Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Evolutionary Psychology'

This dissertation examines the academic debate that surrounds the new field called "Evolutionary Psychology." Evolutionary psychology has emerged as the most popular successor theory to human sociobiology. Its proponents search for evolved psychological mechanisms and emphasize universal features of the human mind. My thesis is that in order to flourish evolutionary psychologists must engage other researchers on equal terms -- something they have not been doing. To show this, I examine the stances of practitioners from three other social science fields whose claims have been shortchanged by evolutionary psychology: Barbara King in biological anthropology, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in empirical linguistics and Annette Karmiloff-Smith in developmental psychology. These researchers are also involved in cognitive science investigations that bear on evolutionary psychology's key claims about the mind and how it works. Evolutionary psychologists make three key claims about the mind. The first (1) is that the mind is massively modular; the second (2) is that this massively modular mind has been shaped by the processes of natural selection over evolutionary time; and the third (3) is that it is adapted to the Pleistocene conditions of our past. Evolutionary psychologists seek to elevate these three claims to the status of meta-theoretical assumptions making them the starting place from which our deliberations about human cognition ought proceed. These claims would constitute the framework for a new paradigm in the ultimate sense. I argue that elevating these claims to such a status is not only premature, but also unwarranted on the available evidence. This result is justified by evidence produced outside evolutionary psychology by those disciplines from which evolutionary psychologists explicitly seek to distance themselves.
Ph. D.

Of all the research programmes in the evolutionary behavioural sciences, evolutionary psychology is unique in the scale and intensity of criticism it faces, from both philosophers and social scientists, forming a powerful impression that, no matter its purported benefits, evolutionary psychology is a discredited research programme, an outdated research programme, something one can legitimately dismiss. This thesis contends that those who dismiss evolutionary psychology wholesale fail to entitle themselves to that dismissal. I begin by championing a streamlined evolutionary psychology, one that navigates away from unnecessary controversy, one that better reflects the actual practice of evolutionary psychology on the ground, and one that doesn’t overshadow what’s valuable about the programme. After correcting several common misconceptions about evolutionary psychology, I arrive at the heart of what adaptationist hypothesizing can do for psychology: discovering new design features of extant psychological traits and discovering hitherto unknown psychological traits. I go through the logic of adaptationist reasoning in psychology. Inter alia, I argue that, although evolutionary psychology hypotheses might start off as ‘simple’, they can progressively become more complex, progressively mirroring the adaptations they’re targeting. Existing philosophy of science treatments of evolutionary psychology have given prominence to sceptical arguments, which means the positive presentation of evolutionary psychology has come rather short – something I seek to redress by demonstrating its potential for novel predictions across a wide spectrum of phenomena. It’s reasonable to demand greater evidence for evolutionary psychology explanations but it’s wrong to demand that evolutionary psychology alone satisfy such demands – these demands are properly allocated to the evolutionary and behavioural sciences collectively. With its legitimate and reasonable role in the evolutionary behavioural sciences correctly identified, evolutionary psychology merits serious consideration – contrary to the prevailing pessimism concerning its credibility.

Evolutionäre Herangehensweisen hatten in der Persönlichkeitspsychologie nicht den gleichen Erfolg wie in anderen Bereichen der Psychologie. In dieser Dissertation werden zwei alternative evolutionäre Herangehensweisen an die Persönlichkeitspsychologie diskutiert und angewendet. Die evolutionsgenetische Herangehensweise fragt, warum genetische Varianz in Persönlichkeitsunterschieden existiert. Im ersten Teil dieser Dissertation werden verschiedene evolutionsgenetische Mechanismen, die genetische Varianz erklären können, verglichen. Auf Grundlage evolutionsgenetischer Theorie und empirischen Befunden aus der Verhaltensgenetik und Persönlichkeitspsychologie wird geschlussfolgert, dass ein Mutations-Selektions-Gleichgewicht genetische Varianz in Intelligenz gut erklären kann, während ausgleichende Selektion durch Umweltheterogenität die plausibelste Erklärung für genetische Unterschiede in Persönlichkeitseigenschaften ist. Komplementär zur evolutionsgenetischen Herangehensweise beginnt die „Life History“-Herangehensweise damit, wie Menschen ihre Ressourcen in evolutionär relevante Lebensbereiche investieren. Im zweiten Teil der Dissertationsschrift wird diese Herangehensweise am Beispiel von Investitionsunterschieden in Langzeit- versus Kurzzeit-Paarungstaktiken (wie im Konstrukt der Soziosexualität abgebildet) erläutert. Zwei neue Maße zur Erfassung von Soziosexualitätskomponenten werden vorgestellt. Während das revidierte Soziosexuelle Orientierungsinventar (SOI-R) ein Fragebogen zur Erfassung der Facetten „Verhalten“, „Einstellung“ und „Begehren“ ist, wurde mit dem Single-Attribute Impliziten Assoziationstest (SA-IAT) eine neue Methode zur indirekten Erfassung impliziter Soziosexualität entwickelt. Beide Maße zeigten konkurrente Validität in Onlinestudien, aber nur der SOI-R erwies sich als prädiktiv für Paarungstaktiken, einschließlich beobachtetem Flirtverhalten sowie der Zahl der Sexualpartner und Veränderungen im Beziehungsstatus innerhalb der nächsten 12 Monate.
Evolutionary approaches have not been as successful in personality psychology as they were in other areas of psychology. In this thesis, two alternative evolutionary approaches to personality psychology are discussed and applied. The evolutionary genetic approach asks why genetic variance in personality differences exists. In the first part of this thesis, three evolutionary genetic mechanisms that could explain genetic variance in personality differences are assessed: selective neutrality, mutation-selection balance, and balancing selection. Based on evolutionary genetic theory and empirical results from behavior genetics and personality psychology, it is concluded that selective neutrality is largely irrelevant, that mutation-selection balance seems best at explaining genetic variance in intelligence, and that balancing selection by environmental heterogeneity seems best at explaining genetic variance in personality traits. Complementary to the evolutionary genetic approach, the life history approach starts with how people allocate their resources to evolutionarily relevant life tasks. In the second part of this thesis, differences in the allocation to long-term versus short-term mating tactics (as reflected in the construct of sociosexuality) are used as a case to exemplify this approach. Two new measures for the assessment of sociosexuality components are presented. While the revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R) is a questionnaire that assesses the facets Behavior, Attitude and Desire, the sociosexuality Single-Attribute Implicit Association Test (SA-IAT) is a new methodic development aimed to assess implicit sociosexuality indirectly. Both measures showed concurrent validity in online studies, but only the SOI-R facets were predictive of mating tactics, including observed flirting behavior, as well as for the number of sexual partners and changes in romantic relationship status over the following 12 months.

Evolutionary psychology has recently developed out of dissatisfaction with the Standard Social Science Model utilised by mainstream psychology. This model focuses on culture and reason as the underlying cause of human behaviour and proposes that the mind is a 'general purpose learning device' (Siegert & Ward, 2002). Here the mind is seen as a blank slate at birth, which is subsequently influenced by experience, environment and culture. Biological variables are minimised or ignored. However it seems that all human behaviour cannot fully be explained by the focus on nurture in the Standard Social Science Model; sexual jealousy, parental investment, and mating preferences are examples which are not fully explained by learning or environmental experience. On the other hand, evolutionary psychology, founded on the principles of cognitive science and evolutionary biology, argues that a person's nature is the primary cause of their behaviour, with the influences of nurture being of lesser importance. According to these principles, evolutionary psychology has been very successful in providing explanations, for example in the areas of human mate selection and parental investment. However evolutionary psychology has received criticism on a number of counts, including its supposed reductionism, and, its reliance on 'just so' stories which are untestable, hypothesised scenarios which look to the past in order to explain the evolution of human behavioural features. With the above mentioned matters as background, this thesis investigated whether evolutionary psychology offers a new paradigm for integrating psychology with science, and if so, how it accomplishes this. In investigating this, conceptions of science, psychology, and evolutionary theory, in particular evolutionary psychology, were examined. More specifically, issues addresses included why evolutionary psychology is dissatisfied with the SSSM, the notion of the mind as blank slate, the nature-nurture paradigm, and the mind as a general purpose learning device. Two aspects of evolutionary theory are described, natural and sexual selection, in terms of their importance to evolutionary psychology. The main arguments of evolutionary psychology as a discipline are outlined, looking at its aims, and the ways in which it combines the disciplines of evolutionary biology and cognitive psychology toward a new integrative model for studying human behaviour. A case study demonstrates how evolutionary psychology offers a useful explanation of mate selection. This thesis then turns to the philosophy of science, setting out the differences between Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos' theories, and focusing on the latter's theory as a model of scientific philosophy which could be useful for evolutionary psychology, including discussing how this could be best achieved. This thesis then sets out various criticisms of evolutionary psychology, including the critique of domain-specific modularity, the focus on the Pleistocene period as problematic, the over-reliance on natural selection, just-so stories, the reductionism of evolutionary psychology, and that it is politically conservative. This thesis concludes that the attempt of evolutionary psychology to combine cognitive science and evolutionary theory has been successful in showing how the integration of psychology into the sciences is not only possible but inevitable.

Sex differences in spatial ability, especially mental rotation, navigation and object-location memory are described in this essay. Biological differences in brain morphology, hormones and genes between men and women are presented as explanations for the sex differences. Another level of explanations offered are evolutionary, hence the most influential evolutionary psychological theories are summarized and evaluated. These theories are Gaulin’s and Fitzgerald’s male range theory, Silverman’s and Eals’s hunter-gatherer theory, and Ecuyer-Dab’s and Robert’s twofold selection theory. The hunter-gatherer theory at present seems to be of the most importance, though the twofold selection theory may in the future challenge it. Regardless, united biological and evolutionary explanations would create the best comprehensive theory.

This thesis takes an evolutionary perspective on human psychology. To the extent that inherited tendencies shape behaviour, their design will be fitted to the social environments prevailing as Homo sapiens evolved, in foraging groups, the nearest modem equivalent being hunter-gatherers. From ethnographies of hunter-gatherers, food-sharing and counterdominance were identified as universal. Food-sharing was more thorough than is explicable purely by kinship or reciprocation; one functional effect was to even out the supply of valuable high-variance food. In contrast with the social systems of the other great apes, counter-dominance spread influence widely, preventing the emergence of dominant individuals who could obtain resources disproportionately. Potential paths for the evolution of egalitarian tendencies are discussed. Two falsifiable hypotheses were generated from this perspective. First, sharing will facilitate risk-taking. The predicted effect was confirmed at high risk levels, similar to those faced by hunters. Given that during evolution risk was reduced primarily by social means, social as well as rational factors are treated by the evolved brain as relevant to risky decisions. It is argued that this result may suggest a new perspective on the Group Polarisation experiments. The second hypothesis tested was that an egalitarian environment will produce beneficial effects on individual and social behaviour. The data collected were consistent with the hypothesis: a comparison between three Italian towns showed that measures of health (including cardiovascular mortality), education, social involvement, crime and social perceptions were significantly more positive where co-operatives employed a larger percentage of the population. The evolutionary perspective showed its value as a means of generating novel testable hypotheses.

The biologist E.O. Wilson suggested that spirituality can be understood as “just one more Darwinian enabling device”. In opposing this reductionism, the current enquiry develops a model of a relationship between spirituality and evolutionary theory which offers an understanding of spirituality based on evolutionary theory without reducing the former to the latter. For the purposes of this enquiry, “spirituality” is taken to entail an awareness of and response both to a transcendent dimension to human existence, and to the ethical dimension. Its universality is suggested by the ubiquity of religion in human history and prehistory, although in contemporary Western society spirit¬uality is no longer the prerogative of the specific canonical religions. From a theological perspective, an understanding of the universality of spirituality despite the diversity of religious traditions is provided by the approach of religious pluralism. The model also draws on Alvin Plantinga’s model of our being endowed with a sensus divinitatis, but modifies it in two ways: i) rather than our having an inbuilt sense of the divine as God, the current enquiry proposes that we have an inbuilt sense of the transcendent (termed the sensus transcendentis); ii) this sensus transcendentis is a product of evolutionary processes. The discipline of evolutionary psychology holds that the human mind is best understood as a suite of “mental modules”, psychological adaptations which evolved in response to the challenges posed by the total environment (physical, social and biotic) during the long reaches of human evolution. In the proposed model, the sensus transcendentis is one such module, opening us to meaning, purpose and value which transcend the material environment whilst being embedded within it. Evidence is provided to support the contentions both that we possess a sensus transcendentis, and that it has evolutionary origins. Possible implications for theology and for religious faith arising from the proposed model are discussed. Key words: adaptation, altruism, evolution, evolutionary psychology, Hick, mental module, Plantinga, religious pluralism, sensus divinitatis, sensus transcendentis.

Psychosynthesis is a transpersonal psychotherapy. It was founded by Dr Roberto Assagioli, an Italian psychiatrist who lived from 1888 to 1974. He was involved in some of the early psychodynamic activity early in the twentieth century, but split from Freud at about the same time as Jung. Psychosynthesis was developed between 1910 and the 1950s in Florence and Rome, but in the 1960s became more internationally known with centres opening round the world. This study is an investigation of the ideas lying behind psychosynthesis: these ideas spring partly from scientific study of the unconscious, but they also originate in the long mystical tradition of both the Eastern and the Western world. In tracing back these ideas to their sources, the nature of the knowledge underlying a modern spiritual, or transpersonal, psychotherapy is inevitably discussed. Roots of such a discipline lie in a split tradition within the Western world - psychology aspires to be scientific, religion or mystical knowledge is studied within the discipline of theology, and the two are very little related in our present conception of knowledge. Roberto Assagioli's framework is thus a 'synthesis' in several senses: in the attempt to relate the soul and theology to the personality and psychology: in the attempt to perceive personal developmental patterns as a microcosm of larger social and historical patterns: and in the particular characteristics of his therapy with the individual. The meaning of these syntheses is examined within the context of the knowledge on which he explicitly and implicitly drew. Psychosynthesis is a product of the twentieth century. It originated at the turn of the century when many new ideas were questioning the old certainties of nineteenth century thought. It began to flourish at the time in the 60s when once again criticism was being levelled at the direction of Western development. An examination of its origin and development throws light on many aspects of our present values.

The aim of this dissertation is to analyse two notions which inform contemporary evolutionary psychology. In Part I Tooby and Cosmides' (1992) Standard Model thesis of the history of twentieth century social science is examined with regard to social psychology. In Part II the practical and theoretical fecundity of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness is examined, again with regard to social psychology. The analysis of the Standard Model thesis yields the result that it is not reliable as an intellectual history of social psychology. A principal reason for this is the failure of the thesis to acknowledge the instinct debate of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Further consideration of the instinct debate leads to the conclusion that evolutionary psychology may be in the process of repeating the history of social psychology rather than making substantive advances. The analysis of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness concept yields two results. Firstly, in use it fails to accommodate the findings of palaeontology. Secondly, it promotes a view of mental capacity and functioning that is at odds with that of modern humans. Further consideration of the natural history of the human lineage leads to the conclusion that the past was not, in some sense, ontogenetically prior to the present and that it will not furnish social psychology with an adaptation that functions in a predictable manner. In Part III it is recommended that an evolutionary approach to social psychology should dispense with the concept of adaptation as proposed by evolutionary psychology.

Evolutionary psychological principles were applied to the issue of sexual harassment to investigate whether the gender, power, and mate value of harassers were related to perceptions of sexual harassment. One hundred and sixty heterosexual men and women were given descriptions of a target individual whose mate value and power was manipulated, and three behavioural vignettes involving imagined interactions with the target individual. Participants rated their perceived level of sexual harassment (the dependent variable) stemming from the imagined interactions. Participants also provided ratings of their self perceived level of attractiveness, attitude towards social-sexual communication in the workplace, and experience with social-sexual communication in the workplace. As predicted, females perceived higher levels of sexual harassment than males, and participants perceived higher levels of sexual harassment from low mate-value target individuals than high mate-value target individuals. Against predictions, no result was found for power. Additionally, self perceived level of attractiveness was found to moderate the relationship between gender and perceived sexual harassment, and attitude towards social-sexual communication in the workplace was found to moderate the relationship between mate value and perceived sexual harassment. Implications and explanations are discussed with reference to workplace issues, and evolutionary psychology.

Thesis (M.A.)--Cleveland State University, 2010.
Abstract. Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on Feb. 16, 2010). Includes bibliographical references (p. 68-76). Available online via the OhioLINK ETD Center and also available in print.

Evolutionary psychology (EP) is an emerging area of research, mostly located in the social sciences, which stresses the importance of, and seeks to investigate further, the evolutionary origins of modern human psychology and behaviour. Over the 1990s, claims made by evolutionary psychologists were extensively debated on a popular level in the UK, particularly through the publication of ‘popular science’ books on the subject, and by the appearance of many academics in the mass media discussing the issues raised. In such discussions, evolutionary psychology claims were often closely related to discussions of sexual politics, differences between men and women, and changes in workplace and family roles. Other subjects interlinked with evolutionary psychology in the media included concerns over biological determinism, developments in genetics, biotechnology and neurobiology, and changes in the political landscape during the 1990s. This research is a case study of these popular debates, looking at the UK press and other media coverage of evolutionary psychology from 1990 until 2001. I have carried out quantitative (content analysis) of the press and qualitative analyses of wider media coverage, alongside in-depth interviews with academic and media actors involved in popular evolutionary psychology. I found that the UK media covered evolutionary psychology in a strikingly different pattern to that seen in more generalised media coverage of the sciences. There are two major aspects to this, whereby evolutionary psychology was less often coded specifically as science (or covered by science journalists) when it was covered. In addition, a much higher proportion of scientists, authors and academics wrote about evolutionary psychology than did about a comparative ‘science’ subject. I then drew upon the interview material and qualitative media analysis to explore the reasons behind these differences, looking at the different interests and understandings of academics and media professionals with regard to evolutionary psychology.

The introduction to this thesis outlines the evolutionary theory of human mating behaviour and describes the process of vocal production and auditory perception in humans. In addition it provides a brief overview of some of the research studies examining the role of vocalisations in courtship and competitive behaviours in animals. The body of this thesis is then divided into three parts. Part 1 examined whether male vocal frequencies may be an honest signal of physical attributes such as body size, body shape and hormonal quality. Results of Study 1 found that fundamental frequency but not formant dispersion was related to age. The voices of younger (but post-pubertal) males had lower fundamental frequency. Furthermore, fundamental frequency was significantly negatively associated with shoulder and chest circumferences, shoulder-hip-ratio and body weight. A significant negative relationship was also found between formant dispersion and both weight and height and some measures of body shape. Study 2a and 2b then found evidence of a relationship between fundamental frequency and circulating testosterone in adult males with some evidence for diurnal variation in fundamental frequency (reflecting alterations in testosterone). Some limited evidence of a relationship between formant dispersion and circulating testosterone was also found. No relationship between prenatal testosterone or cortisol and vocal frequencies was observed. The second part of this thesis explored the role of the male voice in both inter and intra sexual selection. Study 3 examined perceptions of male voices by male listeners. Results revealed that the judgements made by male listeners concerning the age and physique of male speakers were broadly consistent with the relationships observed between physical characteristics and vocal frequencies in Study 1. Results also suggested that formant frequencies and not fundamental frequency indicate the dominance of a speaker but that both vocal parameters inform judgements that male listeners make about the attractiveness of male speakers to females. Study 4 examined perceptions of male voices by female listeners. Results suggest that both fundamental and formant frequencies influence judgements of attractiveness and dominance. In addition the relationship between visual and vocal attractiveness and dominance was examined. No relationship was observed between visual and vocal attractiveness although there was a significant relationship between visual and vocal dominance. The final section of this thesis examined the relative importance of the voice in comparison to the face within the context of attraction and dominance. Results of two studies suggest that vocal and visual attractiveness and dominance may not be related and that the relative importance of facial and vocal cues depends upon the judgement being made. The face appears to have a greater influence on attractiveness judgements but the voice appears to have a greater influence on judgements of dominance. The results of the studies reported in this thesis are discussed in relation to the findings of other researchers in the field which together provide evidence that the five criteria for sexual selection of communication signals (Snowden, 2004) are met by the deep voice of the human male.

Evolutionary theory has been employed to explain psychological and social phenomena for over a hundred years. However, despite various claims that evolutionary theory should be considered the dominant theoretical framework for psychology, mainstream psychologists have resisted the widespread use of evolutionary explanations in their domain. This thesis aims to clarify the role of evolutionary explanations in psychology. In particular, I demonstrate that a clearer understanding of the role of evolutionary explanations in psychology is obtained by drawing on some recent literature in the philosophy of science. Evolutionary theory, I argue offers a coherent, unifying, explanatory framework for psychology, and evolutionary explanations should have a more prominent role in psychological science than they have had in the past. However, mainstream psychological theory will not be entirely replaced by theories drawn from the evolutionary research programme. The relationship between evolutionary explanations and other sorts of explanations in psychology is clarified, and some suggestions as to what evolutionary theory offers the future of psychology are forwarded.

This study investigated responsibility attributions for a partner's emotional infidelity and for a partner's sexual infidelity, and the likelyhood that the victim or partner would end the relationship. This study found a significant relationship between responsibility attributions for a romantic partner's unfaithfulness and the likelihood the relationship would end: the stronger the attributions of personal responsibility the more likely the relationship would dissolve.

Despite Darwin's wishes for evolution to influence psychology, evolutionary psychology remains a controversial issue and as such lingers in the shadows of counselling psychology. It is argued that although it can be difficult to support evolutionary psychology with tests, it may be of use in counselling psychology if it is experienced by clients as valuable. In the current study, data was gathered from focus groups, dyads, 1:1 interviews and email responses from people with social anxiety to discover more about the experiences of receiving an evolutionary perspective of social anxiety and to consider what implications these experiences have on how participants then make sense of social anxiety. Qualitative content analysis was used to interpret the data and a range of experiences were reported. The main themes elucidated were: negotiating with the breadth and depth of the information and plausibility of the perspective, emotional experiences of the perspective including normalising, validating and shaming, consideration of the bigger picture, and consideration of the future. It is concluded that evolutionary perspectives may be useful to consider in counselling psychology, but that this should be carried out in accordance with the individual needs of the client. Further research and practical implications are explored.

Understanding why people become involved in terrorism is vital to inhibiting recruitment and radicalisation, and therefore preventing terrorist attacks. The question of why people support, engage with, and participate in terrorism is addressed in this thesis. Insights into the causes of terrorism and the process of radicalisation are garnered from social and evolutionary psychology in an effort to add an additional interdisciplinary layer of theoretical understanding to existing political science research. The central argument made in this thesis is that certain psychological processes (social identity), and mechanisms (parochial altruism), influence people to favour ingroups and disfavour outgroups in light of particular intergroup cues. Although social identity theories and the concept of parochial altruism pertain to the same argument for bias towards ingroups, which may also entail bias against outgroups, they arrive at this position in different ways and therefore offer alternative insights into what conditions trigger this bias, and responses to it. A novel experimental paradigm with student participants generated data to investigate the evolved mechanism parochial altruism. Social identity theories were applied to certain features of the radicalisation process to explain how and why identification with the Muslim Umma (worldwide community) occurs, which is a central feature of radicalisation in Al-Qaeda type groups. The insights challenge some of the assumptions made by scholars about the nature of radicalisation and terrorism. This thesis considers the process of radicalisation to be rooted in, and influenced by, normal psychological processes and mechanisms that are present in all humans. Although there are caveats, this thesis provides new avenues of exploration and further research to investigate terrorism, radicalisation, and intergroup conflict more generally.

The ‘hunter gatherer hypothesis’ posits that prehistoric environments and social roles have resulted in the evolution of specific, yet distinct cognitive abilities in men and women (Silverman & Eals, 1992). The majority of previous research however has focused solely on sex differences in spatial cognition. In a series of eight experiments, the present thesis examined the hunter gatherer hypothesis using visual cognition paradigms. Chapters 2 and 3 failed to support the hunter gatherer hypothesis when assessed by attentional and perceptual paradigms respectively. For instance, men are not better at tracking moving object relative to women, as would be predicted by the theory. Chapter 4 does however find support for the hunter gatherer notion; a task and effect that is thought to be related to foraging (i.e., social inhibition of return) is larger when undertaken by pairs of women, as opposed to pairs of men or mixed-sex pairings. Overall, the results from the present work show limited support for the hunter gatherer hypothesis.

Introduction Evolutionary psychology (EP) is a discipline born between evolutionary biology, cognitive science, and physical anthropology. It's both a theoretical and practical scientific discipline which principal purpose is to study human behavior, in order to understand the biological and evolutionary causes that generated it. Evolutionary psychology finds its roots in the Darwinian theory, considering human behavior as the product of adaptations to recurring problems in the ancestral environment, which evolved as functional results of natural or sexual selection forces. A branch of this discipline, Evolutionary forensic psychology, is a burgeoning fieldwhich explores the application of science and the profession of psychology to questions and issues relating to the law and legal systems. It make use of empirical methodologies, as fieldwork, the method mutually exclusive of multiple hypotheses, and the deductive investigative logic, which allowsto create psychological profiles. These profiles are based on objective data from the analysis of the cases, and aim to predict and understand biological motives that led people to commit violent behavior. Evolutionary forensic psychology promise to be a useful tool to study and analyze the variables of different situations, in order to assist and direct police and defensive investigations. In this PhD research I addressed different aspects and applications of this discipline. In the specific, during my research period at Philippe-Pinel research institute of Montrèal, Canada, I have explored the application of evolutionary psychology in the study of presence, a psychological state akin to perceptual illusion, first identified by cognitive and cyber psychology, and here analyzed as sexual presence. However , my research has mainly concentrated on the study of the adaptive value of maternal infanticide, with a special focus on the phenomenon of maternal neonaticide, here meant as "reproductive disinvestment", and its social and legal implications. Following this line of research, as part of the Evolutionary Forensic Psychology Laboratory, I experienced the role of the investigative psychologist, attending as defensive consultant a case of suspected maternal infanticide. Applying the methodology of evolutionary forensic psychology, I conducted, with my supervisor, an interdisciplinary research between forensic psychobiology and legal medicine, aiming to verify the validity of tympanic and rectal temperature in estimating the time of death. I suggest that the results of this research had relevant consequences both in medico-legal and investigative domain but, above all, our outcomes brought to light a number of methodological errors, that are systematically made in our country during the crime scene investigation and the rescuing in outdoor conditions. According to these findings, I have analyzed the European Guidelines for resuscitation in wild conditions, and I took in exam what happens in the practice in our country. Finally I present representative cases, where the time of death was a crucial data, but its erroneous interpretations led to controversial verdicts. The sexual presence model Introduction to the concept of presence Presence is defined as a psychological state or subjective perception causing an individual to give into the illusions created by a computerizing system., it’s a real feeling of been immersed in a virtual environment, mediated by emotional states and biological predispositions. In the practice, it is very important to define and measure the feeling of presence, since Virtual Reality is used to for a large number of purpose. Most recent research show how useful virtual reality is in medical context, both in diagnosis and treatment assessments. According to this, here is presented a special kind of the feeling of presence, the sexual presence, which describes the particular psychological cognitive and physical feeling generate by the experience of sexuality through different media, as erotic movies or chat-line. Aim of the theory To define and understanding sexual presence is crucial to maximize and recall this feeling in an experimental context. In fact, virtual reality is a powerful tool to assess sexual fantasies and interests in individual. Especially with child molesters, and sexual offenders. To get the highest level of presence, which integrates, the users need as much identification as possible inside the virtual system, which should be provided by the developer through a convincing and controlled motor and perceptual illusion. For all these reasons, this work aims to identify the features of sexual presence, and how to induce it in an experimental situation. Main aspects of the sexual presence model Sexual presence is an evolutionary phenomenon featured by motivational emotional and physical feelings, that an individual experiences when exposed to internal or external stimuli, like erotic movies, on-line erotic chat and most of all, sexual fantasies. Sexual presence arises from an adequate combination of form and contents, and is strictly related to sexual arousal and sexual behavior. Following Riva and colleagues (2011) this work identified three sub-processes of sexual presence: proto, core and extended presence, which are deeply connected, and represent both in conscious and in unconscious behaviors and in intents that features sexual presence, and they differ from male and female. This three level model should be well-known when we need to induce sexual presence in experimental context. Thus to maximize sexual presence it is important to identified the erotic imagery features for each participant, and to develop a virtual environment which is significant to the participant. Conclusion This model could be particularly useful in the study of paraphilias and sexual behavior disordered using virtual reality system. In fact, at the present time, the research team I worked with at the Philippe-Pinel Institute, is applying this model in the study of evolutionary hypothesis on rape. Mothers Who Kill Their Offspring: Testing Evolutionary Hypothesis in a 110-case Italian Sample Introduction and aim The killing of a child by own biological mother has occurred in our species since its origin, most probably in every culture and every population. According to evolutionary theory, the killing of offspring by its own mother may, under certain conditions, represent an evolved behavioural pattern that increases the reproductive fitness of the mother. This research aimed to identify incidents of mothers in Italy killing their own children, verifying if neonaticide (killings of children within the first day of life), infanticide (killing of children within the first year of life), and filicide (killing of children after the first year of life) can be objectively distinguished by psychobiological profiles that might help to prevent them, and testing an adaptive evolutionary hypothesis to explain their occurrence. Methods 110 cases of mothers killing 123 of their own offspring from 1976 to 2010 were analyzed. Each case was classified using 13 dichotomic (yes/no) variables. Descriptive statistics and hierarchical cluster analysis were performed both for cases and variables, and significant differences between clusters were analyzed. Results: The Italian sample of neonaticides was found to satisfy most evolutionary predictions for an evolved behavioral, emotional and motivational pattern to increase fitness, showing a consistent profile for the offending mothers. All neonaticide cases fall in a single cluster, distinct from all other cases. Infanticide and filicide, on the contrary, do not significantly differ according to the variables measured (marital status, conditions of the body, mothers age, violent killing, other sons, psychopathology, economical condition, suicide, nationality). The common profile of mothers who have committed infanticide or filicide includes psychopathology, suicide or attempted suicide after killing their children, violent killing of their victims, and no attempt to conceal the victims’ bodies. These results suggest that maternal infanticide and filicide represent an improper functioning of adaptation, and their profile are much more variable than those of neonaticide offenders. Conclusion: Our study confirms that only neonaticide is an adaptive reproductive disinvestment, possibly evolved in the remote past, to increase the biological fitness of the mother by eliminating an unwanted newborn and preserving resources for future offspring born in better conditions. I here show that Neonaticide is clearly distinct from infanticide and filicide and therefore should be approached, prevented, and judged differently in penal assessment. Why mothers kill newborn: a focus on Italian sample Introduction and aims In the light of the results just presented, it has been defined deeply the phenomenon of neonaticide in our country. In line with the literature, our previous outcomes show that neonaticidal mothers are young women, in bad socio-economical situation, who can’t grow their offspring, due to a so defined “reproductive comprehensive instinct”. The socio-biological profile of these women seems very similar to those who decide to have an abortion: renounce to a pregnancy, in this case, doesn’t mean to go against the reproductive instinct, but preserveenergy and resources for a future pregnancy. Here we compared the profiles of neonaticidal mothers and women who decide to interrupt their pregnancy, in order to identify risk factors and contribute to the prevention of this phenomena. Methods 35 cases of neonaticide were analyzed. Each case was classified using 7 main dichotomic variables. To analyze possible risk factors, all data have been normalized, based on the actual frequency of the reference populations, in order to have comparable values, according to ISTAT 2002. Results This study shows that neonaticide and abortion share similar traits, especially concerning the young age of the women. The profile of these women “at risk” suggests that they are 1) normally at their first birth, 2) usually very young with 3) a great residual reproductive potential and (4) immigrated from another country. Conclusion The results here presented might have important implications in therapeutic assessment, as the identification of risk factors, to offer and promote adequate socio-psychological support to at risk future mothers. Evaluation of tympanic and rectal temperature measurements to estimate the time of death in accidents in cold water Introduction and aims The reliable measurement of core deep body temperature is fundamental to estimate the time of death (TOD) in Hessnge nomogram. The golden standard is measuring through rectal or oesophagus probe. Recently infrared tympanic thermometers (ITT), have substituted in some cases the golden standard. We assisted, as defense consultants, a case of suspect maternal infanticide, where the emergency service revealed a deep temperature of 24.9° C with ITT on a female victim of 2 years old, immersed in a 18° C river. The ITT estimated time of death, which seemed to be the only strong evidence against the mother, was in contrast with the predictions from most other biological and thanatological evidences (bloodgas analysis and myocardium electric activity). I could ascertain that according to the psycho-biological profile, the mother had no motive to kill her daughter. To validate the TOD evidence, this work aimed to provide a reliable correlation between the golden standard and infrared tympanic temperature to be eventually used in this and future cases of TOD measurements in accidents occurring in cold water. Methods To compare the ITT and the rectal probe temperature measurements, we tested laboratory rats, in three different conditions: dry alive, immersed alive in 18C° water, and immersed dead (by cervical dislocation) in 18°C water. To sample infrared temperature, we used 3 infrared thermometers. Genius 3000 A (used in this forensic case, 2 samples) and Genius 2 (the most popular at present in Italian emergency services). The rectal temperature was assessed using a rectal probe connected to a monitor Propaq. We also tested the accuracy of ITT, recording body temperatures on a human volunteer before during and after exposing its right ear to 3 minutes running water at 18°C and subsequently dried. Results The Genius 2 stopped registering at 33°C and never resumed recording following the first measurement after the rat was submersed in water. This observation was a posteriori confirmed in the user manual, which stated that this thermometer stopped reading below 33°C. When the rats were submerged in the 18°C running water, the rectal temperature began to decline steadily. The tympanic temperature recorded with Genius 3000A, in contrast, dropped sharply from 34°C to 24°C after the rats were submerged alive in the water. After their deaths, the rectal temperatures continued to decline steadily without major variations, while the tympanic temperature fluctuated above water temperature. On the human volunteer ITT measures immediately fell under 19C°, while the whole body temperature, remained unchanged at 36.5C°. ITT measurements recovered the subject correct body temperature after 33 minutes from water exposure. Conclusion In water-related accidents, such as near drowning, infrared ear thermometry is not a suitable method to measure the actual deep body temperature. Further, confirming these results, the temperature readings of the ITT device provide unreliable measurements of the core temperature. This inaccuracy could lead to inappropriate medical decisions, and thus, we suggest ITT measurements should not be utilised for such cases. Moreover, the use of the ITT Genius 2 is not recommended in emergency settings, especially in case of hypothermia due to his its incapacity to register under 33 C°. Errors, Guidelines and Remarks: what happens in the practice? Introduction and aims The results of previous study left a lot of unanswered questions. The bulk of knowledge necessary to diagnosis of the time of death, known as thanatology, is a multidisciplinary field of study, that includes forensic pathology to biology, through chemistry, physics and also forensic entomology., Assessing the victims time of death is a crucial point in forensic practice: it allows investigators to clarify the last hours alive of the victims, it also helps to point out the causes of death and, moreover, it’s crucial to substantiate suspicious alibis. Nevertheless, before becoming a crime scene, the environment and setting where a body is found, is a place where someone need to be rescued and treated by medical assistance, and this interferes with thanatological requirements. Here we aim to analyze what happens in the forensic and medico-legal practice in our country. Methods We have analyzed the European guidelines for resuscitation in wild conditions as hypothermia and drowning in cold water, with a focus on what are the suggestions for estimating the core temperature, both for the resuscitation procedure and the estimation of the time of death. Then we took in consideration what happens in Italian emergency services and which procedures, if any, they implement in the described conditions. Those data were found on the Hospital’s websites, in our Country. Finally, we have examined some relevant cases, taken from the analysis of specialized books and from the archives of major newspapers that have followed the penal processes reported, where the investigation of the crime scene and the estimation of the time of death were decisive to solve the crime. Results The European guidelines for resuscitation are very precise concerning the treatment for a patient affected by injuries due to hypothermia or drowning. But they are not that specific for what concern the use of a particular method to register the core temperature. In the forensic practice the methodology to estimate the TOD is heterogeneous. In Italy, the guidelines to resuscitation are provided just at local level, and it’s not even mandatory to have a temperature recording device on the ambulance. Conclusion We found out that procedural mistakes and lack of univocal rules in the practice have led to controversial outcomes in legal processes. Our work urges further studies regarding the techniques to estimate the post- mortem period, and suggests an adequate training for the rescue teams members, to provide the best care and to preserve such important evidence as TOD. General Conclusions In this thesis I’ve explored the applications of evolutionary psychology in the forensic practice, outlining the role of the investigative psychologist. The research outcomes might have both theoretical and practical implications. First, It has been described for the first time the sexual presence, which is a phenomena which might be involved in the assessment of paraphilias and violent behavior with virtual reality. Second, it has been found that maternal neonaticide, in our species, has an evolutionary cause, and the neonaticidal woman profile is different from infanticidal and filicide ones. These suggestions have relevant effects in the investigation phase, in correctional assessment, and also in the definitions of preventive measurement targeted to at-risk future mothers. Third, collaborating as consultant in a case of suspect infanticide, I found that the tympanic temperature, very used in the practice, is not a valuable measure to assess the time of death in extreme outdoor conditions, where the body core temperature is essential. In light of these results, it has been noticed the lack of regulations in our country about the estimating of TOD, and I provide suggestions to improve medico –legal and resuscitation actions in the forensic practice. These studies show the versatility and the practical value of evolutionary psychology in the forensic domain. In fact, the most important outcome of this work is to demonstrate how the techniques and theories learned and explored during three PhDs years, have important applications in the clinical, criminological and forensic practice, and how it could be important to carry on researches in evolutionary forensic psychology, due to its social implications.
Introduzione La psicologia evoluzionistica è una disciplina che proviene dall’incontro tra diverse materie, quali la biologia evoluzionistica, le scienze cognitive e l’antropologia fisica. E’ una disciplina basata sull’approccio scientifico, il cui principale obbiettivo è comprendere le cause biologiche ed evoluzionistiche che hanno generato il comportamento umano. La psicologia evoluzionistica affonda le radici nella teoria Darwiniana, che considera il comportamento umano come un prodotto dell’evoluzione dei diversi adattamenti a problemi ricorrenti che i nostri antenati hanno dovuto risolvere in un ambiente ancestrale, presumibilmente plio-pleistocenico. Questi comportamenti si sono evoluti sotto la spinta della selezione naturale e sessuale. Una branca di questa disciplina, la psicologia evoluzionistica forense, è un settore di studio in grande espansione, che studia l’applicazione della scienza e il ruolo di psicologo nell’analisi di aspetti forensi e legali. Questa disciplina si avvale dell’approccio empirico, come lo studio sul campo, il metodo delle ipotesi multiple mutuamente esclusive, e il ragionamento logico-deduttivo, che consente di creare profili psicologici basati su dati oggettivi provenienti dall’analisi dei casi, con lo scopo di comprendere e predire i moventi biologici che portano le persone a commettere comportamenti violenti. Per questi motivi la psicologia evoluzionistica forense si appresta ad essere un valido strumento nell’analisi delle diverse variabili in situazioni differenti, così da assistere e guidare l’operato delle forze dell’ordine e delle indagini difensive. Durante il mio dottorato, ho potuto esplorarediversi aspetti e applicazioni di questa disciplina. Nello specifico, durante il mio periodo di ricerca all’estero, presso l’Istituto di ricerca Philippe-Pinel di Montrèal, in Canada, ho applicato le teorie della psicologia evoluzionistica nello studio del concetto di “presence” uno stato psicologico derivante dall’illusione percettiva, originariamente identificato dalla cyber psicologia cognitiva, e qui analizzato come “sexual presence”. Tuttavia, la mia ricerca si è principalmente concentrata nello studio del valore adattivo dell’infanticidio materno, con particolare attenzione al fenomeno del neonaticidio, qui inteso come “disinvestimento riproduttivo”, e le sue implicazioni sociali e legali. Grazie a questi studi, in collaborazione con il laboratorio di psicologia evoluzionistica, ho collaborato come consulente della difesa, in un caso di sospetto infanticidio materno. Applicando le metodologie della psicologia evoluzionistica forense, ho condotto, in collaborazione con il mio supervisor, il Prof. Andrea Camperio Ciani, un ricerca interdisciplinare a cavallo tra la psicobiologia forense e la medicina legale, il cui obiettivo è stato quello di verificare la validità delle temperature rettali e timpaniche nella stima dell’ora del decesso. Il risultato di questi esperimenti potrebbero avereconseguenze rilevanti sia dal punto di vista medico legale che medico investigativo, ma soprattutto, ha mostrato come, nel nostro paese, vengano commessi diversi errori durante l’analisi della scena del crimine e nelle fasi del salvataggio in situazioni estreme. Alla luce di questi risultati ho preso in esame le linee guida per la rianimazione in situazioni estreme, osservando quello che succede nel nostro Paese, portando come esempio dei casi rappresentativi in cui la stima del decesso era un dato fondamentale, ma la cui erronea o incompleta interpretazione ha portato a risultati controversi. Il modello della sexual presence Introduzione al concetto di presence La presence è un stato psicologico, una percezione soggettiva che fa sì che un individuo sperimenti l’illusione creata da un computer, definibile come una sensazione reale di essere immersi in un ambiente virtuale mediata da stati emotivi e predisposizioni biologiche, nella pratica è molto importante definire e misurare la sensazione di presence, in quanto la realtà virtuale ha diverse applicazioni. Recenti ricerche hanno mostrato l’importanza della realtà virtuale nel contesto diagnostico e trattamentale, per questo motivo, in questa tesi viene presentata uno speciale aspetto della presence, la sexual presence, che descrive la sensazione psicologica, cognitiva e fisica generata dall’esperienza della sessualità tramite diversi media, come ad esempio i film o le chat-line erotiche. Scopi della teoria Comprendere e definire la sexual presence è fondamentale per massimizzare e richiamare questa sensazione nel contesto sperimentale. Infatti, la realtà virtuale è uno strumento efficace per testare le fantasie e gli interessi sessuali degli individui, in particolarecon i molestatori sessuali e i pedofili. Per raggiungere il massimo livello di presence, gli utenti o i soggetti in esame,hanno bisogno della massima identificazione possibile all’interno del sistema virtuale, che dovrebbe essere fornita dai programmatori, attraverso un’illusione percettiva e motoria controllata e convincente. Per tutte queste ragioni, questo studio si pone l’obiettivo di identificare le caratteristiche della sexual presence e di come indurla in una condizione sperimentale. Principali aspetti del modello La sexual presence è un fenomeno che ha delle basi evolutive, caratterizzato da sensazioni motivazionali, emozionali e fisiche, che un individuo sperimenta quando esposto a stimoli, esterni o interni, come film erotici, chat-line erotiche e, soprattutto, le fantasie sessuali. La sexual presence è generata da una combinazione adeguata di forma e contenuto, ed è strettamente connessa all’eccitazione e al comportamento sessuali. Seguendo le nozioni di Riva e colleghi (2011), questo lavoro identifica tre sub-processi che sottostanno alla sexual presence: la proto la core e la extended presence, che sono strettamente connessi e rappresentano comportamenti ed intenti sia consci che inconsci, e che si differenziano tra maschi e femmine. Questo modello a tre livelli dovrebbe essere ben noto, nel momento in cui si vuole indurre la massima sensazione di presence in un esperimento. Quindi, per massimizzare la sensazione di presence è importante identificare l’immaginario erotico di ogni partecipante e sviluppare un ambiente virtuale che sia significativo per il partecipante. Conclusioni Questo modello potrebbe essere particolarmente utile nello studio delle parafilie e dei disturbi del comportamento sessuale tramite realtà virtuale. Infatti, attualmente, il gruppo di ricerca a cui ho partecipato al Philippe- Pinel Institute, sta applicando questo modello nello studio delle ipotesi evoluzionistiche sullo stupro, tramite realtà virtuale. Madri che uccidono: studio su un campione di 110 casi in Italia Introduzione e obiettivi L’omicidio di un bambino da parte della madre biologica accade nella nostra sin dalle origini, in ogni cultura e popolazione. Secondo la teoria evoluzionistica, l’omicidio materno della prole può, in alcune circostanze, rappresentare un comportamento adattivo che si è evoluto per aumentare la fitness riproduttiva della madre. Questa ricerca si pone l’obiettivo di identificare l’incidenza delle madri che uccidono i loro figli nel nostro paese, verificando se il neonaticidio (l’omicidio dei neonati entro le 24 ore dal parto), l’infanticidio (entro il primo anno di vita) e il figlicidio (dopo il primo di vita), possono essere oggettivamente distinti in profili psicobiologici che possono aiutare a prevenirli, e testare le ipotesi evoluzionistiche adattive per spiegarne le dinamiche. Metodi Sono stati analizzati 110 casi di madri che hanno ucciso 123 bambini, dal 1976 al 2010. Ogni caso è stato classificato utilizzando 13 variabili dicotomiche. Sul campione sono state effettuate analisi statistiche descrittive e una analisi per cluster, sia per casi che per variabili, analizzando poi le differenze significative tra i gruppi. Risultati Il campione italiano dei neonaticidi ha soddisfatto tutte le ipotesi evoluzionistiche, per un pattern di comportamenti emozioni e motivazioni volte ad aumentare la fitness riproduttiva, mostrando un profilo consistente per madri neonaticide. Tutti i casi di questo tipo sono stati raggruppati in un unico cluster, diviso dagli altri casi. Infanticidio e figlicidio non differiscono significativamente per nessuna delle variabili prese in esame (stato civile, condizioni del corpo, età della madre, modus operandi, psicopatologia, suicidio e nazionalità). Il profilo della madre che ha commesso infanticidio e figlicidio è caratterizzato da psicopatologia, suicidio o tentato suicidio, modus operandi violento e nessun tentativo di nascondere il corpo della vittima. Questi risultati suggeriscono che il figlicidio e l’infanticidio siano due comportamenti maladattivi, e il loro profilo sia molto più variabile di quello delle neonaticide. Conclusioni Questi studio conferma che solo il neonaticidio è un disinvestimento riproduttivo adattivo, evolutosi in un passato remoto, con lo scopo di aumentare la fitness riproduttiva materna eliminando un figlio non voluto e preservandole risorse per una prole future, in condizioni migliori. Il neonaticidio si è dimostrato essere chiaramente distinto dall’infanticidio e come tale dovrebbe essere affrontato, prevenuto e giudicato in tribunale. Perchè le madri uccidono I neonati: focus su un campione italiano Introduzione e obiettivi Alla luce dei risultati appena presentati, è stato analizzato più in profondità il fenomeno del neonaticidio nel nostro paese. In linea con la letteratura, i nostri precedenti risultati mostrano che le madri neonaticide sono donne giovani, in condizioni socio-economiche difficile, che non possono crescere i propri figli, a causa di un cosiddetto “istinto riproduttivo complessivo”. Il profilo socio-biologico di queste donne sembra essere molto simile a quello delle donne che decidono di abortire: ovvero rinunciare alla gravidanza in questo caso non significa andare contro all’istinto riproduttivo, ma conservare le energie e le risorse per una gravidanza futura. In questo lavoro ho confrontato il profilo della madre neonaticida e della donna che decide di interrompere la propria gravidanza, con lo scopo di identificare i fattori di rischio e contribuire alla prevenzione del fenomeno. Metodi Sono stati analizzati 35 casi di neonaticidio, ogni caso è stato analizzato utilizzando 7 variabili dicotomiche. Per comparare i possibili fattori di rischio tutti i dati sono stati normalizzati sulla base delle frequenze della popolazione di riferimento, secondo i dati forniti dall’ISTAT 2002. Risultati Lo studio ha messo in luce come il neonaticidio e l’aborto abbiano aspetti simili, soprattutto per quanto concerne la giovane età delle donne. Il profilo di queste donne a rischio suggerisce che esse sono 1) alla loro prima gravidanza 2) solitamente molto giovani con 3) un grande potenziale riproduttivo residuo e 4) immigrate da un paese straniero. Conclusioni I risultati riportati hanno significative implicazioni nellavalutazione terapeuticoa, e nella definizione dei fattori di rischio, per indirizzare, promuovere ed offrire un adeguato sostegno socio-psicologico alle future madri in difficoltà. ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬Valutazione delle temperature timpaniche e rettali nella stima dell’ora del decesso in incidenti in acque fredde. Introduzione ed obiettivi La corretta rilevazione della temperature profonda del corpo è fondamentale nella stima dell’ora del decesso (SOD) nel nomogramma di Hengge. Lo standard è la misurazione rettale o esofagea. Recentemente però, i termometri timpanici ad infrarossi hanno sostituito, in alcuni casi, lo standard previsto. Come parte del Laboratorio di Psicologia Evoluzionistica Forense, ho assistito come consulente della difesa, un caso di infanticidio materno, dove il Pronto Soccorso ha registrato sul corpo della vittima di due anni, immerso nell’acqua corrente di fiume fredda a 18C°, la temperatura timpanica di 24.9C°. L’ora del decesso stimata tramite termometro timpanico ad infrarossi, è risultata essere la sola evidenza contro la madre nel processo, e sembrava essere in contrasto con molte delle prove tanatologiche e biologiche rilevate (emogas analisi e attività elettrica miocardica). Secondo il profilo psico-biologico, la madre non aveva alcun movente per uccidere la figlia. Pertanto, per verificare la correttezza della SOD, abbiamo studiato la correlazione tra la temperature rettale e quella timpanica, in caso di ritrovamento di cadavere in acque fredde. Metodi Per confrontare le due temperature, sono stati utilizzati 3 ratti da laboratorio, in 3 diverse condizioni: vivo, immerse vivo a 18°C, e immerso, sempre alla medesima temperature, ma deceduto tramite dislocazione cervicale. Per la temperatura timpanica abbiamo utilizzato 3 termometri ad infrarossi, il Genius 3000 A (2 campioni, usato nel caso in oggetto) e il Genius 2 (il più utilizzato nei Pronto Soccorsi italiani). La temperatura rettale è stata registrata tramite una sonda rettale connessa ad un monitor Propaq. Abbiamo inoltre testato l’accuratezza della temperatura timpanica, misurandola sia prima che durante che dopo, su un volontario maschio adulto umano, il cui orecchio è stato esposto per 3 minuti sotto acqua corrente a 18C° e successivamente asciugato. Risultati Il Genius 2 ha smesso di registrare la temperatura a 33C° e non è mai ripartito, dopo la prima misurazione sul ratto immerso in acqua. Questa osservazione è stata poi confermata anche dal manuale, che riportava appunto l’incapacità dello strumento di registrare al di sotto dei 33C°. Una volta immersi in acqua movimentata a 18 C° la temperatura rettale dei soggetti cominciava a scendere molto lentamente. La temperatura timpanica, registrata tramite Genius 3000°, al contrario, precipita da 34C° a 24C° non appena immersi. Dopo la soppressione, la temperatura rettale continua a scendere senza particolari variazioni, mentre la temperatura rettale si arresta fluttuando poco al di sopra della temperatura dell’acqua. La temperatura timpanica del volontario umano, dopo l’esposizione all’acqua fredda, precipita sotto i19C°, mentre la temperatura corporea rimane invariata intorno ai 36.5C°. La temperatura timpanica è ritornata a misurare la corretta temperatura basale dopo 33 minuti dall’esposizione. Conclusioni In incidenti avvenuti in acque fredde, come nel caso degli annegamenti, il termometro timpanico ad infrarossi risulta essere un metodo non corretto per misurare la temperatura corporea profonda. Questa in accuratezza può portare a decisioni mediche imprecise, e le conclusioni di questo lavoro suggeriscono che la temperatura timpanica non venga utilizzata in casi come questi. Inoltre, l’utilizzo del Genius 2, è sconsigliato nei Pronto Soccorsi, specialmente in casi di ipotermia data la sua incapacità di registrare temperature inferiori ai 33 C°. Errori, Linee guida e suggerimenti: cosa succede nella pratica? Introduzione ed obiettivi I risultati dello studio precedente hanno lasciato aperte diverse questioni. La diagnosi dell’epoca della morte, conosciuta come tanatologia, è un campo multidisciplinare, che include la patologia forense, la biologia, la chimica, la fisica e addirittura l’entomologia forense. Infatti, la SOD è un punto fondamentale nella pratica forense: permette agli investigatoti di fare luce sulle ultime ore di vita della vittima, chiarisce le cause della morte, e soprattutto, permette di confermare gli alibi dei sospettati. Tuttavia, prima di diventare una scena del crimine, un luogo in cui viene ritrovato un corpo esanime, è prima di tutto un posto in cui qualcuno ha bisogno di assistenza medica, e questo puòinterferire con la corretta ricostruzione dell’ora della morte. Ho quindi osservato cosa succede nella pratica medico legale nel nostro Paese. Metodi Sono state analizzate le Linee Guida europee per la rianimazione in condizioni estreme, come l’ipotermia o l’annegamento in acqua fredde, con particolare attenzione a quelle che sono le norme per la stima della temperature profonda, sia nel caso della rianimazione sia nel calcolo dell’ora del decesso. E’ stato analizzata la procedura nei Pronti Soccorsi e nei dipartimenti di medicina legale. Questi risultati sono stati trovati nei vari website degli ospedali dei nostri paesi, e 9 dipartimenti sono stati direttamente contattati per avere le informazioni richieste. Infine sono stati osservati alcuni casi rilevanti dove l’investigazione della scena del crimine e la stima dell’ora del decesso erano fondamentali per la soluzione dei casi. Risultati Le linee guida Europee per la rianimazioni sono molto precise per quello che riguarda il trattamento di pazienti affetti da ipotermia o annegamento. Ma non sono state altrettanto specifiche per quello che riguarda l’uso dei termometri nei casi di annegamento. Nella pratica forense, la metodologia per stimare l’ora del decesso è eterogenea. In Italia le linee guida sono fornite solo a livello locale e addirittura non è obbligatorio avere un termometro per la misurazione della temperatura all’interno dell’ambulanza. Conclusioni I risultati mostrano che errori procedurali e la mancanza di norme univoche portano a risultati controversi nei procedimenti penali. Si suggerisce quindi la necessità di ulteriori studi nello studio delle tecniche per la stima dell’ora del decesso ed è necessario un training adeguato per i team di ricerca e pronto soccorso, con l’obiettivo di fornire le migliori cure possibili e preservare importanti prove come la temperatura per la stima dell’ora del decesso. Conclusioni Generali In questa testi ho esplorato le applicazioni della psicologia evoluzionistica nella pratica forense, sottolineando il ruolo dello psicologo investigativo. I risultati della ricerca hanno implicazioni sia teoretiche che pratiche. Prima è stato descritto epr la prima volta il modello della sexual presence, applicabile allo studio delle parafilie e del comportamento violento tramite realtà virtuale. Poi è stato evidenziato come il neonaticidio materno nella nostra specie abbia una causa evoluzionistica, e di come il profiling della madre neonaticida si differenzi da quello della madre infanticidia e figlicida. Questi risultati hanno effetti rilevanti sia nella fase investigative sia nella fase di definizione della pena e del trattamento, ma soprattutto nella realizzazione di misure preventive rivolte alle future madri a rischio. Infine, collaborando come consulente in un caso di sospetto infanticidio materno, è stato trovato che la temperatura timpanica, usata spesso nella pratica, non sia una misura utilizzabile per stimare l’ora del decesso in condizioni estreme, dove la temperatura profonda è essenziale. Alla luce di questi risultati, sono state riportate le linee guida per migliorare l’intervento dei medici legali e dei team di rianimazione sul posto, nel nostro paese. Questi studi hanno dimostrato la versatilità e il valore pratico della psicologia evoluzionistica nelle scienze forense. Infatti il risultato più importante di questa tesi è stato dimostrate come le tecniche e le teorie apprese durante questi anni di dottorato abbiano importanti applicazioni nella clinica, nella criminologia e nella pratica forense, e di come possa essere importante proseguire le ricerche nella psicologia evoluzionistica forense, a causa delle sue rilevanti implicazioni sociali.

This project interrogates the claims made for the possibility of collapsing all the various disciplines into one discipline, probably physics, and surely a science, in the name of making clearer the relations between our various fields of knowledge. This is the aim of the radical reductionist, and I take E. O. Wilson's Consilience as exemplary of such attempts. Central to Wilson's method of achieving unity is the new science of evolutionary psychology - itself a re-working of the sociobiology with which Wilson first achieved notoriety. In the on-going project of explaining culture under a Darwinian description, the evolutionary psychologists have begun to suggest explanations for the popularity and content of narrative fiction. Because they are consonant with the rest of science, these biologistic accounts of fiction might be preferable to the accounts traditionally offered by Literary Studies. Consequently, there is a risk that the traditional practices of Literary Studies will be made redundant within the academy and gradually atrophy. The demand is that Literary Studies either makes itself rigorous like the sciences (as with such projects as Northrop Frye's Anatomy of Criticism), or else forfeit its claims to produce knowledge. Aware of this threat, some literary critics embrace forms of relativism in an attempt to deny the unity or effectiveness of scientific knowledge and so neuter the threatened takeover. Among these forms of relativism, Richard Rorty's account seeks to collapse the hierarchy of disciplines and seemingly offers Literary Studies a means of retaining its distinctive approach without denying the effectiveness of scientific knowledge. I aim to show that Literary Studies need not become a science, and that such sciences as evolutionary psychology are neither as threatening as some had feared, nor as useful to literary study as some have hoped.

Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical perspective that is increasingly supported by empirical studies, but its potential to be applied to personality psychology remains largely unfulfilled (Buss, 1999). The current dissertation sought to bring the perspective of evolutionary psychology to bear on personality psychology. Zuroff and colleagues (2010) proposed that an evolutionary theory of personality could seek to identify individual differences in the core social domains that are postulated by evolutionary psychologists. Following this line of thinking, the Social Exchange Styles Questionnaire (SESQ) was developed to assess individual differences within the reciprocity domain (Leybman et al., 2011a). For this dissertation, the social exchange style model was further developed and explored. Article 1 presented an expanded social exchange style model, along with the revised Social Exchange Styles Questionnaire (SESQ-II), which assesses individual differences in ways that people approach and maintain exchange relationships in terms of five dimensions: Tracking, Fairness, Individualism, Benefit-Seeking, and Overinvestment. The SESQ-II showed good internal consistency, retest reliability, and construct validity. Regarding construct validity, multiple regressions demonstrated that none of the social exchange style dimensions was redundant with the Personal Norms of Reciprocity Scale (Perugini et al., 2003), nor with dimensions of adult attachment styles. Additionally, multiple regressions demonstrated that the social exchange style dimensions had predictable relationships with the five-factor traits, and with variables related to perceptions of oneself and others. Article 1 also addressed the relationship between social exchange style dimensions and perceived and received social support in a second study that used a daily diary method. Multilevel modeling showed that Tracking and Overinvestment each negatively predicted perceived support, while Fairness positively predicted perceived support. Additionally, Individualism negatively predicted received support. Social exchange style dimensions predicted social support over and above the five-factor traits.Article 2 sought to extend the social exchange style model and did this by focusing on a single social exchange dimension: Tracking. The developmental antecedents and affective consequences of Tracking were explored. Biological market theory (Noë & Hammerstein, 1994; 1995) was used to identify potential developmental antecedents to Tracking. Multiple regression analyses showed that Tracking was predicted by recalled experiences of having less access to resources than one's peers, having low control over resources, and parental overprotectiveness. Tracking was also predicted by an interaction of low parental warmth and being spoiled. To test the affective consequences of Tracking, we examined the relationship between people's Tracking levels and their emotional reactions to received social support. Using the same sample that was used in the second study of Article 1, multilevel analyses showed that people who were high in Tracking experienced more Joviality on days when they experienced particularly high levels of received support, and that they experienced high Hostility on days when they experienced less received support than usual. Similar results were not obtained with Serenity, Fear, or Guilt as the dependent variables, demonstrating the specificity of the effects to Joviality and Hostility.The results of these studies are discussed in terms of theoretical contributions that stem from integrating evolutionary psychology with personality psychology. Additionally, avenues for future research to elaborate both the content and process components of our model of social exchange styles are identified. Finally, practical applications of social exchange styles are discussed with a focus on implications for conceptualization and treatment of disorders within clinical psychology.
La psychologie évolutionniste est une perspective théorique de plus en plus consolidée par des études empiriques, mais son application potentielle à la psychologie de la personnalité demeure inassouvie (Buss, 1999). La présente thèse se veut une conciliation de la psychologie évolutionniste et la psychologie de la personnalité. Zuroff et ses collègues (2010) suggèrent qu'une théorie évolutionnaire de la personnalité pourrait permettre l'identification de différences individuelles existant dans les domaines sociaux fondamentaux postulé par la psychologie évolutionniste. Le questionnaire des styles d'échanges sociaux (Social Exchange Styles Questionnaire) fut développé dans le but d'évaluer les différences individuels dans le domaine de la réciprocité (Leybman et al., 2011a). Dans cette thèse, le modèle de style d'échange social fut développé et exploré en plus de détails. L'article 1 a présenté un modèle plus détaillé des styles d'échanges sociaux, ainsi que la version révisée du questionnaire des styles d'échanges sociaux (SESQ-II), lequel évalue les différences individuels selon 5 dimensions: Poursuite, Justice, Individualisme, Recherche de Bénéfices et Surinvestissement. Le SESQ-II a démontré une bonne cohérence interne et validité du construit. Aucune des dimensions n'étaient redondantes avec l'échelle de réciprocité de normes personnelles, ni avec les dimensions de styles d'attaches adultes. De plus, les dimensions avaient de relations prévisibles avec les cinq facteurs de trait, et avec des variables liées aux perceptions de soi et d'autrui. L'Article 1 adresse aussi le lien entre les dimensions et le support sociale reçu et perçue. La Poursuite et le Surinvestissement prédissent de façon négative la perception de support, tandis que la Justice prédit positivement la perception de support. De plus, l'Individualisme prédit négativement la réception de support. Nos dimensions prédissent le support social au-delà des cinq facteurs de trait.L'article 2 tentait d'enrichir le model d'échange social en en étudiant une seule dimension d'échange: la Poursuite. Les antécédents développementaux et conséquences affectives de la Poursuites ont été explorés. La théorie du Marcher Biologique (Noe & Hammerstein, 1994; 1995) a été utilisé pour identifier de potentiels antécédents développementaux de la Poursuite. La Poursuite pouvais être prédite par les mémoires d'instances d'avoir eu moins de ressources que ses pairs, d'avoir eu peu de control de ressources, ainsi que de surprotection parentale. La poursuite a aussi été prédite par une interaction entre peu de chaleur parentale et être gâté. Afin de tester les conséquences affectives de la Poursuite, nous avons examiné la relation entre le niveau de Poursuite des gens et leurs réactions émotionnelles face au support sociale reçu. En utilisant la même sous-population qui a été utilisé ultérieurement durant la deuxième étude de l'Article 1, des analyses a multiniveaux ont démontré que les gens qui avaient de haut niveaux de Poursuite ressenti plus de Jovialité durant les jours durant lesquels ils ont reçu des niveaux de support particulièrement élevés. Ils ont aussi ressenti de hauts niveaux d'Hostilité durant les jours ou ils rapportent d'avoir reçu de plus bas niveaux de support qu'à l'habitude. De résultats similaires n'ont pas été obtenus avec les mesures de Sérénité, de Peur, ou de Culpabilité en tant que variables dépendantes, démontrant ainsi la spécificité des effets à la Jovialité et l'Hostilité. Les résultats sont adressés en termes de contributions théorique qui surviennent de l'intégration de la psychologie évolutionniste et la psychologie de la personnalité. De plus, nous avons identifiés des pistes de recherche pour le futur. Finalement des applications pratiques de styles d'échange social sont discutées en mettant de l'emphase sur les implications pour la conceptualisation et le traitement de troubles mentaux dans le contexte de la psychologie clinique.

This study examined the distinguishing physiological characteristics of the disgust reaction across different domains. According to an evolutionary analysis, disgust is a heterogeneous emotion with features that are specific to three distinct domains: pathogens, sex, and morality. Each domain is predicted to take as input information specific to the adaptive problem it evolved to solve and regulate behavior accordingly. The goal of the present study was to investigate whether there are any adaptive physiological differences associated with the disgust response across domains. Participants were asked to imagine acts that elicit pathogen, sexual, and moral disgust. It was hypothesized that there would be both quantitative and qualitative differences in the physiological reactions based on the appropriate functional outputs for the social (moral and sexual) and nonsocial (pathogen) domains. Individual differences in self-report ratings of disgust as well as the role of religiosity in regulating social disgust were also explored. Results showed significant differences in parasympathetic influences on the heart in response to the sexual stimuli but not to the other domains. Also, the self-report ratings showed that females were more sensitive than males to the sexual stimuli but not to pathogens or moral acts. These results lend further support to the dissociation between the functional domains of disgust. Correlations between levels of religiosity and both subjective ratings of fear towards pathogens and levator labii activation when viewing pathogen stimuli were found. This study provides preliminary evidence of dissociations between different domains of disgust and provides a methodological guideline which can help inform future studies of disgust. Implications of the current findings are discussed, as well as limitations of the current methodology and avenues for further exploration.

Evolutionary psychology is becoming an area of increasing interest for understanding and explaining human cognition, emotion and behaviour. One key area of this field relates to our heritage of social living and the impact that this has upon our inherited psychological makeup. The study aimed to consider the relationship between a number of variables related to this area guided by a basic theoretical model derived from the literature. The variables considered were social comparisons, two types of social anxiety, submissive behaviour and paranoid social cognitions. The study used a correlational design on a clinical group (N=31) and non-clinical comparison group (N=27) of subjects. A between groups analysis was also undertaken. For the clinical group social comparisons were found to be significantly correlated with scrutiny social anxiety. In turn scrutiny social anxiety was found to be significantly correlated with both paranoid social cognitions and submissive behaviour. For the comparison group, no significant correlations were found between social comparison and the other variables. However, social scrutiny anxiety was again found to significantly correlate with paranoid social cognitions and submissive behaviour. Between group analyses showed highly significant differences between the groups on all variables measured. The results for the clinical group broadly supported the model put forward whilst this was not the case for the comparison group. The clinical group results indicated that where individuals took on a more subordinate role they would also assume a more competitive and defensive posture in their interactions with others. This was considered to form the basis of an evolutionary prepared set of responses that facilitate group living in the context of social hierarchies. The differing results obtained for the comparison group were discussed as were the clinical and wider implications of the findings.

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Psychology
Lester C. Loschky
Öhman and Mineka (2001) proposed the existence of an evolved fear module with four Fodorian characteristics of modularity. They presented evidence that the fear module is selective, automatic, encapsulated, and operates in dedicated subcortical neural circuitry. The consistently rapid physiological and behavioral (attention capture) evidence (e.g., Öhman & Mineka, 2001) provides clear support for its automaticity. However, recent developments (e.g., Blanchette, 2006) cast doubt on the selectivity of the module. Specifically, it is unclear whether or not the fear module automatically responds selectively to evolutionarily ancient fear stimuli or whether modern threats may also elicit automatic responding. Furthermore, previous research using visual search paradigms has produced unclear results regarding the evolutionarily derived selectivity of the fear module. Unfortunately, the visual search method is notoriously sensitive to visual characteristics of stimuli (Duncan & Humphreys, 1989). However, eye movements provide a valid alternative measure of covert attention capture. In order to clarify the issues, Experiment 1 used an oculomotor inhibition paradigm to present ancient and modern threats with one another or neutral stimuli in competition for visual attention. In addition, we collected measures of participants’ experience with the stimuli to assess the influence of experience/familiarity/learning on rapid attention to threats. Furthermore, because image inversion maintains low level stimulus characteristics (e.g., spatial frequencies, contrast, and luminance) while disrupting the semantic processing of images, presenting the stimulus pairs upside down was used to determine whether any observed effects were due to low level stimulus characteristics. Experiment 1 produced null results with respect to systematic differences in attentional processes as a function of threat type. Because Experiment 1 was modeled after Nummenmaa et al., (2009, Exp 3), it was therefore necessary to attempt to replicate their findings. Experiment 2 successfully replicated the findings of Nummenmaa et al. Therefore, it is suggested that the rapid attention processes responsible for systematic deviations in saccade trajectories seen in Experiment 2 (and Nummenmaa et al., 2009, Exp 3) do not translate to the methodology used in Experiment 1. Given the findings from the present study, the question of whether or not there exists and evolved fear module remains open. This study clearly supports the existence of an attentional bias for emotional content as indicated through the use of oculomotor inhibition paradigm. However, like the visual search methodology, the oculomotor inhibition paradigm appears to be very sensitive to visual differences of the stimuli.

Despite representing an approach to psychology that places the most emphasis on the importance on the role of our ancestral past in shaping the human cognitive architecture, Evolutionary Psychology remains largely neglected in the field of archaeology. Though archaeologists have incorporated approaches into their research that adopt both cognitive and evolutionary perspectives, the lack of engagement with the concepts and methodologies of Evolutionary Psychology arguably risks the abnegation of valuable opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration that could greatly benefit both fields. This research applies the methodology of Evolutionary Psychology to the study of stone tool production, which is arguably the most abundant source of evidence from our ancestral environments regarding past cognition. The research provides an assessment of the adaptive advantages and information-processing problems of the various task domains associated with stone tool producing behaviours, together with considerations of possible test designs from the perspective of Evolutionary Psychology. The data collected relating to novices’ judgment of blow strength adopting a mixed-methods, explanatory sequential test design are also presented. The results are then evaluated to determine the extent to which a posited cognitive bias for acquiring competence in blow strength judgement is supported.

Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive operations, including working memory, inhibitory control and attention shifting, that underpin accurate, flexible and coordinated behaviour in many problem-solving contexts. While it seems likely that humans surpass nonhuman animals in EFs, previous research into the evolutionary origins of EFs is limited and lacks systematic comparisons of EFs in human and nonhuman animals. In this thesis, I aimed to overcome these limitations by developing a test battery to study EFs in our closest primate relative, the chimpanzee. Using an individual differences approach, I investigated the performance of 19 chimpanzees on several EF tasks and extracted two factors in an exploratory factor analysis accounting for 70.9 % of the variability. The two measures of working memory loaded onto one factor, suggesting that a common cognitive process underlay performance on both tasks. This factor could be clearly differentiated from a well-established measure of attention shifting, loading onto a second factor. In addition, the measures of inhibitory control did not contribute to a unique factor. Intriguingly, the emerging structure of separable EF processes, paralleled the EF structure suggested for human adults (Miyake et al, 2012). The subsequent comparison of a sub-sample of chimpanzees (n = 12; excluding aged individuals), pre-schoolers (n = 36) and undergraduates (n = 16) on two selected EF tests revealed impressive EF capacities of chimpanzees. Chimpanzees could deal with interference in working memory at levels comparable to four and five year-olds. Additionally, the ability of chimpanzees to shift attention was not significantly different from four year-olds; however, five- year-olds outperformed their primate relatives. My work suggests that important aspects of EFs are shared between humans and chimpanzees; while performance differences in EFs emerge late in human ontogeny. The implications of my results for theories on human cognitive evolution are discussed.

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Psychological Sciences
Gary L. Brase
Risky decision making occurs in both humans and non-human animals. For a large portion of the history of scientific investigation into human judgment and decision making, risky behavior has been viewed as flawed and irrational. However, the past several decades have seen advances in the view of human rationality. Scientists have suggested that, rather than using probability theory as the metric by which humans are judged as rational or irrational, human minds should be evaluated with respect to specific ecologies (e.g., Gigerenzer & Selten, 2001) with some scientists going further and specifying the ecologies as those which our ancestors evolved; essentially, our minds and their decision processes are adapted to solve specific recurring problems, and to solve those problems in specific environments. Within the domain of risky decision making there are a number of theories and models which are consistent with the hypothesis that human (and non-human) minds are molded for specific behavioral patterns based on environmental cues. One example is the priority heuristic. The priority heuristic is based in the ecological rationality approach—that heuristics are designed for specific ecologies. However, the ecological rationality of the priority heuristic is underspecified. Studies One and Two of the present dissertation compared predictions made by two models of risk-taking from evolutionary biology and behavioral ecology (dominance theory and risk-sensitive foraging) with a variety of predictions made by the priority heuristic. Data clearly showed that risk-sensitive foraging outperforms the priority heuristic (Study One) and that the priority heuristic cannot account for the motivation to acquire a minimum number of resources. Study Two showed mixed results for the priority heuristic when compared to dominance theory. Specifically, choice patterns were consistent with the priority heuristic, but process data in the form of decision times were not consistent with the priority heuristic. Also, the data pointed to a strong effect for desiring higher status when competing against others of varying status. Study Three compared four potential models of risky decision making in an attempt to extend the pattern of results from Studies One and Two showing general risk-sensitivity when attempting to achieve a specified need level (Money for Study One; Status for Study Two). Also, Study Three attempted to clarify the scope of the pattern of general risk-sensitivity by examining differential patterns of results based on whether the models predicted motivations to achieve need levels for money, status, or both. Results from Study Three were consistent with a general model of risk-sensitivity which operated on both monetary need levels and status need levels. This effect was additionally ubiquitous for males and females, contrary to predictions by dominance theory. The data from three studies showed support for a general model of risk-sensitivity consistent with those proposed by others (Mishra, 2010). The concept and implications of this general risk-sensitivity model are discussed, as well as future directions to understand the finer details and potential scope of this particular general risk-sensitivity model.

Evolutionary computation is an area within the field of artificial intelligence that is founded upon the principles of biological evolution. Evolution can be defined as the process of gradual development. Evolutionary algorithms are typically applied as a generic problem solving method, searching a problem space in order to locate good solutions. These solutions are found through an iterative evolutionary search that progresses by means of gradual developments. In the majority of cases of evolutionary computation the user is not aware of their algorithm's search behaviour. This causes two problems. First, the user has no way of assuring the quality of any solutions found other than to compare the solutions found by the algorithm with any available benchmark solutions or to re-run the algorithm and check if the results can be repeated or improved upon. Second, because the user is unaware of the algorithm's behaviour they have no way of identifying the contribution of the different components of the algorithm and therefore, no direct way of analyzing the algorithm's design and assigning credit to good algorithm components, or locating and improving ineffective algorithm components. The artificial intelligence and engineering communities have been slow to accept evolutionary computation as a robust problem-solving method because, unlike cased-based systems, rule-based systems or belief networks, they are unable to follow the algorithm's reasoning when locating a set of solutions in the problem space. During an evolutionary algorithm's execution the user may be able to see the results of the search but the search process itself like is a "black box" to the user. It is the search behaviour of evolutionary algorithms that needs to be understood by the user, in order for evolutionary computation to become more accepted within these communities. The aim of software visualization is to help people understand and use computer software. Software visualization technology has been applied successfully to illustrate a variety of heuristic search algorithms, programming languages and data structures. This thesis adopts software visualization as an approach for illustrating the search behaviour of evolutionary algorithms. Genetic Algorithms ("GAs") are used here as a specific case study to illustrate how software visualization may be applied to evolutionary computation. A set of visualization requirements are derived from the findings of a GA user study. A number of search space visualization techniques are examined for illustrating the search behaviour of a GA. "Henson," an extendable framework for developing visualization tools for genetic algorithms is presented. Finally, the application of the Henson framework is illustrated by the development of "Gonzo," a visualization tool designed to enable GA users to explore their algorithm's search behaviour. The contributions made in this thesis extend into the areas of software visualization, evolutionary computation and the psychology of programming. The GA user study presented here is the first and only known study of the working practices of GA users. The search space visualization techniques proposed here have never been applied in this domain before, and the resulting interactive visualizations provide the GA user with a previously unavailable insight into their algorithm's operation.

Recent research has shown that sexual activity may be influenced by variables suggested by evolutionary theory, such as pheromonal cues. A recent study in our laboratory indicated that female pheromones influence men’s drinking and approach behavior based on hidden pathways of behavioral influence caused by chemosensory signals. The current study sought to examine whether a link exists between male pheromones and women’s drinking and approach behavior, through the use of a possible male sex pheromone called androstenone, and sought to examine this link within the context of a women’s ovulation cycle. One hundred and three female participants were primed with either androstenone or a control scent and then completed measures assessing their beer consumption, approach behavior, and ovulatory phase. Results of the study indicated that females who were exposed to the androstenone prime drank significantly more than those exposed to the control prime, though results indicated no differences between groups in terms of approach behavior. No interaction effects existed between group condition and ovulatory phase on beer consumption or approach behavior; however, a limited amount of participants were ovulating when they completed the study, as indicated by a biological assay. The results from the current study implicate a specific pathway to alcohol use through biological signals within a sexual context. The findings from this study expand the existing literature on olfactory and pheromone signaling of sexual behavior in humans and shed light on newly uncovered biological pathways of influence on human behaviors.

In this thesis I discuss one way in which evolutionary theory has been brought to bear on the evaluation of competing meta-normative views in epistemology. More specifically, I investigate whether normative realism in epistemology (epistemic realism) is compatible with the view that we are justified in holding many of the epistemic beliefs we hold, on the assumption that those beliefs can be explained in evolutionary terms. In Part I I discuss normativity in epistemology and meta-epistemology. I begin by drawing attention to the fact that there are very different ways of understanding which concepts in epistemology are normative and what their normativity consists in. I focus on the concept of an epistemic reason to illustrate this point. I then discuss, in some detail, how different interpretations of epistemic-normativity will affect the form which normative-realist views in epistemology can take. I conclude by drawing a taxonomy of epistemic-realist views which is mindful of the different interpretations of epistemic normativity which I distinguished. In Part II I turn to discuss the topic of Darwinian arguments against normative-realist views in epistemology. I begin by considering the form which Darwinian arguments have taken in recent metaethical literature. I argue that Darwinian arguments of a kind which is meant to raise a distinctively epistemological challenge for normative-realist views – I call those 'Darwinian-epistemological' arguments – represent a more interesting object of philosophical investigation than Darwinian arguments of a different 'metaphysical' kind. I then formulate a Darwinian-epistemological argument which targets normative-realist views in epistemology (DEA), explain how it works, and spend some time discussing its key premises. In Part III I engage with the Darwinian-epistemological challenge against realism about epistemic normativity that Sharon Street presents in her paper 'Evolution and the Normativity of Epistemic Reasons' (2009). I argue that Street’s epistemological challenge is best viewed as an instance of a Darwinian-epistemological argument of the kind I formulated (DEA). I then go on to reply to Street’s argument on behalf of the epistemic realist. I conclude that arguments with the form of DEA do not represent a serious threat for normative realist views in epistemology.

O objetivo desta pesquisa é explorar a motivação e as potenciais complicações do uso da tecnologia para melhorar fundamentalmente a condição humana. Inicialmente a pesquisa se debruçará sobre alguns pressupostos filosóficos básicos para a discussão deste melhoramento. Para tal será abordado a heurística evolutiva proposta por Anders Sandberg e Nick Bostrom, em seguida será apresentado brevemente alguns traços básicos da condição humana a saber: cognição, moralidade e ligação afetiva de acordo com a perspectiva da psicologia evolucionista, um passo importante na heurística evolutiva supramencionada. A seguir o trabalho versará especificamente sobre melhoramentos que tenham como alvo a própria moralidade humana, inicialmente sobre as fortes motivações de realizar tal melhoramento, e ao final sobre os riscos e problemas tanto filosóficos como técnicos de tentar realizar tal modificação na moralidade humana. Tentativamente, a análise será original ao (1) aceitar pressupostos dos defensores do melhoramento moral, e sua conclusão de que o mesmo é um imperativo caso conduzido de maneira correta, (2) abandonar alguns dos possíveis contra-argumentos, no entanto, também (3) concluir a existência de severos problemas em potencial no que tange ao melhoramento moral
The intent of this research is to investigate the motivations and potential risks of using technology to alter the human condition. Firstly, it will explore some of the basic philosophical assumptions behind such discussions. Hence, it will evaluate the evolutionary heuristics proposed by Anders Sandberg and Nick Bostrom and its potential for solving many issues arising when considering human enhancement, therefore introducting one basic philosophical ground when arguing for or against these modifications. Thence, it will be given an introduction to some basic traits of the human condition, e.g.: cognition, morality and pair-bonding, from the perspective of Evolutionary Psychology. Such traits will be then considered as targets for human enhancement. These are important steps in, and thus a application of, the aforementioned evolutionary heuristics. Secondly, this dissertation will specifically investigate the risks of using technology to alter human morality. It will focus on the possibility that attempting to improve human moral dispositions moral enhancement could in fact yield a future without moral value. This analysis will be tentatively novel in that it will focus on risks that could arise even if the claims of moral enhancement advocates are true and some arguments against it unsound

Master of Science
Department of Psychological Sciences
Gary Brase
An evolutionary perspective suggests that changes in resource availability produce changes in fertility decisions and desires, and that these adaptive mechanisms are sensitive to sociocultural factors that act more proximally to the decision-maker. The current work systematically investigates several factors as potential predictors of fertility decisions at the level of the individual decision-maker in a three-study design, adding to an existing literature of fertility decision-making that has focused on demographic-level shifts. In study 1 (N=228, 69.3% female, average age=25.6), study 2 (N=232, 72.4% female, average age=24.7), and study 3 (N=333, 67% female, average age=25.1) data was collected from a general Internet sample and a student sample. Findings suggest that high resource variability produces insecure romantic attachment, which is associated with increased fertility plans and desires. Further, this work indicates that fertility decision making mechanisms are sensitive to sociocultural factors, particularly gender roles and identities, cultural pressures to become a parent, mothering expectations, and relationship status. These findings suggest that demographic-level changes in fertility can be understood, with strong predictive models, at the individual-level of analysis.

A recent line of research grounded in evolutionary theory has shown that exposure to women's fertility cues affects men's mating cognition and behavior. This area of research has not yet been examined in relation to alcohol. As alcohol has also been shown to facilitate the formation of sexual connections for males, establishing the intersection between these two lines of research seems necessary to understand the impetus behind human behavior. Ninety-eight male participants were primed with either the scent of a fertile woman or the scent of nonfertile woman and then completed measures assessing their level of attraction to pictures of women, beer consumption, approach behavior, and alcohol expectancies. Results of the study indicated that males' mating behaviors are affected by women's ovulatory cues, as men exposed to an ovulation prime drank significantly more and exhibited significantly more approach behavior than men exposed to a control prime. Furthermore, an interaction was found between sexual enhancement expectancies and prime condition on beer consumption, which indicated that there was no effect for sexual enhancement expectancies for those in the control prime condition, but for those in the ovulation prime condition, increased drinking was associated with higher sexual facilitation expectancies. These findings were consistent with previous research and support evolutionary theories of mating behavior while taking an integrative approach in trying to explain factors behind human behavior.