criminalization and stigmatization of Rwandan refugees and, in particular, Hutu ethnicity in ways that silence individual viewpoints emanating from personal experience. Conversely, the article highlights how Rwandan refugees deflect collective guilt and legitimize their refugee status under the shadow of the genocide which was committed by extremist Hutu on Tutsi and moderate Hutu. The refugees’ reaction to association with the genocide confounds theoretically irreconcilable extremes through self-representations centred on experiences that muddle the simplistic perpetrator – victim and guilty – innocent binary. The refugees’ narratives portray victimhood in Rwanda as complex, cyclical and heterogeneous.

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4

Mujuzi, Jamil Ddamulira. "The right to freedom from discrimination in Rwanda." International Journal of Discrimination and the Law 20, no. 2-3 (June 2020): 156–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1358229120956497.

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Discrimination is prohibited in different provisions of the 2003 Constitution of Rwanda (the Constitution), in different pieces of legislation and in international and regional human rights treaties ratified by Rwanda. According to the 2003 Constitution, one of the fundamental principles which have to be upheld by the State is the ‘eradication of discrimination and divisionism based on ethnicity, region or on any other ground as well as promotion of national unity’. Article 15 of the Constitution provides for equality before the law and Article 16 of the Constitution prohibits discrimination and it provides for the grounds on which a person shall not be discriminated against. Rwanda is also one of the very few African countries whose constitutions criminalise discrimination and different laws have been enacted to deal with the offence of discrimination. The Supreme Court of Rwanda, the highest court in the country, has handed down decisions on Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution. The purpose of this article is to analyse these decisions and illustrate how the Supreme Court has dealt with the issues such as the definition of discrimination and the difference between discrimination and differentiation. The author also discusses the issues that the Rwandan judiciary and prosecutors are likely to face when dealing with the offence of discrimination.

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5

Fonseca, Danilo Ferreira da. "Etnicidade de hutus e tutsis no Manifesto Hutu de 1957 (Ethnicity of Tutsis and Hutus in the 1957 Hutu Manifest)." Cadernos de História 17, no. 26 (June 28, 2016): 221. http://dx.doi.org/10.5752/p.2237-8871.2016v17n26p221.

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<p>O presente artigo visa refletir acerca do modo com que a etnicidade de hutus e tutsi é vivenciada e problematizada na turbulenta década de 1950 de Ruanda, principalmente devido ao processo de independência frente a Bélgica, que foi concretizado em 1962. O foco principal está na maneira que o chamado “Manifesto hutu”, de 1957, compreende e divulga múltiplas faces acerca da etnicidade de hutus e tutsis, envolvendo a relação construída entre os dois grupos e o seu sentimento de pertencimento. O movimento emancipatório de Ruanda possibilita novas reflexões acerca da unidade nacional ruandesa e do pertencimento étnico que os hutus constroem acerca de si mesmos e acerca dos tutsis, em um movimento que funde elementos tradicionais e modernos a partir dos costumes locais e da inserção de instituições ocidentais no país. Tais elementos são centrais para a construção da Revolução hutu de 1959, que rompe com a dominação aristocrática dos tutsis e traz cicatrizes históricas profundas que são reabertas em diferentes momentos da história ruandesa, inclusive no próprio genocídio ocorrido em 1994.</p><p> </p><p><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p>This article aims to reflect on the way the Hutu and Tutsi ethnicity is touched upon and problematized in the turbulent 1950s in Rwanda, mainly due independence process in front of Belgium, that was implemented in 1962. The main focus is on so that the called "Hutu Manifest" of 1957 comprises and discloses multiple faces on the ethnicity of Hutus and Tutsis, involving the relationship built between the two groups and their sense of belonging. The emancipatory movement of Rwanda provides new insights about the Rwandan national unity and ethnic belonging that Hutus build about themselves and about the Tutsis, in a move that merge traditional and modern elements from the local customs and the inclusion of estern institutions in the country. These elements are central to Hutu revolution of 1959 building that breaks with the aristocratic domination of Tutsis and back deep historical scars that are reopened at different times of Rwandan history, including genocide occurred in 1994.</p><p><strong>Keywords</strong>:<strong> </strong>Ethnicity. Hutus. Tutsis. Rwanda. Hutu Manifest.</p>

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6

Gatwa, Tharcisse. "Revivalism and ethnicity: The Church in Rwanda." Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies 12, no. 2 (April 1995): 4–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026537889501200202.

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7

Kritzinger, J. J. "Volksmoord in Rwanda: Missiologiese opmerkings." Verbum et Ecclesia 17, no. 1 (August 2, 1996): 89–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ve.v17i1.1113.

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Genocide in Rwanda: missiological notes The recent tragic events in Rwanda, a country generally regarded as “Christian”, put the accomplishments of the church in its mission under question. Why didn't the church and the millions of Christians make a difference? Or did they? An introspective missiological analysis is done. What are the things that Christians elsewhere can learn from Rwanda? Aspects which are discussed are: the gospel and ethnicity; the gospel and revival; the gospel and ethics; the gospel and culture; the gospel and politics; the gospel and socio-economic development; and the gospel and land.

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8

Abbink, Jon. "Ethnicity and constitutionalism in contemporary Ethiopia." Journal of African Law 41, no. 2 (1997): 159–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021855300009372.

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The phenomenon of ethnicity is being declared by many to be the cause of all the problems of Africa, especially those of violent conflict. Some salient examples are Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya. While in many cases ethnicity and ethnic-based antagonisms have indeed been a factor in conflicts and have often been suppressed within the structures of the post-colonial states (with their seemingly sacrosanct boundaries), the political relevance of the phenomenon has varied widely. In the political system and the laws of an African country, however, ethnicity seldom received official recognition.

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9

Blouin, Arthur, and Sharun W. Mukand. "Erasing Ethnicity? Propaganda, Nation Building, and Identity in Rwanda." Journal of Political Economy 127, no. 3 (June 2019): 1008–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/701441.

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10

Schraml, Carla. "How is ethnicity experienced? Essentialist and constructivist notions of ethnicity in Rwanda and Burundi." Ethnicities 14, no. 5 (January 19, 2014): 615–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468796813519781.

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11

Buckley-Zistel, Susanne. "Remembering to Forget: Chosen Amnesia as a Strategy for Local Coexistence in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Africa 76, no. 2 (May 2006): 131–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/afr.2006.76.2.131.

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AbstractMore than a decade after the genocide, Rwanda's local communities remain severely affected by the experience of the violence and horror. This is reflected in the way people remember their past, as well as in what they choose to forget. During fieldwork in Nyamata and Gikongoro it became apparent that even though the memory of the genocide as such, its pain and suffering, was essential for all interviewees, a clearer picture of the causes of the genocide had disappeared into oblivion. In this article I argue that this forgetting of pregenocide social cleavages reflects less a mental failure than a conscious coping mechanism. What I shall refer to aschosen amnesia, the deliberate eclipsing of particular memories, allows people to avoid antagonism and enables a degree of community cohesion necessary for the intimacy of rural life in Rwanda. While this is presently essential for local coexistence, it prevents the emergence of a critical challenge to the social cleavages that allowed the genocide to occur in the first place and impedes the social transformation necessary to render ethnicity-based violence impossible.

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12

Hopkins, Elizabeth, and Catharine Newbury. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda 1860-1960." Contemporary Sociology 20, no. 3 (May 1991): 365. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2073674.

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13

Desforges, Alison L., and Catharine Newbury. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960." International Journal of African Historical Studies 23, no. 1 (1990): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/220007.

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14

Martin, Phyllis M., and Catherine Newbury. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960." American Historical Review 95, no. 4 (October 1990): 1264. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2163650.

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15

Lemarchand, René, Catharine Newbury, and Rene Lemarchand. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1960-1980." Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 24, no. 3 (1990): 474. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/485641.

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16

Gerhart, Gail M., and Catharine Newbury. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960." Foreign Affairs 70, no. 2 (1991): 202. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20044810.

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17

Gamst, Frederick C., and Catharine Newbury. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960." Anthropological Quarterly 68, no. 4 (October 1995): 244. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3317288.

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18

NELSON, NICI. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960,/." African Affairs 94, no. 374 (January 1995): 139–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098792.

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19

Ouafaa, RAFI. "The post genocide reconciliation in Rwanda: Erasing ethnicity and building citizenship." International Journal of Peace and Development Studies 12, no. 1 (April 30, 2021): 23–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/ijpds2021.0391.

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20

Riski Wahyudi, Anak Agung Ngurah, and I. Nyoman Budiana. "Komparasi Penyelesaian Perkara Pidana Kejahatan Genosida yang Terjadi di Rwanda dan Myanmar Ditinjau Dari Perspektif Hukum Pidana Internasional." Jurnal Komunikasi Hukum (JKH) 7, no. 1 (February 2, 2021): 158. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jkh.v7i1.31466.

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This study aims (1) to analyze and find out the efforts to resolve genocide disputes from the perspective of international criminal law, (2) to determine the comparison of resolving genocide disputes that occurred in Rwanda and Myanmar. This type of research uses normative legal research, namely literature study, rules and literature related to genocide, and uses an argumentative descriptive approach. The results of this study explain the efforts and comparisons of resolving genocide disputes that occurred in Rwanda and Myanmar from the perspective of international criminal law. Genocide is an international crime that aims to eliminate ethnicity, ethnicity, race and religion in a systematic and structured manner. Efforts to resolve disputes are carried out in an international criminal manner and are handled by the International Criminal Court. The International Criminal Court is the highest judicial institution, and has the authority to handle international cases. comparative law is a method of investigation with the aim of obtaining deeper knowledge about certain legal materials. Comparative law is not a set of rules and legal principles and is not a branch of law, but is a technique for dealing with foreign legal elements from a legal problem. Court. The International Criminal Court is the highest judicial institution, and has the authority to handle international cases

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21

Guariso, Andrea, Bert Ingelaere, and Marijke Verpoorten. "When Ethnicity Beats Gender: Quotas and Political Representation in Rwanda and Burundi." Development and Change 49, no. 6 (September 24, 2018): 1361–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dech.12451.

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22

Uvin, Peter. "Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence." Comparative Politics 31, no. 3 (April 1999): 253. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/422339.

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23

Carney, J. J. "‘Far from having unity, we are tending towards total disunity’: The Catholic Major Seminary in Rwanda, 1950–62." Studies in World Christianity 18, no. 1 (April 2012): 82–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/swc.2012.0007.

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As the final training ground for local African men preparing for the Roman Catholic priesthood, Nyakibanda Major Seminary produced record numbers of priests in the 1940s and 1950s, symbolising the growth and vitality of the mid-century Rwandan Catholic Church. Between 1952 and 1962, however, the seminary experienced waves of seminarian withdrawals as interracial, nationalist and ethnicist tensions divided the Nyakibanda community. Nyakibanda's late colonial history demonstrates the mutability of ethnic and nationalist identities, highlights the importance of institutional politics and reveals the Rwandan church's failure to offer a counter-narrative to the zero-sum Hutu–Tutsi dialectic that swept Rwandan society in the 1950s and early 1960s.

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24

Smith, David Norman. "The Genesis of Genocide in Rwanda: The Fatal Dialectic of Class and Ethnicity." Humanity & Society 19, no. 4 (November 1995): 57–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016059769501900405.

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25

Jefremovas, Villia. "Contested Identities: Power and the Fictions of Ethnicity, Ethnography and History in Rwanda." Anthropologica 39, no. 1/2 (1997): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/25605855.

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26

Kassimir, Ronald. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960.Catharine Newbury." American Journal of Sociology 95, no. 4 (January 1990): 1063–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/229393.

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27

Rooke, O. J. "The refugees of Rwanda seen through the eyes of a psychiatrist." Psychiatric Bulletin 19, no. 12 (December 1995): 774–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/pb.19.12.774.

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Rwanda was the most densely populated country in Africa. It is two-thirds the size of Switzerland but contained a larger population (9 million people), growing by almost 40% every two years. Few square inches are left uncultivated. The Tutsi people (never more than 14% of the population) are said to have arrived in the 14th century ad, bringing with them a feudal and totalitarian system of government. There was significant intermarriage with the result that today the Hutu and Tutsi people share the same language, cultural beliefs and religions (predominantly Catholic). In reality the terms Hutu and Tutsi now more accurately describe caste than ethnicity (Delcros, 1994).

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28

Gerhart, Gail M., and Aimable Twagilimana. "The Debris of Ham: Ethnicity, Regionalism, and the 1994 Rwandan Genocide." Foreign Affairs 83, no. 1 (2004): 186. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20033884.

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29

Newbury, Catharine, and David Newbury. "A Catholic Mass in Kigali: Contested Views of the Genocide and Ethnicity in Rwanda." Canadian Journal of African Studies 33, no. 2/3 (1999): 292. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/486267.

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30

Vandeginste, Stef. "Governing ethnicity after genocide: ethnic amnesia in Rwanda versus ethnic power-sharing in Burundi." Journal of Eastern African Studies 8, no. 2 (March 14, 2014): 263–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2014.891784.

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31

Newbury, Catharine, and David Newbury. "A Catholic Mass in Kigali: Contested Views of the Genocide and Ethnicity in Rwanda." Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines 33, no. 2-3 (January 1999): 292–328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00083968.1999.10751164.

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32

Author, Placeholder. "The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda 1860-1960; A Question of Intelligence." Mankind Quarterly 33, no. 3 (1993): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.46469/mq.1993.33.3.7.

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33

Mayersen, Deborah. "‘Fraternity in diversity’ or ‘feudal fanatics’? Representations of ethnicity in Rwandan presidential rhetoric." Patterns of Prejudice 49, no. 3 (May 27, 2015): 249–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0031322x.2015.1048980.

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34

McLean Hilker, Lyndsay C. "Navigating adolescence and young adulthood in Rwanda during and after genocide: intersections of ethnicity, gender and age." Children's Geographies 12, no. 3 (May 14, 2014): 354–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2014.913784.

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35

Barton,, John. "The Hermeneutics of Identity in African Philosophical Discourse as a Framework for Understanding Ethnicity in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Philosophia Africana 15, no. 1 (2013): 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/philafricana20131517.

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36

Steinhart, Edward I. "Clientship and Ethnicity - The Cohesion of Oppression. Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860–1960. By Catherine Newbury., New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. Pp. xvi + 322. $44.00." Journal of African History 31, no. 1 (March 1990): 150–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700024890.

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37

Ingelaere, B. "Peasants, power and ethnicity: A bottom-up perspective on Rwanda's political transition." African Affairs 109, no. 435 (February 2, 2010): 273–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adp090.

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38

Béa Gallimore, Rangira. "La représentation picturale pour dire l’indicible dans Génocidé de Révérien Rurangwa." Protée 37, no. 2 (October 30, 2009): 45–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/038454ar.

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Cette étude est une analyse du témoignage Génocidé de Révérien Rurangwa. Rurangwa est témoin survivant du génocide des Tutsi de 1994 au Rwanda. Son corps, marqué par la main criminelle, est complètement défiguré. Après plusieurs années, son corps porte encore les cicatrices visibles et invisibles du génocide. Génocidé est un portrait physique et psychologique du survivant Rurangwa. Cet article examine d’abord le rôle joué par la photographie dans la construction d’un récit dialogué qui crée l’écoute nécessaire pour libérer sa voix suffoquée. Ce mécanisme narratif lui permet de tenter de dire l’indicible. L’article analyse également la confiscation du corps du survivant : comment il a été ethnicisé, ciblé et ensuite marqué par le regard et le discours de l’autre qui en a fait un objet. Enfin, il montre comment l’image de la photographie de famille, plus précisément celle de la mère, joue un rôle important dans la récupération du corps par son propriétaire légitime et dans sa reconstruction identitaire.

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39

Gasana, Oscar. "A typology of theoretical approaches to the study of Rwandan Tutsi genocide." Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research 8, no. 4 (October 10, 2016): 258–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-12-2015-0204.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a typological framework of approaches to the study of the Rwandan Tutsi genocide, in a comparative perspective. Based on the assertion that no single theoretical approach can account for so complex and totalizing a phenomenon, the paper targets different aspects of causality, drawing from three key publications by contemporary genocide scholars: Vern N. Redekop, Christopher Taylor and Mahmood Mamdani. It argues for their significant complementary contribution to a better understanding of the last genocide of the twentieth century. By offering different analytical angles, as demonstrated from each perspective, the paper enriches the conceptualisation of genocides in general, and the Rwandan Tutsi genocide in particular. Design/methodology/approach This paper focuses on the Rwandan Tutsi genocide. Drawing from three key contemporary authors, it identifies and analyses three theoretical approaches in a comparative perspective, namely, the human identity needs approach (Redekop, 2002), the politico-anthropological approach (Taylor, 2000) and the colonialist approach (Mamdani, 2002) which, if unified, would go a long way in providing a clearer picture and a better understanding of Rwandan Tutsi genocide. Of course this does not mean that the three approaches account for every aspect of the phenomenon under study. It is a work in progress, reflecting the complex nature of genocide and the concomitant need to approach its analysis from different angles and perspectives. The selected authors address different key areas of scientific enquiry from different perspectives that complement each other, leading to a better understanding of the reality under investigation. Findings The authors learn from these approaches the constructed nature of ethnicity, what Benedict Anderson (1983, p. 211) calls the “imagined communities”. The Rwandese community was imagined by the colonial power, codifying the distinctions on the basis of such ridiculous criteria as cattle ownership and physical measurements, and issuing identity cards accordingly. In the final analysis, the choice of the most appropriate approaches to the study of genocide is a function of multiple factors: cultural, historical, political, anthropological, psychological, ethnographical, each genocide case being contextually different. The combination of the three approaches above seems to go a long way in confronting the complexity of the Rwandan Tutsi genocide. Research limitations/implications As the authors have already mentioned, the theoretical approaches are not exhaustive. Yet, they have significant implications in terms of research processes. Practical implications Practically, these approaches lead to a deeper and broader understanding of genocide causality. Social implications By tackling research issues from multiple angles, the product captures more elements that enable the shift from the structures of violence towards the structures of blessing. Originality/value It is the first time that such a research tool is made available to researchers wishing to deepen the understanding of the Rwandan Tutsi genocide.

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40

Hilker, Lyndsay McLean. "Rwanda's ‘Hutsi’: intersections of ethnicity and violence in the lives of youth of ‘mixed’ heritage." Identities 19, no. 2 (March 2012): 229–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1070289x.2012.684441.

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41

Hambrouck, G. "Catharine Newbury, “The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientshipand Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960”. New York, Columbia University Press, 1988, XVI+ 322 blz., ill., bibl., appendixes, index. ISBN 0-231-06256-7, ca. $35 (hardback)." Afrika Focus 7, no. 1 (January 26, 1991): 73–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2031356x-00701007.

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42

Hartley, Brett Robert. "Rwanda’s Post-Genocide Approach to Ethnicity and Its Impact on the Batwa as an Indigenous People: An International Human Rights Law Perspective." QUT Law Review 15, no. 1 (November 2, 2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/qutlr.v15i1.561.

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<em>Following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda embarked on a nation-building program designed, inter alia, to create unity by resisting the attribution of minority or ethnic categories within Rwanda. For Batwa, the effect is to render their claims as indigenous mute. This paper critically examines Rwanda’s approach to ethnicity using international human rights as an analytical lens, arguing that Batwa have a legitimate claim as Rwanda’s indigenous people. It concludes that pressure on Rwanda to recognise Batwa indigenous rights will remain unsuccessful and argues that a normative approach, based on alternatives such as descent- and work-based discrimination, may prove effective for ensuring their long-term survival as a marginalised people</em>

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43

Schoenfeld, Jacqueline Ashley. "A Constructivist Perspective of Rape as a Military Strategy: A Comparative Analysis of the Rwandan Genocide and the Bosnian War." USURJ: University of Saskatchewan Undergraduate Research Journal 4, no. 2 (March 22, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.32396/usurj.v4i2.198.

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This paper explores how the social construction of a peoples’ ethnic or national identity can influence the use of rape as a military strategy. In exploring this concept, the Rwandan genocide and Bosnian War will be used as case studies. It is argued that rape as a military strategy derives coercive power from social constructions of ethnicity, nationality and gender in patriarchal societies. In presenting this argument, the constructivist school of thought is used to analyze the processes that led to social constructions of ethnicity, nationality and gender. This paper considers the subsequent social environment that allowed rape to be used as an effective military strategy in both Rwanda and Bosnia.

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44

Kamusella, Tomasz. "Ethnicity and Estate: The Galician Jacquerie and the Rwandan Genocide Compared." Nationalities Papers, May 5, 2021, 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/nps.2021.12.

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Abstract In national historiography, estate (social) divisions are typically disregarded in favor of supposedly shared ethnicity, which is proposed to have united a given nation for centuries. Hence, the Polish national historiography is unable to account for the Galician Jacquerie (1846), when serfs were killing nobles, despite their (retroactively) assumed shared Polish ethnicity. On the other hand, the 1994 mass massacre of the Tutsis by Hutus is recognized as the Rwandan Genocide, though both groups share the same language, culture, and religion—or what is usually understood as ethnicity. What has sundered the Tutsis and the Hutus is the estate-like socioeconomic difference, or a memory thereof. It appears that under certain conditions estate (social, class) difference may become an ethnic boundary. In the case of the aforementioned jacquerie, the estate difference made the serfs and the nobles into two different de facto ethnic groups. Similarly, in Rwanda, estate (social) difference is implicitly posed as ethnicity, thus making the Hutus and the Tutsis into separate ethnic groups. However, the official definition of genocide as adopted by the United Nations explicitly excludes social groups (for instance, estates) from its purview, leading to terminological paradoxes.

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"The cohesion of oppression: clientship and ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860-1960." Choice Reviews Online 27, no. 02 (October 1, 1989): 27–1060. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.27-1060.

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Verdoolaege, Annelies. "Editorial." Afrika Focus 27, no. 2 (August 14, 2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.21825/af.v27i2.4883.

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In most of the articles presented in this issue of Afrika Focus we see hopeful mes- sages about the African continent. In “Arab Spring in Morocco: Social Media and the 20 February Movement”, Brouwer & Bartels explore the ways in which the offline and online worlds interconnected in order to create new forms of meaning-making during the Arab Spring. Also our second article “Modernisation néolibérale et transformation du pro l des dirigeants des entreprises publiques au Maroc. Cas de la Caisse de Dépôt et de Gestion (CDG): 1959-2009” talks about Morocco, by investigating the extent to which the directors of public enterprises underwent transformations under the heading of neoliberal modernization processes. In his article “Depoliticised Ethnicity in Tanzania: A Structural and Historical Narrative” Malipula gives the history and the rationale behind the fact that Tanzania is not characterized by politicized ethnicity, which tends to lead to cleavages and tension in a lot of other African societies. Finally, Celis et al. “Characteristics of participants in an HIV prevention intervention for youth in Rwanda: results from a longitudinal study” picture a hopeful image of HIV prevention campaigns in Rwanda by describing the ways in which participation in these interventions could be increased, mainly amongst young people.

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"The debris of Ham: ethnicity, regionalism, and the 1994 Rwandan genocide." Choice Reviews Online 41, no. 11 (July 1, 2004): 41–6798. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.41-6798.

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Krüger, Karen. "Die Vergewaltigung von Tutsi-Frauen im rwandischen Genozid 1994." Feministische Studien 22, no. 2 (January 1, 2004). http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/fs-2004-0211.

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AbstractThe article examines the symbolic meaning of the mass rape of Tutsi women during the Rwandan genocide. By analysing the very sequence of the violent acts which are reconstructed on the basis of interview material with victims and perpetrators, the author shows that the mass rape of women and their subsequent mutilation were not merely the results of a general escalation of violence. Instead, the mass rape has to be understood as a form of social practice grounded in the image of Tutsi women in the Rwandan society. This image was mainly shaped by the Hutu extremist propaganda, which used historically rooted ideas of ethnicity and sexuality to portray Tutsi women as potential traitors using their physical attractiveness for political goals. The rape and mutilation of the women were seen as a punishment for this behaviour and literally and symbolically destroyed their sexual power over men.

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Okech Oyugi, Willis. "Historicizing Ethnicity and Slave-Trade Memories in Colonial Africa: The Cases for Rwanda and Northern Cameroon." Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies 39, no. 1 (2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.5070/f7391029818.

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Turner, Simon. "Representing the Past in Exile: The Politics of National History among Burundian Refugees." Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees, December 1, 1998, 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.21997.

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Life in a refugee camp often brings about the need for explanations among its inhabitants, and historical narratives attempt to supply the answers. But these narratives change over time and several narratives can exist in the same refugee camp simultaneously. This paper argues that the production of historical narratives is closely related to the dominant political ideologies in the camps. It argues that in order to undersltand the changes in representations of the past in the camps, one must analyze the changes in political movements among the Hutu opposition. It shows how the dominant discourse on ethnicity in Burundi has changed since the early 1980s and how this has forced the Hutu oppsition to reformulate its demands. Finally, it contends that regional developments, such as the genocide in Rwanda, have also been influential in the general shift from an essentialist to a pluralist discourse among Burundian Hutu in exile. It concludes that ideological formations among refugees in camps are in no ways isolated from the outside world.

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