Academic literature on the topic 'European route 4'

The major aim of the paper is to analyse how growing awareness of environmental impact determined by trade activities can influence maritime transport and how it can facilitate changes in the current structure of maritime routes. In particular, the study compares the emissions concerning two alternatives in current maritime routes to highlight how possible incentives for emission reduction applied to maritime transport could impact the route choice. The analysis focuses on the trade routes from the Far East and South America towards Europe and it compares the emissions in two alternative scenarios: direct services calling at a North European port and shipping services calling at a Mediterranean port. In the latter scenario a significant role could be played by the North-African ports, whose development represents possible transhipment calls for the international shipping trades, mainly on the Europe-Far East route. In this sense they may act as competitors of the North European ports: their favourable geographic position allows for a considerable reduction in nautical distances with an immediate impact on the maritime transport emissions. To analyse the differences of emission impacts, this paper uses some particular statistical tools based on scientific literature and some instruments related to previous analysis in similar fields. The data used in the paper have been collected directly from shipping operators, terminal operators and some specialist databases. The paper is structured in 5 sections. After a brief introduction about transport and the environment (Section 1), Section 2 provides a review of some general methods to calculate the environmental cost of maritime transport, while Section 3 analyses the current trade route system and which ports can have an influence on changing the maritime patterns. Section 4 is focused on the analysis and comparison of the maritime routes alternatives, while Section 5 draws some conclusions and remarks for further analysis.

The article presents the publication of the decision of the meeting of major ship owners and industrialists of the Urals and Western Siberia, held on February 25, 1879 in Irbit. The preserved document reveals one of the pages of the history of the development of the Northern sea route: the organization of research expeditions to the area of the Ob Bay. The source emphasizes the close relationship between regional authorities and representatives of private capital in the development of the Northern territories and the search for water communication between Central Russia, European States and Siberia. It shows the great importance that the Siberian merchants attached to the possibility of opening new transport routes that can provide a profitable export of large volumes of Siberian raw materials to European markets. The 18 people who gathered, representing the largest Western Siberian and Ural private shipping companies, believed that trade through the Northern seas can give a powerful impetus to the development of both Western and Eastern Siberia: promote the rise of agriculture, trade and industry, ensure the flow of money to the region, stimulate demographic growth and development of sparsely populated areas. At the same time, the source under investigation fully reflects the pragmatism of merchants who did not want to invest in dubious enterprises and sought to achieve their goal – finding a reliable passage through the Northern waters – in the shortest possible time and with minimal costs. The ideas and recommendations formulated at the Irbit meeting of ship owners, although not unconditionally, served as the basis for planning further scientific research in the Kara sea by the Maritime Ministry and the Ministry of Finance.

The aim of this article is to provide an analysis of the application by some European Union countries of alternative measures to detention of migrants. Sections 2 and 3 indicate, in line with European normatives and with detention being a measure of last resort, that Member States having ascertained that there are grounds for the detention of migrants, should evaluate whether the aims pursued can be achieved through a less coercive measure which respects the fundamental rights of individuals. Unfortunately, as examined in Section 4, analysis of most European countries’ law reveals an unsatisfactory application of alternative measures to detention. As in, for example, Italy’s case, whose legislation and practice on alternatives to detention is examined in Section 5. In Section 6, the final section, the necessity for a change of culture among the competent authorities is highlighted. For this purpose, the recast Receptions Conditions Directive, which obliges Member States to provide alternative measures to detention of migrants, allowing States to introduce types of measures which are not listed in the Directive, seems to represent a good opportunity.

Attention growth to management of chains of deliveries has caused search of new ways of improvement of logistic processes. At the same time the question of a role of the theory of stakeholders in formation and maintenance of chains of deliveries was staticized. The main attention of the concept of interested parties of rather logistic processes has concentrated on the main points of decision-making in a choice of routes for transportation of freights. In article the methodical approach developed by authors to the analysis of extent of influence of interests of stakeholders in management of chains of deliveries within digital transformation of logistics is considered. For a choice of optimum option of transportation of the freights, most realizing the transport capacity of Russia, authors have taken as a basis A. Garrison's fundamental approach, allowing to develop methodical approach to an assessment of interests of stakeholders of the international logistic knot of the country. The circle of the stakeholders (interested parties) involved in process of decision-making on a choice of an optimum route at implementation of transportation of freights is created. The main transnational corridors of transportation of goods from the People's Republic of China in the European Union and criteria by which it is possible to carry out their assessment for a choice of the most acceptable are defined. Methodical approach to an assessment of degree of compliance of routes to certain criteria according to interests of stakeholders is developed. Comparison of criteria among themselves, and also an assessment of their influence in each option of transportation have shown as far as interests of stakeholders of chains of deliveries differ. The hierarchy of the importance of each criterion for the described routes of transportation taking into account interests of stakeholders of chains of deliveries is created. The conclusion is drawn that the main factor in transportation of goods when using capacities of Russia is time. This criterion plays a significant role at a route choice, however at the high cost and insufficient reliability such route will concede in most cases to competitors. Proceeding from it, attraction of opportunities and advantages which can provide other options, becomes quite expedient. Thus, harmonization of the relations of stakeholders is reduced uniting their interests of rather allocated options of transportations on development of Russia as the international logistic knot and to show, what economic benefits they can receive from this interaction.

Air transport has been constantly growing and forecasts seem to confirm the trend; the resulting environmental impact is relevant, both at local and at global scale. In this paper, data from various datasets have been integrated to assess the environmental impact of modal substitution with high speed rail. Six intra-EU28 routes and a domestic route have been defined for comparison. The airports have been chosen considering the share of the total number of passengers on flights to/from other EU Member States. Three scenarios have been proposed in the time period 2017–2025; aircraft types, distance bands, and occupancy rate are investigated on each scenario. The comparison with HSR service has been carried out only on passenger service and not for freight. The energy consumption and the consequent emissions for the aircraft have been estimated on the base of the available data for the mix of aircraft types, performing the routes. The results indicate the advantage of the high speed trains, in terms of direct CO2eq emissions per passenger km. Compared to a neutral scenario, with an annual passenger increment of 3.5%, the HSR substitution of the 5% and the 25% of this increment allow a GHG saving of 4% and 20%, respectively. Some of the analysed routes (e.g., Frankfurt Main–Paris CDG) have interesting GHG savings but the duration of the trip today is limiting for a real substitution. Moreover, there is general agreement that the extreme weather events induced by climate change will affect the functioning of the European transport system. In this sense, transportation by the rail mode is expected to play a significant role in strengthening the EU transport system, its resilience, and its reliability, as it is less immediately subject to the impacts of severe weather conditions.

The sizes of individual organisms, rather than their taxonomy, are used to inform management and conservation in some aquatic ecosystems. The European Science Foundation Research Network, SIZEMIC, facilitates integration of such approaches with the more taxonomic approaches used in terrestrial ecology. During its 4-year tenure, the Network is bringing together researchers from disciplines including theorists, empiricists, government employees, and practitioners, via a series of meetings, working groups and research visits. The research conducted suggests that organismal size, with a generous helping of taxonomy, provides the most probable route to universal indicators of ecological status.

International Waterway E60 (IWW E60) is a sea-shore route running from Gibraltar to the North along European coast up to St. Petersburg then through the Baltic-White Sea Channel, then along the White Sea coast to Arkhangelsk. From the German-Polish border, along the Polish, Russian and Lithuanian coast to the Lithuanian-Latvian border, the route is 610 km-long and runs along 32 Polish municipalities and 4 Lithuanian regions. Determining the role of IWW E60 is important in the context of economic growth of municipalities and coastal regions, especially through the development of local seaports. Operations of the multifunctional port have a wide economic and social impact. Mutual interaction of functions can be observed on the example of fisheries, where in the port area fishing functions intermingle with the processing, tourism, storage and distribution function. The main socioeconomic benefits of E60 waterway development include the increase in employment, economic activity, generation of added value and improvement of transport infrastructure. In addition, ports influence attractiveness of the regions and create impulse for new jobs in the tourism industry. Until now there have been no attempts to make E60 route navigable or only on short sections, usually between two neighbouring ports. Despite the significant cross-border importance of this connection, no directions for its optimal development were defined. What is more, the route is not used. In connection with this, steps were taken to thoroughly investigate the problem and determine the possibility of its development as part of inland waterways network.

The EC directive on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) was first agreed in 1989. Generic EMC standards appeared in the early 1990s. However, a transition period was implemented throughout the community from 1992 until December 1995, largely in order for product-specific standards to appear and also to allow time for industry to adapt to the change in legislation. At radio frequencies, the railway industry in the United Kingdom had made use of a standard produced by the Railway Industry Association (RIA) Committee 18 prior to the European Commission (EC) directive. This committee has made a substantial contribution to the Cenelec (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) working groups which have produced five railway EMC pre-standards (ENV50121-1 to ENV50121-5) which were agreed in December 1995. There is a need in the period of two to three years from this date to develop the pre-standards and trial them with a view to turning them into full standards. Compliance with the EMC directive must be via the technical construction file route until the ENVs are converted to ENs and published in the official journal. This paper explains the standards used in the United Kingdom for EMC on railways prior to the EC directive and it describes the progress made towards developing the European pre-standards covering ‘A description of railway EMC’(ENV50121-1), ‘A method of measurement and cartography’ (ENV50121-2), ‘Railway vehicles’ (ENV50121-3), ‘Railway signalling’ (ENV50121-4) and ‘Fixed power installations’ (ENV50121-5). The paper shows the derivation of the major parts of the standards, including details of railway test data used to determine limits. The paper concludes by showing the implications for the railway industry in implementation and the expected progress in the next five years.

Main recommendationsESGE recommends considering the following indications for enteral tube insertion: (i) clinical conditions that make oral intake impossible (neurological conditions, obstructive causes); (ii) acute and/or chronic diseases that result in a catabolic state where oral intake becomes insufficient; and (iii) chronic small-bowel obstruction requiring a decompression gastrostomy.Strong recommendation, low quality evidence.ESGE recommends the use of temporary feeding tubes placed through a natural orifice (either nostril) in patients expected to require enteral nutrition (EN) for less than 4 weeks. If it is anticipated that EN will be required for more than 4 weeks, percutaneous access should be considered, depending on the clinical setting.Strong recommendation, low quality evidence.ESGE recommends the gastric route as the primary option in patients in need of EN support. Only in patients with altered/unfavorable gastric anatomy (e. g. after previous surgery), impaired gastric emptying, intolerance to gastric feeding, or with a high risk of aspiration, should the jejunal route be chosen.Strong recommendation, moderate quality evidence.ESGE suggests that recent gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding due to peptic ulcer disease with risk of rebleeding should be considered to be a relative contraindication to percutaneous enteral access procedures, as should hemodynamic or respiratory instability.Weak recommendation, low quality evidence.ESGE suggests that the presence of ascites and ventriculoperitoneal shunts should be considered to be additional risk factors for infection and, therefore, further preventive precautions must be taken in these cases.Weak recommendation, low quality evidence.ESGE recommends that percutaneous tube placement (percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy [PEG], percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy with jejunal extension [PEG-J], or direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy [D-PEJ]) should be considered to be a procedure with high hemorrhagic risk, and that in order to reduce this risk, specific guidelines for antiplatelet or anticoagulant use should be followed strictly.Strong recommendation, low quality evidence.ESGE recommends refraining from PEG placement in patients with advanced dementia.Strong recommendation, low quality evidence.ESGE recommends refraining from PEG placement in patients with a life expectancy shorter than 30 days.Strong recommendation, low quality evidence*.

Under efterkrigstiden har den regionala tillväxten i industriländerna undergått en explosionsartad utveckling. Samtidigt skedde en massiv utbyggnad och förbättring av infrastrukturen. Dessa båda områdes avancemang avslutades abrupt med den globala finanskrisen under 1970-talet. När konjunkturen vände tillbaka och tillväxten tog fart igen var det däremot inte med samma starka stäv som innan krisen. Denna tröga utveckling förbluffade makroekonomerna, som sökte med ljus och lyckta efter möjliga orsaker såsom energipriser, social reglering och regioners näringslivssammansättning. Det fick sin förklaring först när Aschauer bevisade att det fanns ett samband mellan minskade investeringar i infrastruktur i slutet av 1960-talet och en nedgång i den totala produktiviteten strax efteråt, vilket till viss del ledde till finanskrisen. Det har sedan dess publicerats en uppsjö av forskningsartiklar kring ämnet där den sammantagna slutsatsen är att det inte är frågan om infrastrukturen påverkar den regionala utvecklingen, utan till vilken grad, där transportinfrastrukturen anses ha störst betydelse.   Denna studie har som syfte att undersöka till vilken omfattning infrastrukturinvesteringar har på den kommunala och regionala utvecklingen längs europaväg 4 sträckning mellan Uppsala och Sundsvall. Dessutom undersöktes om man skulle kunna implementera alternativa finansieringsmetoder av vägutbyggnadsprojekt, eftersom dessa även skulle leda fram till en ökad regional utveckling. Studien genomfördes med hjälp av enkäter och intervjuer och ett bottom-up perspektiv, vilket möjliggjorde att de tidigare långsiktiga regionala utvecklingsmålen kunde analyseras.   Sammantaget har resultatet visat att studiens arbetsmetod har varit en bra undersökningsform, där gamla resultat bekräftats och nya slutsatser dragits. Analysen har påvisat skillnader bland kommuner och regioner i frågan om vilken omfattning infrastrukturförändringar har påverkat deras utveckling. Däremot ansåg samtliga tillfrågade att alternativa finansieringssätt, som ERUF och PPP borde användas, men att implementeringen skulle bli svår.
During the postwar period, there has been a tremendous variation in regional growth in developing countries. At the same time there was a massive expansion and improvement in infrastructure. The advances in these two areas ended abruptly with the global financial crisis in the 1970s. However, when times changed and the economy began to recover, it was not with the same momentum as prior to the crisis. This slow development stunned macro-economists, who searched high and low after possible causes such as energy prices, social regulations and the economic structure of different regions. It became clear only when Aschauer showed how the decline in infrastructure investment in the late 1960s resulted in a decline in overall productivity shortly afterwards, which, in part, led to the financial crisis. There have since been published a plethora of research articles on the subject in which the overall conclusion is that it is not an issue of whether infrastructure has an impact on regional development, but to what degree, and that the transport infrastructure is considered to be most significant. The aim of this study is to investigate of impact that infrastructure investments were considered to have upon municipal and regional development along the European route 4 between Uppsala and Sundsvall. In addition the possibilities of implementing alternative methods of financing road-building projects were also explored, as these would lead to greater regional development. The study was conducted using questionnaires and interviews and a bottom-up approach, which made it possible for the earlier long-term regional development objectives to be analysed.Overall, the results demonstrated that the method applied was a good way of conducting a survey, where old and new findings were confirmed. The analysis has revealed differences among municipalities and regions with regards to the impact that changes in infrastructure have on their development. On the other hand, the respondents were unanimous in believing that alternative funding methods, such as ERUF and Public-Private-Partnership should be used, but that they would be difficult to implement.

The International Conference the European Pilgrimage Routes for promoting sustainable and quality tourism in rural areas took place December 4 to 6, 2014 in Firenze (Italy) and was organized by the Department of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Systems – University of Florence in collaboration with the Tuscany Region, the Department for Life Quality Studies and Department of Agricultural Sciences – University of Bologna, the Italian Association of Agricultural Engineering and the European Association of the Francigena Way. The Conference involving 150 experts from 18 countries and was divided into five areas of discussion: conservation and evolution of the landscape along the routes; life quality and social impact; tourism and local development; sustainability in the rural areas; tools and methods for building a tourist attraction.

This Thematic Network aims at developing the European dimension of Higher Engineering Education by enhancing the compatibility of the many diverse routes to the profession of engineer, by facilitating greater mobility and integration of skilled personnel throughout Europe, by favouring a mutual exchange of skills and competences and providing a platform for communication between academics and professionals. Five main activities have been organised under the overall umbrella of the Thematic Network.The work contains 6 volumes.

This chapter introduces the European law of patents and related rights with a discussion of the nature of patents as limited-term monopoly rights granted in respect of new, inventive, and industrially applicable inventions and the routes to obtaining patent protection in Europe. It then considers the existing European patent system established by the European Patent Convention 1973/2000, including its basis in state-based conceptions of IP territoriality, and the challenges presented to that system by globalization and developing technology. And finally, it discusses the long-standing pursuit of a unitary patent and unified patent court for Europe, including the reasons for each, and the features of the proposed Unitary Patent Package of 2012/2013.

Chapter 4 focuses on the voyage and sea routes that figured in France’s Europe trade with China. A knowledge not only of ship handling but also of wind systems was essential to a vessel’s safe arrival at her destination; so was the ability to deal with navigational hazards at a time when many regions remained to be accurately charted. The timing and duration of a voyage were also affected by the number of ports of call, the length of stay at each, and the route taken. Mariners were guided by sailing instructions such as d’Après de Mannevillette’s Neptune oriental, which described routes, winds, currents, navigational hazards, landmarks, port entrances, and more. While the majority of ships sailed via the Cape of Good Hope, the French also made use of routes via Cape Horn, both in the years 1706–1717, when they combined trade at Canton with that of supplying Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of South America, and in the nineteenth century. Closer to China, the increasing use of alternative routes freed vessels from restrictions imposed by monsoons in the South China Sea, enabling ships to arrive year-round and ultimately lessening the control of Chinese authorities over international trade.

The European FITNET consortium was convened in 2002 with the remit of preparing a procedure for fitness-for-service (FFS) evaluation of flawed engineering components. The procedure is intended to be used by a broad range of industries across Europe, and can be used at any stage in the life of an engineering component, eg design, fabrication, operation, failure analysis or life extension. This paper presents an overview of the structure of the procedure. There are four main modules, each covering a particular failure or damage mechanism: fracture, fatigue, creep and corrosion (including environmentally-assisted cracking). These are linked by the use of a common terminology and a single set of reference compendia (annexes), eg for stress intensity, plastic collapse and residual stress, so that a particular flaw can be rapidly analysed for more than one failure mechanism. The FITNET fracture assessment procedures in particular represent a significant advance compared with current published FFS procedures such as API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 and BS 7910. There is a hierarchy of different approaches, designated Options 0 to 5, the choice between them depending on the quality of information (in particular, materials property data) available to the user. This could range from Charpy and tensile data only (Option 0) through to the constraint-dependence of fracture toughness (Option 5). Other Options allow crack driving force to be calculated directly from FEA (Option 4), or permit weld metal strength mismatch to be taken into account (Option 2). The fatigue analysis module likewise contains several alternative approaches, termed Routes. Some (Routes 1–3) are based on the concept of a nominally flaw-free structure, whilst Route 4 is based on cycle-by-cycle integration of the Paris law, and Route 5 addresses non-planar flaws. FITNET also set itself the goal of providing training in FFS techniques, both through a series of seminars held during the project (2002–2006) and through provision of lasting training material (slides, tutorials, case studies and a validation document), which are now publicly available.

This paper describes the Creep Amendments which will be implemented in EN 13445, the European Standard for Unfired Pressure Vessels, in 2007. It will address four topics: 1) Specifications for Materials and Weldments. 2) Specifications for Design By Formula and Damage Accumulation rules. 3) Specifications for Design By Analysis — Direct Route (Creep Rupture, Excessive Creep Strain, Creep and cyclic Fatigue Interaction). 4) Specifications for Inspection and Non-Destructive Testing (NDT).

In November 2013 the revised ASME PCC-1 “Guidelines for Pressure Boundary Bolted Joint Assembly” were published including Appendix A, “Training and Qualification of Bolted Joint Assembly Personnel.” This Appendix outlines a training, examination and qualification system for ensuring a consistent level of knowledge and experience for bolting assemblers and specialists working on bolted flange joint assemblies. The ultimate objective is a mobile workforce capable of bolting ASME plant with a minimum performance standard safely and with no subsequent leaks. Major operators and contractors involved in oil and gas, petrochemical and power generation, or any industry that uses bolted flange joint assemblies, can benefit from PCC-1. Benefit recognition has begun with operators now specifying PCC-1 compliance in their procedures and bid packages. However, nearly three years after the introduction of Appendix A the number of Qualifying Organizations approved to deliver the program and individuals qualified via these programs remains stubbornly small in comparison with other programs and insufficient to meet the future safety demands of the industry or the objective of PCC-1 and Appendix A. This technical paper reviews key elements of Appendix A, compares Appendix A with other international qualifications and suggests recommendations intended to increase recognition and compliance with these guidelines. The recommendations and expected benefits follow from an extensive review of work by other organizations and published data concerned to reduce recorded leaks from bolted joints, including: a) Implementation lessons learned from a Qualifying Organization and Review Organization. b) Current international qualifications and the differing routes to achieve each qualification including: 1) ASME PCC-1 Appendix A Training and Qualification of Bolted Joint Assembly Personnel. 2) European standard EN1591-4 Qualification of personnel competency in the assembly of the bolted connections of critical service pressurized systems. 3) Engineering Construction Industry Training Board (ECITB) Mechanical Joint Integrity (MJI) technical training standards and Step Change in Safety Mechanical Joint Integrity Route to Competence Guidance 4) Additional country specific qualifications c) Program effectiveness study of the Engineering Construction Industry Training Board (ECITB) Mechanical Joint Integrity (MJI) program and the Step Change in Safety Hydrocarbon Release (HCR) model set up to achieve leak reduction in the UK North Sea sector. Finally, the paper will conclude with outlining the benefits to be gained globally through standardization of international qualification programs to enable true portability including: a) The need to increase the number of auditable Qualifying Organizations able to deliver the program, qualify individuals and engage operator/contractors in the process. b) Importance of effective communication and summary of the guidelines.

Several codes are currently available for design and analysis of pressure vessels. Two of the main contributors are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers providing the ASME VIII code, Ref /4/ and the Technical Committee for standardization in Brussels providing the European Standard, Ref /2/. Methods written in bold letters will be considered in the discussion presented in this paper. The ASME VIII code, Ref /4/, contains three divisions covering different pressure ranges: Division 1: up to 200 bar (3000 psi) Division 2: in general Division 3: for pressure above 690 bar (10000 psi) In this paper the ASME division 2, Part 5, “design by analysis” will be considered. This part is also referred to in the DNV-OS-F101, Ref /3/, for offshore pressure containing components. Here different analysis methods are described, such as: Elastic Stress Analysis Limit Load Analysis Elastic Plastic Analysis The Elastic Stress Analysis method with stress categorization has been introduced to the industry for many years and has been widely used in design of pressure vessels. However, in the latest issue (2007/2010) of ASME VIII div. 2, this method is not recommended for heavy wall constructions as it might generate non-conservative analysis results. Heavy wall constructions are defined by: (R/t ≤ 4) with dimensions as illustrated in Figure 1. In the case of heavy wall constructions the Limit Load Analysis or the Elastic-plastic method shall be used. In this paper focus will be on the Elastic-plastic method while the Limit Load Analysis will not be considered. Experience from recent projects at IKM Ocean Design indicates that the industry has not been fully aware of the new analysis philosophy mentioned in the 2007 issue of ASME VIII div.2. The Elastic Stress Analysis method is still (2012) being used for heavy wall constructions. The NS-EN 13445-3; 2009, Ref /2/, provides two different methodologies for design by analysis: Direct Route Method based on stress categories. The method based on stress categories is similar to the Elastic Stress Analysis method from ASME VIII div. 2 and it will therefore not be considered in this paper.

FITNET is a four-year European thematic network with the objective of developing and extending the use of fitness-for-service (FFS) procedures for welded and non-welded metallic structures throughout Europe. It is partly funded by the European Commission within the fifth framework programme and commenced in February 2002. The network currently consists of about 50 organisations from 17 European countries but also includes contributions from organisations in the USA, Japan and Korea. Further information can be found in the FITNET TN website: http://www.eurofitnet.org. The FITNET FFS Procedure is built up in four major analysis modules namely; Fracture, Fatigue, Creep and Corrosion and the procedure is being developed for completion in early 2006 in the form of CEN Document. The aim of this paper is to present the features, main analysis routes and major areas of technical development pertinent to the Fracture Module of the FITNET FFS Procedure. The procedure is based on previous developments carried out within the SINTAP project as well as advances in other standards such as the British Energy R6 rev 4 and the current amendments to the British Standard BS7910. In addition the work from other EU projects has been used to extend the treatment of several problem areas, such as the effect of constraint and the treatment of thin walled structures.

Within the scope of the 5th EURATOM Framework Programme (FP) for the HTR-F and HTR-F1 projects, a new 4-year integrated project on very high temperature reactors (RAPHAEL: ReActor for Process Heat And Electricity) was started in April 2006 as part of the 6th Framework Programme. The Sub-Project on Fuel Technology (SP-FT) is one of eight sub-projects constituting the RAPHAEL project. R&D conducted in this sub-project focuses on understanding fuel behaviour, determining the limits of state-of-the-art fuel, and developing potential performance improvements. Fabrication processes were worked out for alternative fuel kernel composition (UCO instead of UO2) and coating (ZrC instead of SiC): i) UCO microstructure reduces fission product migration and is thus considered superior to UO2 under high burn-ups and high temperature gradients. For this reason, the manufacturing feasibility of UCO kernels using modified external sol-gel routes was addressed. The calcining and sintering steps were particularly studied. ii) For its better high temperature performance, ZrC is a candidate coating material for replacing SiC in TRISO (TRistructural ISOtropic) particles. One of the objectives was therefore to deposit a stoichiometric ZrC layer without impurities. An “analytical irradiation” experiment currently performed in the HFR — named PYCASSO for PYrocarbon irradiation for Creep And Swelling/Shrinkage of Objects — was set up to measure the changes in coating material properties as a function of neutron fluence, with samples coming from the new fabrication process. This experiment was started in April 2008 and will provide data on particle component behaviour under irradiation. This data is required to upgrade material models implemented in the ATLAS fuel simulation code. The PYCASSO irradiation experiment is a true Generation IV VHTR effort, with Korean and Japanese samples included in the irradiation. Further RAPHAEL results will be made available to the GIF VHTR Fuel and Fuel Cycle project partners in the future. Post-irradiation examinations and heat-up tests performed on fuel irradiated in an earlier project are being performed to investigate the behaviour of state-of-the-art fuel in VHTR normal and accident conditions. Very interesting results from destructive examinations performed on the HFR-EU1bis pebbles were obtained, showing a clear temperature (and high burn-up) influence on both kernel changes (including fission product behaviour) and the coating layers. Based on fuel particle models established earlier, the fuel modelling capabilities could be further improved: i) Modelling of fuel elements containing thousands of particles is expected to enable a statistical approach to mechanical particle behaviour and fission product release. ii) A database on historical and new fuel properties was built to enable validation of models. This paper reports on recent progress and main results of the RAPHAEL sub-project on fuel technology.

In many of the major oil and gas fields in the North American Arctic, gravel is abundant and close to the production fields and the pipeline routes. In many other Arctic areas in Europe and Asia, gravel is almost non-existent. As new fields are being developed, gravel free areas are being encountered in more areas such as the National Petroleum Reserve Alaska (NPRA) and many of the Russian oil fields west and east of the Ural Mountains and into the Yamal Peninsula. Without free draining gravel, access and development of these new fields becomes more costly, more schedule sensitive, and more complicated. This paper looks at options for roads, pads, and access for developing the oil fields and building and operating the pipelines in areas where gravel deposits are sparse. Some of the options that are discussed and evaluated are using: 1. Additives to increase the strength of available fine-grained materials. 2. Ice and snow pads and roads. 3. Seasonal scheduling of construction. 4. Various road and pad surfacing options including: a) Year-around ice pads, b) Concrete pads and pavements, and c) Mats constructed of various materials. 5. Dredging and draining to obtain available sandy materials from waterways. 6. Geofabrics to contain ice rich materials placed in winter. 7. Methods for maintaining the thermal state of winter placed embankment.

In recent years, legislative authorities in the US, Europe and Japan have steadily reduced engine exhaust emissions, i.e., carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulphur, particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) to improve air quality. To meet these requirements engine manufacturers have had to make significant design changes and as a consequence new engine lubricant specifications from Industry bodies (ACEA, EMA, JAMA) and individual OEMs have had to be introduced to ensure adequate lubrication of these new engines. This has led to significant changes to heavy-duty diesel engine oil (HDDEO) oil formulation composition. Engine design modifications to increase fuel combustion efficiency such as increased peak cylinder pressure and increased fuel injection pressures have placed higher stress on piston rings and liners, bearings and valve train components [1], and improved oil consumption has meant longer oil residence time in the piston ring belt area. The practice of retarded fuel injection timing and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) as measures to reduce NOx levels by reducing peak combustion temperature has had a considerable impact on lubricant performance. Retarded injection leads to higher soot levels which can cause valve train wear and piston ring liner wear and soot-induced thickening, whilst EGR leads to increased corrosive acids and wear in the combustion chamber. Currently in Europe, Euro 3 heavy-duty engines predominantly use retarded fuel injection as the primary NOx emission control strategy although there are cases where EGR is used. In the US, cooled EGR is used by most engine manufacturers to meet US 2002 emissions. HDDEO’s contain a combination of performance additives such as overbased metal detergents, dispersants, antiwear agents and antioxidants designed to provide wear protection, engine cleanliness, and control of soot contaminants and oxidation. Other additive components include selected viscosity index (VI) improvers and pour point depressants to provide necessary viscosity characteristics and shear stability, and also anti-foam agents for oil aeration control. To meet the increased demands from low emission engines, the chemical composition of the performance additives has been modified and levels increased. Current HDDEOs optimized to meet US and European specifications contain typically between 1.3 and 1.9%wt sulphated ash, 0.1–0.14%wt phosphorus and 0.3–1.1.wt sulphur. To meet the next generation emission standards, engines will require the use of exhaust after-treatment devices. In Europe, Euro 4 emission reductions for NOx and PM, scheduled for introduction in 2005, will require the use of either selective catalytic reduction, or the use of EGR in combination with a diesel particulate filter (DPF). To meet the US 2007 requirements, higher levels of EGR than currently used, in combination with DPFs, is envisaged by most engine builders. Exhaust after-treatment devices are already used extensively in some applications such as DPFs on city buses in Europe and the US. Further NOx restrictions are scheduled for Euro 5 in 2008 and USA in 2010. NOx absorber systems, although used in gasoline engines, are still under development for heavy-duty diesel engines and may be available for 2010. Some lubricant base oil and additive components from oil consumed in the combustion chamber are believed to adversely affect the performance of after-treatment devices. Ash material from metal detergents and zinc dithiophosphates (ZDTP) can build up in the channels within particulate filters causing blockage and potentially loss of engine power, leading to a need for frequent cleaning maintenance. The role of sulphur and phosphorus in additive components is less clear. Sulphur from fuel can either oxidize to sulphur dioxide and react through to sulphuric acid, which manifests itself as particulate, or can have a poisoning effect on the catalyst itself. However, the role of sulphur containing additives is yet to be established. Phosphorus from ZDTP antiwear components can lead to a phosphate layer being deposited on catalyst surfaces, which may impair efficiency. Concerns from OEMs regarding the possible effects of ash, sulphur and phosphorus has led to chemical limits being introduced in some new and upcoming engine oil specifications. The ACEA E6 sequence restricts sulphated ash to 1.0%wt max, phosphorus to 0.08%wt max and sulphur to 0.3%wt max, while the PC-10 category scheduled for 2007 will have maximum limits of 1.0%wt sulphated ash, 0.12%wt phosphorus and 0.4%wt sulphur. The resulting constraints on the use of conventional overbased metal detergent cleanliness additives and zinc dithiophosphate antiwear additives will necessitate alternative engine oil formulation technologies to be developed in order to maintain current performance levels. Indeed, performance requirements of engine oils are expected to become more demanding for the next generation engines where emissions are further restricted. If absorbers become a major route for NOx reduction, limits on sulphur and phosphorus are likely to be more restrictive. Oil formulations meeting ACEA E6 and PC-10 chemical limits have been assessed in several key critical lubricant specification tests, looking at valve train and piston ring/cylinder liner wear, corrosive wear in bearings, piston cleanliness and soot-induced viscosity control. It is demonstrated that it is possible to achieve MB 228.5 extended oil drain performance and API CI-4 wear, corrosion and piston cleanliness requirements for current US engines equipped with EGR [2], at a sulphated ash level of 1.0%wt, and phosphorus and sulphur levels, (0.05 and 0.17%wt, respectively), considerably lower than these chemical limits. This is achievable by the use of selected low sulphur detergents, optimized primary and secondary antioxidant systems and non-phosphorus containing, ashless supplementary antiwear additives blended in synthetic basestocks. Field trials in several city bus fleets have been conducted to assess engine oil performance and durability using one of these low sulphated ash, phosphorus and sulphur (SAPS) oil formulations and to examine lubricant effects on particulate filter performance. Engine oil durability testing was conducted in bus fleets in Germany and Switzerland. These trials, involving over 100 vehicles, cover a range of engine types, e.g., Daimler Chrysler and MAN Euro 1, 2 and 3 and different fuel types (low sulphur diesel, biodiesel, and compressed natural gas) in some MAN engines. The fleets are fitted with continuously regenerating particulate filters either from new or retrofitted. Oils were tested at standard and extended drain intervals (up to 60 000km). Used oil analysis for iron, copper, lead and aluminium with the low SAPS oil in these vehicles have shown low wear rates in all engine types and comparable with a higher 1.8% ash ACEA E4, E5 quality oil. Soot levels can vary considerably, but oil viscosity is maintained within viscosity grade, even at 8% soot loading. TBN depletion and TAN accumulation rates are low showing significant residual basicity reserve and control of acidic combustion and oxidation products. Buses in Stuttgart and Berlin have been used to investigate lubricant ash effects of engine oil on particulate filter durability. Exhaust back-pressure is routinely measured and DPF filters removed and cleaned when back pressure exceeds 100 mbar. Comparison of rate of back pressure build up as a function of vehicle distance shows reduced back pressure gradients for the low SAPS oil relative to the 1.8%wt ash oil in both engine types looked at. An average reduction in back pressure gradient of 40% was found in buses equipped with OM 906LA engines in Berlin and 25% with OM 457hLA engines at both locations. Examination of the ash content in DPFs has shown a 40% reduction in the quantity of ash with the low SAPS oil. This investigation shows that it is possible to meet current long oil drain requirements whilst meeting chemical limits for future lubricants and provide benefits in DPF durability.

The main recommendations of the panel report can be summarised under four headings: 1. From Source to Sea: River systems, from their source to the sea and beyond, should form the focus for research projects, allowing the integration of all archaeological work carried out along their course. Future research should take a holistic view of the marine and maritime historic environment, from inland lakes that feed freshwater river routes, to tidal estuaries and out to the open sea. This view of the landscape/seascape encompasses a very broad range of archaeology and enables connections to be made without the restrictions of geographical or political boundaries. Research strategies, programmes From Source to Sea: ScARF Marine and Maritime Panel Report iii and projects can adopt this approach at multiple levels; from national to site-specific, with the aim of remaining holistic and cross-cutting. 2. Submerged Landscapes: The rising research profile of submerged landscapes has recently been embodied into a European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action; Submerged Prehistoric Archaeology and Landscapes of the Continental Shelf (SPLASHCOS), with exciting proposals for future research. Future work needs to be integrated with wider initiatives such as this on an international scale. Recent projects have begun to demonstrate the research potential for submerged landscapes in and beyond Scotland, as well as the need to collaborate with industrial partners, in order that commercially-created datasets can be accessed and used. More data is required in order to fully model the changing coastline around Scotland and develop predictive models of site survival. Such work is crucial to understanding life in early prehistoric Scotland, and how the earliest communities responded to a changing environment. 3. Marine & Maritime Historic Landscapes: Scotland’s coastal and intertidal zones and maritime hinterland encompass in-shore islands, trans-continental shipping lanes, ports and harbours, and transport infrastructure to intertidal fish-traps, and define understanding and conceptualisation of the liminal zone between the land and the sea. Due to the pervasive nature of the Marine and Maritime historic landscape, a holistic approach should be taken that incorporates evidence from a variety of sources including commercial and research archaeology, local and national societies, off-shore and onshore commercial development; and including studies derived from, but not limited to history, ethnology, cultural studies, folklore and architecture and involving a wide range of recording techniques ranging from photography, laser imaging, and sonar survey through to more orthodox drawn survey and excavation. 4. Collaboration: As is implicit in all the above, multi-disciplinary, collaborative, and cross-sector approaches are essential in order to ensure the capacity to meet the research challenges of the marine and maritime historic environment. There is a need for collaboration across the heritage sector and beyond, into specific areas of industry, science and the arts. Methods of communication amongst the constituent research individuals, institutions and networks should be developed, and dissemination of research results promoted. The formation of research communities, especially virtual centres of excellence, should be encouraged in order to build capacity.