Academic literature on the topic 'Evaporimeter'

Knowledge of the current irrigation requirement of well-watered grass provides the basis for efficient scheduling of turf and landscape irrigation. A portable, miniature pan evaporimeter has been developed to conveniently provide this information for localized micro-climates. The underlying equation for the instrument is: IRnet = (Kpan • Epan - Kpan • R) where IRnet is the net irrigation requirement of healthy, non-stressed grass; Kpan is the pan coefficient for the instrument; Epan is accumulative pan evaporation; Kpan • Epan is “reference evapotranspiration”; and Kpan • R is a measure of effective rainfall received. This equation was established using turfgrass sites located throughout the Pacific Northwest over a 3-year period. The sites were in proximity to U.S. Class “A” pan evaporimeters, and were automatically irrigated using moisture sensors. Tests of the miniature evaporimeter against automated meteorological stations have determined the factors that influence its pan coefficient, and therefore its ultimate design.

Abstract Information about water evaporation is essential for the calculation of water balance. Evaporation, however, is a very complex physical process and it is therefore difficult to quantify. Evaporation measurements from the weather station network of the Czech Hydrometeorological Institute between 1968 and 2011 were performed using the evaporimeter GGI-3000. Evaporation was calculated using modified standard method based on FAO. The aim of the article was to compare the measured values and calculations. It has been found that the evaporation values from water surface calculated using the empirical equation are usually higher than the measured values by on average 0.8 mm, in extreme cases even 6.9 mm. The measured data shows higher variability than the calculated values, which means that correlations between series are not strong, the correlation coefficient being 0.7. Nevertheless the findings can be used for homogenization of series measured by the GGI-3000 evaporimeter.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico
O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar as variÃveis de produÃÃo da mamoneira, variedade IAC Guarani, sob diferentes nÃveis de irrigaÃÃo e doses crescentes de adubaÃÃo potÃssica, aplicadas via fertirrigaÃÃo. Em conseqÃÃncia, trÃs distintos trabalhos, denominados de 1, 2 e 3, foram implantados em uma Ãrea experimental da Universidade Federal do CearÃ, no municÃpio de Fortaleza (03Â44âS, 38Â33âW, 19,5 m). O delineamento experimental dos trÃs experimentos foi em blocos ao acaso, com cinco tratamentos e quatro repetiÃÃes, definidos em funÃÃo do nÃvel de irrigaÃÃo (1 e 2) e da dose de adubaÃÃo potÃssica (3). Nos experimentos 1 e 2, os tratamentos corresponderam a 25; 50; 75; 100 e 125% da evaporaÃÃo medida no tanque reduzido (EVAr) e 35; 70; 105; 140 e 175% da evaporaÃÃo medida no evaporÃmetro de Piche (EPi), respectivamente. No experimento 3, os tratamentos foram definidos em funÃÃo da adubaÃÃo potÃssica: 0; 50; 100; 150 e 200% da recomendaÃÃo da anÃlise de solo. Em todos, foram avaliadas as seguintes variÃveis: tamanho do racemo de 1 ordem, nÃmero de frutos por racemos, peso de 100 sementes por racemos, produtividade dos racemos (1Â, 2 e 3 ordens) e produtividade total. Verificou-se que a mamoneira respondeu em produtividade à aplicaÃÃo de Ãgua e à fertirrigaÃÃo potÃssica, chegando a valores mÃximos de produtividade de 4.161; 4.010 e 3.341 kg ha-1 nos experimentos 1; 2 e 3, respectivamente. No experimento 1 e 2, concluiu-se que a produtividade total da mamoneira aumentou com a elevaÃÃo do nÃvel de irrigaÃÃo aplicado atà o nÃvel de 89% da evaporaÃÃo medida no tanque reduzido e 107% da evaporaÃÃo medida no evaporÃmetro de Piche, respectivamente. No experimento 3, a produtividade total da mamoneira aumentou com a elevaÃÃo da dose potÃssica, aplicada via fertirrigaÃÃo, atà a dosagem de 31,8 kg ha-1 de K2O.
The objective of this work was to evaluate the vari ables of production of the castor bean, variety IAC Guarani, under different levels o f irrigation and increases levels of potassium fertilization, applied through fertirriga tion. As a consequence, three different works, denominated of 1, 2 and 3, they were implanted in an experimental area of the Federal University of CearÃ, in Fortale za (03Â44'S, 38Â33'W, 19,5 m). The experimental maping of the three experiments was in blocks at random, with five treatments and four repetitions, defined in functio n of the level of irrigation (1 and 2) and of the level of potassium fertilization (3). In the experiments 1 and 2, the treatments corresponded to 25; 50; 75; 100 and 125% of the evaporation measured by evaporimeter reduced tank (EVAr) and 35; 70; 105 ; 140 and 175% of the evaporation measured in the Piche evaporimeter (EPi), respectively. In the experiment 3, the treatments were defined in function of the potassium fertilization: 0; 50; 100; 150 and 200% of the recommendation of the soil analysis. In all, they were following variables were appraised: size of the rac emo of 1st order, number of fruits, weight of 100 seeds, productivity of the racemes (1 Â, 2Â and 3Â orders) and total productivity. It was verified that the castor bean answered in productivity to the application of water and the potassium fertirrigati on, arriving to maximum values of productivity of 4.161; 4.010 and 3.341 kg ha -1 in the experiments 1; 2 and 3, respectively. In the experiment 1, it was ended tha t the use for the producing of larger irrigation sheets increases to a certain value limi ts the weight of 100 seeds for racemes of 2Â and 3Â orders and the productivity, f rom which these variables start to decrease; the reduced tank was efficient to esteem the water requirements of the castor bean. In the experiment 2, the use for the p roducing of larger irrigation sheets increases to a certain value limits the productivit y for raceme of 2Â and 3Â orders and positive way about the productivity of the castor bean.

Accurate estimation of reference evaporation is necessary for the estimation of actual evaporation for irrigation and water resource management purposes. Estimation of reference evaporati~n using the Penman-Monteith method using automatic weather station (AWS)measurements requires the available energy to be accurately estimated. The available energy of short grass of 0.12 m was measured using a component net radiometer and soil heat flux plate measurements at the Faculty of Sciences and Agricultural (Agrometeorological station, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, latitude ~29.79 oS, longitude ~ 30.95 °E, altitude ~ 650 m). In an attempt to evaluate the accuracy of commonly used procedures of estimating available energy, estimates of net irradiance (from net long wave irradiance and reflection coefficient estimate) and soil heat flux density were compared to the actual measurements. The linear approximation of atmosphere minus crop surface emittance based on air temperature was compared with measured net long wave irradiance and similar empirical formulations. The underestimation of the measured net long wave irradiance was observed using the linear approach. Furthermore, a plot of measured clear sky net long wave irradiance and air temperature showed a logarithmic relation. The estimated reflected solar irradiance was overestimated for the reference crop. The measured soil heat flux density was observed to vary not only with net irradiance but also with cloudiness, wind speed and soil water content. The soil heat flux density measured with plates was noticed to follow the measured net irradiance. The sensitivity of Penman-Monteith latent heat estimate was investigated for the use of estimated reflection coefficient and soil heat flux density as well as ignored soil heat flux density. Results showed the latent heat estimate to be greater when soil heat flux density was ignored. Reduced set assumptions of Penman-Monteith were assessed usmg the microclimatic measurements. The grass reference evaporation estimate using estimated water vapour pressure from the pervious day minimum air temperature and approximated wind speed were found to be seasonal and procedure dependent. The hourly-reduced set estimate of reference evaporation was in good agreement with the grass Penman-Monteith estimate. The estimated daily water vapour pressure underestimated the daily grass Penman-Monteith estimate. The sensitivity of the reduced set reference evaporation estimate was compared for the two values of approximated wind speeds. The assumption of 2 m S-1 wind speed gave a relatively better result. The sensitivity of the surface temperature energy balance (STEB) estimate of reference evaporation was investigated using two different atmospheric stability procedures. The evaporation estimate agreement and performance of the technique were found to vary depending on the stability correction procedure. The Monteith (1973) correction procedure was observed to be more sensitive to a higher surface-air temperature difference. The Monteith (1973) procedure was found to underestimate the reference evaporation and this resulted in a lower correlation coefficient. The uncorrected and Campbell and Norman (1998) stability corrected procedure of STEB estimate overestimated the reference evaporation but resulted in good agreement with actual reference evaporation. The use of estimated available energy using the STEB method resulted in a 7 % overestimate of measured available energy. Different designs of atmometers have been used to measure evaporation. The less expensive and simple ET_gageR (Model A and E) atmometer for daily evaporation measures were compared to grass-based and alfalfa-based Penman-Monteith and STEB estimate of reference evaporation. Two different evaporation surface covers used with the device allowed for the comparison to be made. Measurements using the canvas 30 ET-gage cover for grass reference evaporation were compared to grass based Penman-Monteith and STEB reference evaporation estimates. Correlation between the canvas 30 measures and Penman-Monteith estimates were good compared to the STEB estimate. The ET-gage canvas 54 measures were in a good agreement with alfalfa based Penman-Monteith reference evaporation estimate. There was, however, a slight time lag in ET-gage evaporation with ET-gage evaporation continuing accumulation when the reference evaporation was zero. The sensitivity of the ET-gage for microclimate variation was tested using the measurements made for two levels and three different microclimates. A shade measurement of reference evaporation was overestimated. The response of the ET-gage to one and two meter microclimate measures was similar to the short grass measurement. Furthermore, the ET-gage surface evaporation estimate using the STEB method showed equal response to the ET-gage surface for the microclimate measure and explained the possible cause of the lag of the ET-gage response. Accurate microclimate measurements is a requirement for the performance of the PenmanMonteith approach for the estimation of reference evaporation. The investment cost required for an AWS set up is high. Alternative options for gathering information of the microc1imate measurements required for calculating reference evaporation were assessed in terms of cost saving, accuracy and other advantages. A weather station system using a Hobo H8 logger (internal relative humidity and air temperature sensor and two external channels, one which was used for solar irradiance measurements) was found to be a cost-effective method for calculating the necessary microclimatic information for calculating reference evaporation. With this system reference evaporation was estimated with reasonable accuracy, at 16 % of the cost of normal AWS system. The use of an Event Hobo logger and an ET-gage was found to provide a reasonable estimate of reference evaporation. The use of the reduced set evaporation weather station was found to be unreasonable in terms of cost and accuracy. Air temperature and relative humidity were measured from different design of radiation shields and Stevenson screens. The use of home-made seven-plate plastic radiation shields provided a similar shield to radiation and ventilation compared to manufactured shields. At a low solar angle when wind speed was very low, all the radiation shields including the small Stevenson screens showed a higher air temperature difference relative to the standard Stevenson screen. The highest average difference of air temperature measurement was measured within the small Stevenson screen and metal-radiation shield. The home-made plastic radiation shield showed similar averages of air temperature and water vapour pressure difference compared to the six- and twelve-plate Gill radiation shields. The home-made metal radiation shield showed relatively higher deviation from the mean being cold at night time and hot during the day. More research is needed to explore the efficiency of the ET-gage evaporation from variety of microclimates to establish the cause of the overestimate under shade, to develop better relation of clear day net long wave irradiance and air temperature and the use of a wind speed sensor with Hobo H8 weather station system.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.