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Journal articles on the topic 'Evolution of mimicry'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 5 June 2025

Last updated: 15 July 2025

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1

Pfennig, David W., and David W. Kikuchi. "Competition and the evolution of imperfect mimicry." Current Zoology 58, no. 4 (2012): 608–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/58.4.608.

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Abstract Mimicry is widely used to exemplify natural selection’s power in promoting adaptation. Nonetheless, it has become increasingly clear that mimicry is frequently imprecise. Indeed, the phenotypic match is often poor between mimics and models in many Batesian mimicry complexes and among co-mimics in many Müllerian mimicry complexes. Here, we consider whether such imperfect mimicry represents an evolutionary compromise between predator-mediated selection favoring mimetic convergence on the one hand and competitively mediated selection favoring divergence on the other hand. Specifically, for mimicry to be effective, mimics and their models/co-mimics should occur together. Yet, co-occurring species that are phenotypically similar often compete for resources, successful reproduction, or both. As an adaptive response to minimize such costly interactions, interacting species may diverge phenotypically through an evolutionary process known as character displacement. Such divergence between mimics and their models/co-mimics may thereby result in imperfect mimicry. We review the various ways in which character displacement could promote imprecise mimicry, describe the conditions under which this process may be especially likely to produce imperfect mimicry, examine a possible case study, and discuss avenues for future research. Generally, character displacement may play an underappreciated role in fostering inexact mimicry.

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2

Franks, Daniel W., and Jason Noble. "Batesian mimics influence mimicry ring evolution." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 271, no. 1535 (2004): 191–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2003.2582.

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3

Finkbeiner, Susan D., Patricio A. Salazar, Sofía Nogales, et al. "Frequency dependence shapes the adaptive landscape of imperfect Batesian mimicry." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1876 (2018): 20172786. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2786.

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Despite more than a century of biological research on the evolution and maintenance of mimetic signals, the relative frequencies of models and mimics necessary to establish and maintain Batesian mimicry in natural populations remain understudied. Here we investigate the frequency-dependent dynamics of imperfect Batesian mimicry, using predation experiments involving artificial butterfly models. We use two geographically distinct populations of Adelpha butterflies that vary in their relative frequencies of a putatively defended model ( Adelpha iphiclus ) and Batesian mimic ( Adelpha serpa ). We found that in Costa Rica, where both species share similar abundances, Batesian mimicry breaks down, and predators more readily attack artificial butterfly models of the presumed mimic, A. serpa . By contrast, in Ecuador, where A. iphiclus (model) is significantly more abundant than A. serpa (mimic), both species are equally protected from predation. Our results provide compelling experimental evidence that imperfect Batesian mimicry is frequency-dependent on the relative abundance of models and mimics in natural populations, and contribute to the growing body of evidence that complex dynamics, such as seasonality or the availability of alternative prey, influence the evolution of mimetic traits.

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4

Akcali, Christopher K., and David W. Pfennig. "Rapid evolution of mimicry following local model extinction." Biology Letters 10, no. 6 (2014): 20140304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0304.

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Batesian mimicry evolves when individuals of a palatable species gain the selective advantage of reduced predation because they resemble a toxic species that predators avoid. Here, we evaluated whether—and in which direction—Batesian mimicry has evolved in a natural population of mimics following extirpation of their model. We specifically asked whether the precision of coral snake mimicry has evolved among kingsnakes from a region where coral snakes recently (1960) went locally extinct. We found that these kingsnakes have evolved more precise mimicry; by contrast, no such change occurred in a sympatric non-mimetic species or in conspecifics from a region where coral snakes remain abundant. Presumably, more precise mimicry has continued to evolve after model extirpation, because relatively few predator generations have passed, and the fitness costs incurred by predators that mistook a deadly coral snake for a kingsnake were historically much greater than those incurred by predators that mistook a kingsnake for a coral snake. Indeed, these results are consistent with prior theoretical and empirical studies, which revealed that only the most precise mimics are favoured as their model becomes increasingly rare. Thus, highly noxious models can generate an ‘evolutionary momentum’ that drives the further evolution of more precise mimicry—even after models go extinct.

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5

Jønsson, Knud Andreas, Kaspar Delhey, George Sangster, Per G. P. Ericson, and Martin Irestedt. "The evolution of mimicry of friarbirds by orioles (Aves: Passeriformes) in Australo-Pacific archipelagos." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 283, no. 1833 (2016): 20160409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0409.

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Observations by Alfred Wallace and Jared Diamond of plumage similarities between co-occurring orioles ( Oriolus ) and friarbirds ( Philemon ) in the Malay archipelago led them to conclude that the former represent visual mimics of the latter. Here, we use molecular phylogenies and plumage reflectance measurements to test several key predictions of the mimicry hypothesis. We show that friarbirds originated before brown orioles, that the two groups did not co-speciate, although there is one plausible instance of co-speciation among species on the neighbouring Moluccan islands of Buru and Seram. Furthermore, we show that greater size disparity between model and mimic and a longer history of co-occurrence have resulted in a stronger plumage similarity (mimicry). This suggests that resemblance between orioles and friarbirds represents mimicry and that colonization of islands by brown orioles has been facilitated by their ability to mimic the aggressive friarbirds.

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6

Lehtonen, Jussi, and Michael R. Whitehead. "Sexual deception: Coevolution or inescapable exploitation?" Current Zoology 60, no. 1 (2014): 52–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/60.1.52.

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Abstract Sexual deception involves the mimicry of another species’ sexual signals in order to exploit behavioural routines linked to those signals. Known sexually deceptive systems use visual, acoustic or olfactory mimicry to exploit insects for prédation, cleptoparasitism and pollination. It is predicted that where sexual deception inflicts a cost on the receiver, a coevolutìonary arms race could result in the evolution of discriminating receivers and increasingly refined mimicry. We constructed a conceptual model to understand the importance of trade-offs in the coevolution of sexually deceptive mimic and receiver. Four components examined were: the cost of mimicry, the cost to receiver for being fooled, the density of mimics and the relative magnitude of a mimicry-independent component of fitness. The model predicts that the exploitation of non-discriminating receivers by accurate signal mimicry will evolve as an evolutionary stable strategy under a wide range of the parameter space explored. This is due to the difficulty in minimising the costs of being fooled without incurring the cost of falsely rejecting real mating opportunities. In the model, the evolution of deception is impeded when mimicry imposes substantial costs for both sides of the arms race. Olfactory signals that are potentially cheap to produce are therefore likely to be more vulnerable to exploitation than expensive visual ornaments.

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7

Pinheiro, Carlos E. G. "Asynchrony in daily activity patterns of butterfly models and mimics." Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, no. 1 (2007): 119–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467406003749.

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Bates' theory of mimicry (Bates 1862) postulates that vertebrate predators avoid attacks on chemically defended butterflies, and a profitable species, usually referred to as the mimic, can obtain protection by resembling one or more unpalatable models. The evolution of Batesian mimicry requires that predators meet, taste and learn to avoid the models before meeting the mimics. For this reason, some authors have adopted the assumption that mimic population sizes must be smaller than the models' populations (Fisher 1930, Huheey 1980, Lindström et al. 1997).

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8

HOLMGREN, NOÉL M. A., and MAGNUS ENQUIST. "Dynamics of mimicry evolution." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 66, no. 2 (1999): 145–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01880.x.

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9

Shamble, Paul S., Ron R. Hoy, Itai Cohen, and Tsevi Beatus. "Walking like an ant: a quantitative and experimental approach to understanding locomotor mimicry in the jumping spider Myrmarachne formicaria." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1858 (2017): 20170308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0308.

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Protective mimicry, in which a palatable species avoids predation by being mistaken for an unpalatable model, is a remarkable example of adaptive evolution. These complex interactions between mimics, models and predators can explain similarities between organisms beyond the often-mechanistic constraints typically invoked in studies of convergent evolution. However, quantitative studies of protective mimicry typically focus on static traits (e.g. colour and shape) rather than on dynamic traits like locomotion. Here, we use high-speed cameras and behavioural experiments to investigate the role of locomotor behaviour in mimicry by the ant-mimicking jumping spider Myrmarachne formicaria , comparing its movement to that of ants and non-mimicking spiders. Contrary to previous suggestions, we find mimics walk using all eight legs, raising their forelegs like ant antennae only when stationary. Mimics exhibited winding trajectories (typical wavelength = 5–10 body lengths), which resemble the winding patterns of ants specifically engaged in pheromone-trail following, although mimics walked on chemically inert surfaces. Mimics also make characteristically short (approx. 100 ms) pauses. Our analysis suggests that this makes mimics appear ant-like to observers with slow visual systems. Finally, behavioural experiments with predatory spiders yield results consistent with the protective mimicry hypothesis. These findings highlight the importance of dynamic behaviours and observer perception in mimicry.

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10

Matschiner, Michael, and Walter Salzburger. "Evolution: Genomic Signatures of Mimicry and Mimicry of Genomic Signatures." Current Biology 29, no. 10 (2019): R363—R365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.015.

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11

Sherratt, T. N. "The evolution of imperfect mimicry." Behavioral Ecology 13, no. 6 (2002): 821–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/beheco/13.6.821.

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12

Franks, Daniel W., and Thomas N. Sherratt. "The evolution of multicomponent mimicry." Journal of Theoretical Biology 244, no. 4 (2007): 631–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.09.019.

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13

Mallet, James, Chris D. Jiggins, and W. Owen McMillan. "Evolution: Mimicry meets the mitochondrion." Current Biology 6, no. 8 (1996): 937–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0960-9822(02)00631-0.

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14

Mallet, James. "New genomes clarify mimicry evolution." Nature Genetics 47, no. 4 (2015): 306–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng.3260.

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15

Sherratt, Thomas N. "The evolution of Müllerian mimicry." Naturwissenschaften 95, no. 8 (2008): 681–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00114-008-0403-y.

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16

Hlaváček, Antonín, Klára Daňková, Daniel Benda, Petr Bogusch, and Jiří Hadrava. "Batesian-Müllerian mimicry ring around the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis)." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 92 (August 31, 2022): 211–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/jhr.92.81380.

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Mimicry is usually understood to be an adaptive resemblance between phylogenetically distant groups of species. In this study, we focus on Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, which are often viewed as a continuum rather than distinct phenomena, forming so-called Batesian-Müllerian mimicry rings. Despite potent defence and wide environmental niche of hornets, little attention has been paid to them as potential models in mimicry research. We propose a Batesian-Müllerian mimicry ring of the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis, Hymenoptera: Vespidae) consisting of eight species that coexist in the Mediterranean region. To reveal general ecological patterns, we reviewed their geographical distribution, phenology, and natural history. In accordance with the ‘model-first’ theory, Batesian mimics of this ring occurred later during a season than the Müllerian mimics. In the case of Batesian mimic Volucella zonaria (Diptera: Syrphidae), we presume that temperature-driven range expansion could lead to allopatry with its model, and, potentially, less accurate resemblance to an alternative model, the European hornet (Vespa crabro: Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Colour morphs of polymorphic species Cryptocheilus alternatus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), Delta unguiculatum (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), Rhynchium oculatum (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), and Scolia erythrocephala (Hymenoptera: Scoliidae) appear to display distinct geographical distribution patterns, and this is possibly driven by sympatry with alternative models from the European hornet (Vespa crabro) complex. General coevolution patterns of models and mimics in heterogenous and temporally dynamic environments are discussed, based on observations of the proposed Oriental hornet mimicry ring.

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17

Vereecken, N. J., and F. P. Schiestl. "The evolution of imperfect floral mimicry." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 21 (2008): 7484–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0800194105.

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18

Taylor, Martin I. "Evolution: Fangtastic Venoms Underpin Parasitic Mimicry." Current Biology 27, no. 8 (2017): R295—R298. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.03.037.

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19

Cuthill, Innes C. "Evolution: The Mystery of Imperfect Mimicry." Current Biology 24, no. 9 (2014): R364—R366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.04.006.

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20

Holen and Johnstone. "The Evolution of Mimicry under Constraints." American Naturalist 164, no. 5 (2004): 598. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3473171.

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21

Holen, Øistein Haugsten, and Rufus A. Johnstone. "The Evolution of Mimicry under Constraints." American Naturalist 164, no. 5 (2004): 598–613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/424972.

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22

Kikuchi, David W., and David W. Pfennig. "High-model abundance may permit the gradual evolution of Batesian mimicry: an experimental test." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277, no. 1684 (2009): 1041–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.2000.

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In Batesian mimicry, a harmless species (the ‘mimic’) resembles a dangerous species (the ‘model’) and is thus protected from predators. It is often assumed that the mimetic phenotype evolves from a cryptic phenotype, but it is unclear how a population can transition through intermediate phenotypes; such intermediates may receive neither the benefits of crypsis nor mimicry. Here, we ask if selection against intermediates weakens with increasing model abundance. We also ask if mimicry has evolved from cryptic phenotypes in a mimetic clade. We first present an ancestral character-state reconstruction showing that mimicry of a coral snake ( Micrurus fulvius ) by the scarlet kingsnake ( Lampropeltis elapsoides ) evolved from a cryptic phenotype. We then evaluate predation rates on intermediate phenotypes relative to cryptic and mimetic phenotypes under conditions of both high- and low-model abundances. Our results indicate that where coral snakes are rare, intermediate phenotypes are attacked more often than cryptic and mimetic phenotypes, indicating the presence of an adaptive valley. However, where coral snakes are abundant, intermediate phenotypes are not attacked more frequently, resulting in an adaptive landscape without a valley. Thus, high-model abundance may facilitate the evolution of Batesian mimicry.

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23

Holmgren, Noél M. A., Niclas Norrström, and Wayne M. Getz. "Artificial neural networks in models of specialization, guild evolution and sympatric speciation." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 362, no. 1479 (2007): 431–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1970.

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Sympatric speciation can arise as a result of disruptive selection with assortative mating as a pleiotropic by-product. Studies on host choice, employing artificial neural networks as models for the host recognition system in exploiters, illustrate how disruptive selection on host choice coupled with assortative mating can arise as a consequence of selection for specialization. Our studies demonstrate that a generalist exploiter population can evolve into a guild of specialists with an ‘ideal free’ frequency distribution across hosts. The ideal free distribution arises from variability in host suitability and density-dependent exploiter fitness on different host species. Specialists are less subject to inter-phenotypic competition than generalists and to harmful mutations that are common in generalists exploiting multiple hosts. When host signals used as cues by exploiters coevolve with exploiter recognition systems, our studies show that evolutionary changes may be continuous and cyclic. Selection changes back and forth between specialization and generalization in the exploiters, and weak and strong mimicry in the hosts, where non-defended hosts use the host investing in defence as a model. Thus, host signals and exploiter responses are engaged in a red-queen mimicry process that is ultimately cyclic rather then directional. In one phase, evolving signals of exploitable hosts mimic those of hosts less suitable for exploitation (i.e. the model). Signals in the model hosts also evolve through selection to escape the mimic and its exploiters. Response saturation constraints in the model hosts lead to the mimic hosts finally perfecting its mimicry, after which specialization in the exploiter guild is lost. This loss of exploiter specialization provides an opportunity for the model hosts to escape their mimics. Therefore, this cycle then repeats. We suggest that a species can readily evolve sympatrically when disruptive selection for specialization on hosts is the first step. In a sexual reproduction setting, partial reproductive isolation may first evolve by mate choice being confined to individuals on the same host. Secondly, this disruptive selection will favour assortative mate choice on genotype, thereby leading to increased reproductive isolation.

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24

Loeffler-Henry, Karl, and Thomas N. Sherratt. "A case for mutualistic deceptive mimicry." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 133, no. 3 (2021): 853–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa219.

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Abstract It has long been understood that species that are profitable for predators to attack can gain protection if they resemble unprofitable species (Batesian mimicry), and that unprofitable species may face selection to evolve a common warning signal (Müllerian mimicry). Here we suggest that there may be widespread selection for another form of protective mimicry, so far unrecognized, that can arise even among profitable prey. Specifically, when predators adopt species-specific attack strategies, then co-occurring prey species that are caught in different ways may be selected to resemble one another. This is because the mimicry may increase the chance that the predator deploys an inappropriate attack strategy, thereby increasing the probability the prey will escape. We refer to this phenomenon as “mutualistic deceptive mimicry”, since the mimicry misleads the predator yet potentially benefits all co-mimics. We show that this hypothesis is quantitatively plausible. We then provide an empirical ‘proof of concept’ demonstrating that predators can learn to attack distinct prey types in specific ways and that this behaviour readily generates selection for mimicry. Finally, we discuss how this unrecognized form of mimicry fits into an earlier classification of protective mimicry and suggest a number of potential examples in the natural world.

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25

Stoddard, Mary Caswell. "Mimicry and masquerade from the avian visual perspective." Current Zoology 58, no. 4 (2012): 630–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/58.4.630.

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Abstract Several of the most celebrated examples of visual mimicry, like mimetic eggs laid by avian brood parasites and palatable insects mimicking distasteful ones, involve signals directed at the eyes of birds. Despite this, studies of mimicry from the avian visual perspective have been rare, particularly with regard to defensive mimicry and masquerade. Defensive visual mimicry, which includes Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, occurs when organisms share a visual signal that functions to deter predators. Masquerade occurs when an organism mimics an inedible or uninteresting object, such as a leaf, stick, or pebble. In this paper, I present five case studies covering diverse examples of defensive mimicry and masquerade as seen by birds. The best-known cases of defensive visual mimicry typically come from insect prey, but birds themselves can exhibit defensive visual mimicry in an attempt to escape mobbing or dissuade avian predators. Using examples of defensive visual mimicry by both insects and birds, I show how quantitative models of avian color, luminance, and pattern vision can be used to enhance our understanding of mimicry in many systems and produce new hypotheses about the evolution and diversity of signals. Overall, I investigate examples of Batesian mimicry (1 and 2), Müllerian mimicry (3 and 4), and masquerade (5) as follows: 1) Polymorphic mimicry in African mocker swallowtail butterflies; 2) Cuckoos mimicking sparrowhawks; 3) Mimicry rings in Neotropical butterflies; 4) Plumage mimicry in toxic pitohuis; and 5) Dead leaf-mimicking butterflies and mantids.

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26

Hlaváček, Antonín, Klára Daňková, Daniel Benda, Petr Bogusch, and Jiří Hadrava. "Batesian-Müllerian mimicry ring around the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis)." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 92 (August 31, 2022): 211–28. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.92.81380.

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Mimicry is usually understood to be an adaptive resemblance between phylogenetically distant groups of species. In this study, we focus on Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, which are often viewed as a continuum rather than distinct phenomena, forming so-called Batesian-Müllerian mimicry rings. Despite potent defence and wide environmental niche of hornets, little attention has been paid to them as potential models in mimicry research. We propose a Batesian-Müllerian mimicry ring of the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis, Hymenoptera: Vespidae) consisting of eight species that coexist in the Mediterranean region. To reveal general ecological patterns, we reviewed their geographical distribution, phenology, and natural history. In accordance with the 'model-first' theory, Batesian mimics of this ring occurred later during a season than the Müllerian mimics. In the case of Batesian mimic Volucella zonaria (Diptera: Syrphidae), we presume that temperature-driven range expansion could lead to allopatry with its model, and, potentially, less accurate resemblance to an alternative model, the European hornet (Vespa crabro: Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Colour morphs of polymorphic species Cryptocheilus alternatus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), Delta unguiculatum (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), Rhynchium oculatum (Hymenoptera: Vespidae), and Scolia erythrocephala (Hymenoptera: Scoliidae) appear to display distinct geographical distribution patterns, and this is possibly driven by sympatry with alternative models from the European hornet (Vespa crabro) complex. General coevolution patterns of models and mimics in heterogenous and temporally dynamic environments are discussed, based on observations of the proposed Oriental hornet mimicry ring.

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27

Nijhout, H. Frederik. "Developmental Perspectives on Evolution of Butterfly Mimicry." BioScience 44, no. 3 (1994): 148–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1312251.

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28

Mallet, J. "Mimicry: An interface between psychology and evolution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 16 (2001): 8928–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.171326298.

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29

Gamberale-Stille, Gabriella, Alexandra C. V. Balogh, Birgitta S. Tullberg, and Olof Leimar. "FEATURE SALTATION AND THE EVOLUTION OF MIMICRY." Evolution 66, no. 3 (2011): 807–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01482.x.

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30

Prusa, Louis A., and Ryan I. Hill. "Umbrella of protection: spatial and temporal dynamics in a temperate butterfly Batesian mimicry system." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 133, no. 3 (2021): 685–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blab004.

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Abstract Batesian mimicry involves both spatial and temporal interactions between model, mimic and predator. Fundamental predictions in Batesian mimicry involve space, time and abundance; specifically, that the model and mimic are found in sympatry and that protection for the mimic is increased when predators interact with the model first and more frequently. Research has generally confirmed these predictions for Batesian mimicry at large spatial scales, with recent work on two nymphalid butterflies in western North America, the mimic Limenitis lorquini (Boisduval, 1852) and its model Adelpha californica (Butler, 1865) in western North America indicating that the mimic generally has lower abundance and emerges later in the season among widely separated populations in the California Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada. However, no studies have investigated model–mimic dynamics at small scales in the temperate zone to test whether temporal habitat use and movements conform to predictions. If mimicry is as important a part of the biology of these temperate species as it is for their tropical counterparts, then in addition to emerging later and being less abundant overall, the mimic should be less widespread, should be less abundant in each habitat and should move less among available habitats. Our results using mark–release–recapture methods confirm these predictions and indicate that the mimic, L. lorquini, is enjoying an umbrella of protection against habitat specialist and generalist predators alike.

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31

Winters, Anne E., Nerida G. Wilson, Cedric P. van den Berg, et al. "Toxicity and taste: unequal chemical defences in a mimicry ring." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1880 (2018): 20180457. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0457.

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Mimicry of warning signals is common, and can be mutualistic when mimetic species harbour equal levels of defence (Müllerian), or parasitic when mimics are undefended but still gain protection from their resemblance to the model (Batesian). However, whether chemically defended mimics should be similar in terms of toxicity (i.e. causing damage to the consumer) and/or unpalatability (i.e. distasteful to consumer) is unclear and in many studies remains undifferentiated. In this study, we investigated the evolution of visual signals and chemical defences in a putative mimicry ring of nudibranch molluscs. First, we demonstrated that the appearance of a group of red spotted nudibranchs molluscs was similar from the perspective of potential fish predators using visual modelling and pattern analysis. Second, using phylogenetic reconstruction, we demonstrated that this colour pattern has evolved multiple times in distantly related individuals. Third, we showed that these nudibranchs contained different chemical profiles used for defensive purposes. Finally, we demonstrated that although levels of distastefulness towards Palaemon shrimp remained relatively constant between species, toxicity levels towards brine shrimp varied significantly. We highlight the need to disentangle toxicity and taste when considering chemical defences in aposematic and mimetic species, and discuss the implications for aposematic and mimicry signal evolution.

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32

Balgooyen, T. G. "Evasive Mimicry Involving a Butterfly Model and Grasshopper Mimic." American Midland Naturalist 137, no. 1 (1997): 183. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2426768.

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33

Wickler, Wolfgang. "Understanding Mimicry - with Special Reference to Vocal Mimicry." Ethology 119, no. 4 (2013): 259–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eth.12061.

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34

Langmore, Naomi E., Martin Stevens, Golo Maurer, et al. "Visual mimicry of host nestlings by cuckoos." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278, no. 1717 (2011): 2455–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2391.

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Coevolution between antagonistic species has produced instances of exquisite mimicry. Among brood-parasitic cuckoos, host defences have driven the evolution of mimetic eggs, but the evolutionary arms race was believed to be constrained from progressing to the chick stage, with cuckoo nestlings generally looking unlike host young. However, recent studies on bronze-cuckoos have confounded theoretical expectations by demonstrating cuckoo nestling rejection by hosts. Coevolutionary theory predicts reciprocal selection for visual mimicry of host young by cuckoos, although this has not been demonstrated previously. Here we show that, in the eyes of hosts, nestlings of three bronze-cuckoo species are striking visual mimics of the young of their morphologically diverse hosts, providing the first evidence that coevolution can select for visual mimicry of hosts in cuckoo chicks. Bronze-cuckoos resemble their own hosts more closely than other host species, but the accuracy of mimicry varies according to the diversity of hosts they exploit.

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35

Grim, Tomáš. "Perspectives and Debates: Mimicry, Signalling and Co-Evolution (Commentary on Wolfgang Wickler - Understanding Mimicry - With special reference to vocal mimicry)." Ethology 119, no. 4 (2013): 270–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eth.12067.

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VanKuren, Nicholas W., Darli Massardo, Sumitha Nallu, and Marcus R. Kronforst. "Butterfly Mimicry Polymorphisms Highlight Phylogenetic Limits of Gene Reuse in the Evolution of Diverse Adaptations." Molecular Biology and Evolution 36, no. 12 (2019): 2842–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msz194.

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Abstract Some genes have repeatedly been found to control diverse adaptations in a wide variety of organisms. Such gene reuse reveals not only the diversity of phenotypes these unique genes control but also the composition of developmental gene networks and the genetic routes available to and taken by organisms during adaptation. However, the causes of gene reuse remain unclear. A small number of large-effect Mendelian loci control a huge diversity of mimetic butterfly wing color patterns, but reasons for their reuse are difficult to identify because the genetic basis of mimicry has primarily been studied in two systems with correlated factors: female-limited Batesian mimicry in Papilio swallowtails (Papilionidae) and non-sex-limited Müllerian mimicry in Heliconius longwings (Nymphalidae). Here, we break the correlation between phylogenetic relationship and sex-limited mimicry by identifying loci controlling female-limited mimicry polymorphism Hypolimnas misippus (Nymphalidae) and non-sex-limited mimicry polymorphism in Papilio clytia (Papilionidae). The Papilio clytia polymorphism is controlled by the genome region containing the gene cortex, the classic P supergene in Heliconius numata, and loci controlling color pattern variation across Lepidoptera. In contrast, female-limited mimicry polymorphism in Hypolimnas misippus is associated with a locus not previously implicated in color patterning. Thus, although many species repeatedly converged on cortex and its neighboring genes over 120 My of evolution of diverse color patterns, female-limited mimicry polymorphisms each evolved using a different gene. Our results support conclusions that gene reuse occurs mainly within ∼10 My and highlight the puzzling diversity of genes controlling seemingly complex female-limited mimicry polymorphisms.

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Holen and Johnstone. "Context-Dependent Discrimination and the Evolution of Mimicry." American Naturalist 167, no. 3 (2006): 377. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3844760.

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Holen, Øistein Haugsten, and Rufus A. Johnstone. "Context‐Dependent Discrimination and the Evolution of Mimicry." American Naturalist 167, no. 3 (2006): 377–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/499567.

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Llaurens, V., M. Joron, and S. Billiard. "Molecular mechanisms of dominance evolution in Müllerian mimicry." Evolution 69, no. 12 (2015): 3097–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evo.12810.

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Beatty, Christopher D., Kirsten Beirinckx, and Thomas N. Sherratt. "The evolution of müllerian mimicry in multispecies communities." Nature 431, no. 7004 (2004): 63–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02818.

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Booker, Tom, Rob W. Ness, and Deborah Charlesworth. "Molecular Evolution: Breakthroughs and Mysteries in Batesian Mimicry." Current Biology 25, no. 12 (2015): R506—R508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.04.024.

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THOROGOOD, Rose, and Nicholas B. DAVIES. "Hawk mimicry and the evolution of polymorphic cuckoos." Chinese Birds 4, no. 1 (2013): 39–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5122/cbirds.2013.0002.

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Mastellos, Dimitrios, Dimitrios Morikis, Stuart N. Isaacs, M. Claire Holland, Cristoph W. Strey, and John D. Lambris. "Complement: Structure, Functions, Evolution, and Viral Molecular Mimicry." Immunologic Research 27, no. 2-3 (2003): 367–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1385/ir:27:2-3:367.

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Maran, Timo. "Mimicry: Towards a semiotic understanding of nature." Sign Systems Studies 29, no. 1 (2001): 325–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/sss.2001.29.1.20.

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Mimicry has been an important topic for biology since the rise of the Darwinian theory of evolution. However. by its very narure mimicry is a sign process and the quest for understanding mimicry in biology has intrinsically always been a semiotic quest. In this paper various theories since Henry W. Bates will be examined to show how the concept of mimicry has been shifted from perceptual resemblance to a particular communicative structure. A concept of mimicry will then be formulated which emphasizes its dynamic properties, and finally, mimicry will be considered in the framework of ecosemiotics.

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Coleman, Seth William, Gail Lisa Patricelli, Brian Coyle, Jennifer Siani, and Gerald Borgia. "Female preferences drive the evolution of mimetic accuracy in male sexual displays." Biology Letters 3, no. 5 (2007): 463–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0234.

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Males in many bird species mimic the vocalizations of other species during sexual displays, but the evolutionary and functional significance of interspecific vocal mimicry is unclear. Here we use spectrographic cross-correlation to compare mimetic calls produced by male satin bowerbirds ( Ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) in courtship with calls from several model species. We show that the accuracy of vocal mimicry and the number of model species mimicked are both independently related to male mating success. Multivariate analyses revealed that these mimetic traits were better predictors of male mating success than other male display traits previously shown to be important for male mating success. We suggest that preference-driven mimetic accuracy may be a widespread occurrence, and that mimetic accuracy may provide females with important information about male quality. Our findings support an alternative hypothesis to help explain a common element of male sexual displays.

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Halbritter, Dale, Johnalyn Gordon, Kandy Keacher, Michael Avery, and Jaret Daniels. "Evaluating an Alleged Mimic of the Monarch Butterfly: Neophasia (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) Butterflies are Palatable to Avian Predators." Insects 9, no. 4 (2018): 150. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects9040150.

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Some taxa have adopted the strategy of mimicry to protect themselves from predation. Butterflies are some of the best representatives used to study mimicry, with the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) a well-known model. We are the first to empirically investigate a proposed mimic of the monarch butterfly: Neophasia terlooii, the Mexican pine white butterfly (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). We used captive birds to assess the palatability of N. terlooii and its sister species, N. menapia, to determine the mimicry category that would best fit this system. The birds readily consumed both species of Neophasia and a palatable control species but refused to eat unpalatable butterflies such as D. plexippus and Heliconius charithonia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Given some evidence for mild unpalatability of Neophasia, we discuss the results considering modifications to classic mimicry theory, i.e., a palatability-based continuum between Batesian and Müllerian mimicry, with a quasi-Batesian intermediate. Understanding the ecology of Neophasia in light of contemporary and historical sympatry with D. plexippus could shed light on the biogeography of, evolution of, and predation pressure on the monarch butterfly, whose migration event has become a conservation priority.

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Chouteau, Mathieu, Kyle Summers, Victor Morales, and Bernard Angers. "Advergence in Müllerian mimicry: the case of the poison dart frogs of Northern Peru revisited." Biology Letters 7, no. 5 (2011): 796–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0039.

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Whether the evolution of similar aposematic signals in different unpalatable species (i.e. Müllerian mimicry) is because of phenotypic convergence or advergence continues to puzzle scientists. The poison dart frog Ranitomeya imitator provides a rare example in support of the hypothesis of advergence: this species was believed to mimic numerous distinct model species because of high phenotypic variability and low genetic divergence among populations. In this study, we test the evidence in support of advergence using a population genetic framework in two localities where R. imitator is sympatric with different model species, Ranitomeya ventrimaculata and Ranitomeya variabilis . Genetic analyses revealed incomplete sorting of mitochondrial haplotypes between the two model species. These two species are also less genetically differentiated than R. imitator populations on the basis of both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA comparisons. The genetic similarity between the model species suggests that they have either diverged more recently than R. imitator populations or that they are still connected by gene flow and were misidentified as different species. An analysis of phenotypic variability indicates that the model species are as variable as R. imitator . These results do not support the hypothesis of advergence by R. imitator . Although we cannot rule out phenotypic advergence in the evolution of Müllerian mimicry, this study reopens the discussion regarding the direction of the evolution of mimicry in the R. imitator system.

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Mallet, James. "Is Mimicry theory unpalatable?" Trends in Ecology & Evolution 5, no. 10 (1990): 344–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(90)90184-f.

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Prum, Richard O., and Larry Samuelson. "Mimicry Cycles, Traps, and Chains: The Coevolution of Toucan and Kiskadee Mimicry." American Naturalist 187, no. 6 (2016): 753–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/686093.

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SPEED, MICHAEL P., and JOHN R. G. TURNER. "Learning and memory in mimicry: II. Do we understand the mimicry spectrum?" Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 67, no. 3 (1999): 281–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01935.x.

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