Journal articles: 'EXPERIENCIA AVERSIVA'

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Septiani, Rizki, Satia Nur Maharani, and Ria Zulkha Ermayda. "Studi Perilaku Investor dan Myopic Loss Aversian." Jati: Jurnal Akuntansi Terapan Indonesia 4, no. 1 (February 28, 2021): 70–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/jati.v4i1.9303.

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An experienced investor's mindset tends to be different from that of a novice investor who has certain considerations heavily influenced by feelings and emotions. This mindset has unwittingly led to behavioral bias. One behavioral bias that often arises without being realized by investors, especially novice investors, is Myopic Loss Aversion (MLA). This study aimed to confirm the existence of Myopic Loss Aversion (MLA) behavioral bias and to analyze Myopic Loss Aversion (MLA) behavior bias inactive investors in Malang as well as the factors causing the emergence of Myopic Loss Aversion (MLA) behavior bias. This research was qualitative case study research. Primary data was obtained through in-depth interviews with selected informants. The results found that Myopic Loss Aversion arises in investors who conduct portfolio evaluations more frequently by monitoring fluctuating stock chart movements that seem to fear that their portfolio would suffer losses. Furthermore, another discovery was about how investors who had experienced Myopic Loss Aversion bias could overcome past mistakes in the investment decision-making process.Keywords: Financial Behavior, Investors, Investment Decision Making AbstrakPola pikir investor yang sudah berpengalaman bisa berbeda dengan investor pemula yang cenderung masih memiliki pertimbangan tertentu yang banyak dipengaruhi oleh perasaan dan emosi. Pola pikir ini tanpa disadari telah memunculkan bias keperilakuan. Salah satu bias keperilakuan yang sering muncul tanpa disadari oleh investor terutama investor pemula yaitu Myopic Loss Aversian (MLA). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengkonfirmasi eksistensi dari bias keperilakuan Myopic Loss Aversian (MLA) dan menganalisis bias perilaku Myopic Loss Aversian (MLA) pada investor aktif di Malang serta faktor penyebab munculnya bias perilaku Myopic Loss Aversian (MLA). Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif studi kasus. Data primer dilakukan melalui wawancara mendalam terhadap informan terpilih. Hasil penelitian ini ditemukan bahwa Myopic Loss Aversian muncul pada investor yang melakukan evaluasi portofolio secara lebih frekuen melaui pemantauan pergerakan grafik harga saham fluktuatif yang seakan-akan takut portofolionya mengalami kerugian. Lebih lanjut, juga ditemukan tentang bagaimana para investor yang pernah mengalami bias Myopic Loss Aversian mengatasi kesalahan-kesalahan dimasa lalu dalam proses pengambilan keputusan investasi.Kata Kunci: Perilaku Keuangan, Investor, Pengambilan Keputusan Investasi

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Pain, Laure, Marie-Josée Angst, Laurence LeGourrier, and Philippe Oberling. "Effect of a Nonsedative Dose of Propofol on Memory for Aversively Loaded Information in Rats." Anesthesiology 97, no. 2 (August 1, 2002): 447–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200208000-00023.

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Background The effects of propofol on memory for aversive information are not well determined. The authors evaluated the effects of a minimal nonsedative dose of propofol or midazolam on memory in rats, using an apparatus composed of two compartments: a large bright anxiogenic one and a small dark neutral one. Methods Groups of rat received propofol (9 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) or midazolam (3 mg/kg). Anxiety was assessed in rats placed in the anxiogenic compartment as the time before the animals entered the neutral compartment. Memory for an aversive event was assessed in rats placed in the anxiogenic compartment as the time to enter the neutral one where they previously experienced foot shocks (fear conditioning). To assess the memory for a nonaversive event, rats were placed in the neutral compartment with no shocks (preexposure). The following day, rats were placed in it and they experienced foot shocks. As a result of the preexposure, rats exhibit less fear to enter it. Results Propofol and midazolam increased the time to enter the neutral compartment. Propofol or midazolam was given to rats before experiencing foot shocks in the neutral compartment. When later tested, the time to enter it was decreased. Propofol or midazolam was given to rats before the preexposure to the neutral compartment. When later tested, the latency to enter it was not modified by the preexposure. Conclusions Propofol and midazolam impaired memory for aversive and for nonaversive experiences at equianxiolytic doses that do not produce locomotor impairment in rats.

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Merkle, Christoph. "Financial Loss Aversion Illusion*." Review of Finance 24, no. 2 (February 1, 2019): 381–413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rof/rfz002.

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Abstract We test the proposition that investors’ ability to cope with financial losses is much better than they expect. In a panel survey of investors from a large bank in the UK, we ask for their subjective ratings of anticipated returns and experienced returns. The time period covered by the panel (2008–10) is one where investors experienced frequent losses and gains in their portfolios. This period offers a unique setting to evaluate investors’ hedonic experiences. We examine how the subjective ratings behave relative to expected portfolio returns and experienced portfolio returns. Loss aversion is strong for anticipated outcomes; investors are twice as sensitive to negative expected returns as to positive expected returns. However, when evaluating experienced returns, the effect diminishes by more than half and is well below commonly found loss aversion coefficients. This suggests that a large part of investors’ financial loss aversion results from an affective forecasting error.

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Szőnyi, András, Krisztián Zichó, Albert M. Barth, Roland T. Gönczi, Dániel Schlingloff, Bibiána Török, Eszter Sipos, et al. "Median raphe controls acquisition of negative experience in the mouse." Science 366, no. 6469 (November 28, 2019): eaay8746. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aay8746.

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Adverse events need to be quickly evaluated and memorized, yet how these processes are coordinated is poorly understood. We discovered a large population of excitatory neurons in mouse median raphe region (MRR) expressing vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (vGluT2) that received inputs from several negative experience–related brain centers, projected to the main aversion centers, and activated the septohippocampal system pivotal for learning of adverse events. These neurons were selectively activated by aversive but not rewarding stimuli. Their stimulation induced place aversion, aggression, depression-related anhedonia, and suppression of reward-seeking behavior and memory acquisition–promoting hippocampal theta oscillations. By contrast, their suppression impaired both contextual and cued fear memory formation. These results suggest that MRR vGluT2 neurons are crucial for the acquisition of negative experiences and may play a central role in depression-related mood disorders.

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Crowe, Sally, and Frank Deane. "Characteristics of mental health recovery model implementation and managers’ and clinicians’ risk aversion." Journal of Mental Health Training, Education and Practice 13, no. 1 (January 8, 2018): 22–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jmhtep-05-2017-0039.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationships between clinicians’ and managers’ risk aversion and a range of variables related to the implementation of the Collaborative Recovery Model (CRM). Positive risk taking is an integral component of the recovery process. Clinicians’ risk aversion has the potential to negatively impact on their implementation of recovery-oriented practices. The CRM provides an evidence-based framework to assist consumers to participate in the recovery process. However, there is a need for research to clarify the factors related to recovery that have impact on managers’ and clinicians’ risk aversion, and ultimately on implementation of recovery practices. Design/methodology/approach A cross-sectional survey assessed clinicians’ (n=174) and managers’ (n=48) risk aversion and their self-reported learning experiences, commitment to using CRM, goal setting attitudes and CRM implementation behaviour. Findings Clinicians who reported more risk aversion were significantly more likely to report positive attitudes towards goal setting. Stepwise regression revealed that training experiences, goal setting attitudes and commitment to CRM significantly predicted an increase in CRM implementation. Over and above this, risk aversion predicted a small but significant increase in the self-reported use of CRM. Managers experienced significantly less risk aversion than clinicians, with a negative relationship between risk aversion and commitment to CRM principles. Originality/value This paper suggests that clinicians’ risk aversion impacts upon their implementation of the CRM, with managers less risk averse than clinicians.

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Lee, Ju-Hyoung, and Sook-Jeong Lee. "Nature experience influences nature aversion: Comparison of South Korea and Germany." Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 46, no. 1 (January 9, 2018): 161–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6794.

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People in modern metropolitan societies are often presented with only limited opportunities for experiencing nature in the wild, so that there is an increasing tendency for them to feel nature aversion, that is, an uncomfortable awkwardness when in a truly natural environment. Our purpose in this study was to investigate nature aversion. In an international comparative study, we compared the nature aversion of people in South Korea and Germany, with results revealing that the degree of aversion toward a natural environment is higher in a society where nature experiences are more limited and there is a low frequency of encounters. In this situation there is a risk that the perception of discomfort in a natural environment may develop further into nature experience phobia.

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Tinnermann, Alexandra, Christian Büchel, and Jan Haaker. "Observation of others’ painful heat stimulation involves responses in the spinal cord." Science Advances 7, no. 14 (March 2021): eabe8444. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe8444.

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Observing others’ aversive experiences is central to know what is dangerous for ourselves. Hence, observation often elicits behavioral and physiological responses comparable to first-hand aversive experiences and engages overlapping brain activation. While brain activation to first-hand aversive experiences relies on connections to the spinal cord, it is unresolved whether merely observing aversive stimulation also involves responses in the spinal cord. Here, we show that observation of others receiving painful heat stimulation involves neural responses in the spinal cord, located in the same cervical segment as first-hand heat pain. However, while first-hand painful experiences are coded within dorsolateral regions of the spinal cord, observation of others’ painful heat stimulation involves medial regions. Dorsolateral areas that process first-hand pain exhibit negative responses when observing pain in others. Our results suggest a distinct processing between self and others’ pain in the spinal cord when integrating social information.

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Cullity, Ellen Rose, Alexandre Arthur Guérin, Heather Bronwyn Madsen, Christina Jennifer Perry, and Jee Hyun Kim. "Insular cortex dopamine 1 and 2 receptors in methamphetamine conditioned place preference and aversion: Age and sex differences." Neuroanatomy and Behaviour 3 (August 27, 2021): e24. http://dx.doi.org/10.35430/nab.2021.e24.

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Rodent studies have proposed that adolescent susceptibility to substance use is at least partly due to adolescents experiencing reduced aversive effects of drugs compared to adults. We thus investigated methamphetamine (meth) conditioned place preference/aversion (CPP/CPA) in adolescent and adult mice in both sexes using a high dose of meth (3 mg/kg) or saline as controls. Mice tagged with green-fluorescent protein (GFP) at Drd1a or Drd2 were used so that dopamine receptor 1 (D1) and 2 (D2) expression within the insular cortex (insula) could be quantified. There are sex differences in how the density of D1+ and D2+ cells in the insula changes across adolescence that may be related to drug-seeking behaviors. Immunohistochemistry followed by stereology were used to quantify the density of cells with c-Fos and/or GFP in the insula. Unexpectedly, mice showed huge variability in behaviors including CPA, CPP, or no preference or aversion. Females were less likely to show CPP compared to males, but no age differences in behavior were observed. Conditioning with meth increased the number of D2 + cells co-labelled with c-Fos in adults but not in adolescents. D1:D2 ratio also sex- and age-dependently changed due to meth compared to saline. These findings suggest that reduced aversion to meth is unlikely an explanation for adolescent vulnerability to meth use. Sex- and age-specific expressions of insula D1 and D2 are changed by meth injections, which has implications for subsequent meth use.

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Salters-Pedneault, Kristalyn, and James W. Diller. "A Preliminary Study of Anxiety, Negative Affect, Experiential Avoidance, and Delaying of Aversive Events." Behaviour Change 30, no. 4 (November 28, 2013): 241–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/bec.2013.23.

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The current study examined the role of anxiety, negative affect, and trait experiential avoidance in choices between immediate and delayed aversive outcomes. Undergraduate students (N = 34) completed self-report measures and a laboratory-based delay-discounting task in which they made choices between electric shocks delivered immediately versus shocks delivered after various time delays. The hypotheses that higher levels of anxiety, greater negative affectivity, and greater tendency to engage in experiential avoidance would predict choices of an objectively worse delayed aversive stimulus over an immediate (but less severe) aversive stimulus were supported. These findings may have implications for interventions that target behavioural and experiential avoidance in anxiety.

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Hewitt, Olivia, Ben Gurney-Smith, and Kim Golding. "A qualitative exploration of the experiences of adoptive parents attending ‘Nurturing Attachments’, a dyadic developmental psychotherapy informed group." Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 23, no. 3 (January 22, 2018): 471–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359104517753511.

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Children who are adopted have frequently experienced a range of aversive experience which impact on their ability to form secure attachments. Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (DDP) is an intervention designed to develop and promote secure attachments with children who have experienced developmental trauma. Eight adoptive parents participated in semi-structured interviews regarding their experiences of attending the ‘Nurturing Attachment’ group informed by DDP. The transcripts of their interviews were explored using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The analysis revealed five inter-connected superordinate themes which were as follows: A supportive group, A shift in perspective, ‘Turning trauma into secure attachment’, ‘Am I doing it right?’ and Continuing the adoption journey. Themes are considered in relation to the theoretical underpinnings and practice of DDP. Some further implications for clinical and research practice are also discussed.

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Klappenbach, Martín, Ayelén Nally, and Fernando Federico Locatelli. "Parallel memory traces are built after an experience containing aversive and appetitive components in the crab Neohelice." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 23 (May 15, 2017): E4666—E4675. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1701927114.

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The neurobiology of learning and memory has been mainly studied by focusing on pure aversive or appetitive experiences. Here, we challenged this approach considering that real-life stimuli come normally associated with competing aversive and appetitive consequences and that interaction between conflicting information must be intrinsic part of the memory processes. We used Neohelice crabs, taking advantage of two well-described appetitive and aversive learning paradigms and combining them in a single training session to evaluate how this affects memory. We found that crabs build separate appetitive and aversive memories that compete during retrieval but not during acquisition. Which memory prevails depends on the balance between the strength of the unconditioned stimuli and on the motivational state of the animals. The results indicate that after a mix experience with appetitive and aversive consequences, parallel memories are established in a way that appetitive and aversive information is stored to be retrieved in an opportunistic manner.

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Przybylski, Andrew K., and Victoria Nash. "Internet Filtering Technology and Aversive Online Experiences in Adolescents." Journal of Pediatrics 184 (May 2017): 215–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.01.063.

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Bariselli, Sebastiano, Christelle Glangetas, Stamatina Tzanoulinou, and Camilla Bellone. "Ventral tegmental area subcircuits process rewarding and aversive experiences." Journal of Neurochemistry 139, no. 6 (October 3, 2016): 1071–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13779.

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Bakke, A., L. M. Irgens, U. F. Malt, and P. Å. Høisæter. "Clean intermittent catheterisation—performing abilities, aversive experiences and distress." Spinal Cord 31, no. 5 (May 1993): 288–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sc.1993.52.

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Ray, Debajyoti, Matthew Shum, and Colin F. Camerer. "Loss Aversion in Post-Sale Purchases of Consumer Products and their Substitutes." American Economic Review 105, no. 5 (May 1, 2015): 376–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151037.

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This paper considers the measurement of consumer loss aversion in product markets. We introduce a test based on a “substitution effect,” focusing on how the end of a sale affects sales not of the good itself, but a substitute good. Such an effect cannot be easily confounded with consumer stockpiling. Using a unique dataset from an online hardware retailer, we find evidence consistent with consumer loss aversion. Moreover, we find that less experienced consumers suffer a more prominent loss aversion bias compared to more experienced consumers.

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Bernhardt, Nadine, Elisabeth Obst, Stephan Nebe, Shakoor Pooseh, Friedrich M. Wurst, Wolfgang Weinmann, Michael N. Smolka, and Ulrich S. Zimmermann. "Acute alcohol effects on impulsive choice in adolescents." Journal of Psychopharmacology 33, no. 3 (January 24, 2019): 316–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881118822063.

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Background: Neurodevelopmental and alcohol-induced changes in decision-making have been proposed to critically influence impulsive behaviour in adolescents. Objective: This study tested the influence of acute alcohol administration on impulsive choice in adolescents. Methods: Fifty-four males aged 18–19 years were tested in a single-blind placebo-controlled cross-over design. During alcohol administration (infusion resulting in an arterial blood alcohol concentration of 80 mg%) and placebo condition (saline infusion), participants performed a task battery providing estimates of delay discounting, probability discounting for gains, for losses and loss aversion, and also rated subjectively experienced alcohol effects. Additionally, baseline alcohol consumption (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, blood phosphatidylethanol levels), motives (Drinking Motive Questionnaire, Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire and Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale), family history and self-report measures of impulsivity (Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Substance Use Risk Profile Scale) were provided. Results: No overall effects of treatment on choice behaviour were found. However, individual differences were observed. In the alcohol condition, more impulsive choice tendencies for delay discounting were associated with higher subjectively experienced alcohol effects. Further, higher risk aversion for probabilistic gains and higher loss aversion during alcohol condition were related to higher levels of real-life alcohol consumption and a family history of alcohol problems, respectively. Finally, the time to make a decision was substantially shortened for choices involving negative prospects. Conclusions: Contrary to common beliefs, acute alcohol intoxication did not generally incite impulsive decision-making. It rather appears that alcohol-induced behavioural changes in adolescents vary considerably depending on prior experiences and subjective effects of alcohol.

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Jang, Moon Sun, Yu Toyoshima, Masahiro Tomioka, Hirofumi Kunitomo, and Yuichi Iino. "Multiple sensory neurons mediate starvation-dependent aversive navigation inCaenorhabditis elegans." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 37 (August 27, 2019): 18673–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821716116.

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Animals demonstrate flexible behaviors through associative learning based on their experiences. Deciphering the neural mechanisms for sensing and integrating multiple types of sensory information is critical for understanding such behavioral controls. The soil nematodeCaenorhabditis elegansavoids salt concentrations it has previously experienced under starvation conditions. Here, we identify a pair of sensory neurons, the ASG neuron pair, which in cooperation with the ASER salt-sensing neuron generate starvation-dependent salt avoidance. Animals whose sensory input is restricted to only ASER failed to show learned avoidance due to inappropriately directed navigation behaviors. However, their navigation through a salt concentration gradient was improved by allowing sensory inputs to ASG in addition to ASER. Detailed behavioral analyses of these animals revealed that input from ASG neurons is required not only for controlling the frequency of initiating a set of sharp turns (called pirouettes) based on detected ambient salt concentrations but also adjusting the migration direction during pirouettes. Optogenetic activation of ASER by ChR2 induced turning behaviors in a salt concentration-dependent manner where presence of intact ASG was important for the starvation-dependent responses. Calcium imaging of the activity of ASG neurons in freely moving worms revealed that ASG is activated upon turning behavior. Our results indicate that ASG neurons cooperate with the ASER neuron to generate destination-directed reorientation in starvation-associated salt concentration avoidance.

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van Wijk, A. J., and J. Hoogstraten. "Experience with Dental Pain and Fear of Dental Pain." Journal of Dental Research 84, no. 10 (October 2005): 947–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154405910508401014.

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Anxious people tend to overestimate the intensity of aversive events such as fear and pain. When an aversive event has been experienced personally, prediction is based on experience and is possibly less subject to bias due to anxiety. Therefore, it was hypothesized that subjects will overestimate fear of specific dental pains relative to subjects who experienced the pain or procedure personally. Samples of highly anxious dental patients (n = 48), patients waiting for periodontal treatment (n = 56), and psychology freshmen (n = 262) completed a measure of dental anxiety and the Fear of Dental Pain (FDP) questionnaire. All FDP items were extended with the question whether the subject ever experienced the pain personally (yes or no). Less fear was reported when the pain had been experienced personally, with the exception of the sample of highly anxious dental patients. The results suggest that fear of dental pain is a highly important covariate in dental pain research.

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Ainslie, George, and John Monterosso. "Hyperbolic discounting lets empathy be a motivated process." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25, no. 1 (February 2002): 20–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x02220014.

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The Perception-Action Model (PAM) is a cogent theory of how organisms get information about others' experiences. However, such a stimulus-driven mechanism does not handle well the complex choices that humans face about how to respond to this information. Hyperbolic reward discounting permits a reward-driven mechanism for both how aversive empathic experiences can compete for attention and how pleasurable empathic experiences are constrained.

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Rodebaugh, Thomas L., and Richard G. Heimberg. "Measurement of ambivalent and purposeful engagement after aversive social experiences." Journal of Anxiety Disorders 22, no. 4 (May 2008): 693–706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.07.003.

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Latorre Postigo, José Miguel, Marta Nieto López, María Antonia Font Payeras, Laura Ros Segura, Jesús Heras, and Jorge Javier Ricarte Trives. "Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire: Factor structure and psychometric properties." Anales de Psicología 36, no. 3 (August 5, 2020): 457–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/analesps.397711.

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La evitación cognitiva se refiere a las estrategias y esfuerzos dirigidos a prevenir experiencias negativas y eventos aversivos que provocan ansiedad. El presente estudio analizó la estructura factorial y las propiedades psicométricas de la versión española del Cuestionario de evitación cognitiva (CAQ; Sexton & Dugas, 2008), un instrumento que evalúa cinco estrategias de evitación cognitiva relacionadas con la preocupación. La traducción al español se administró a una muestra no clínica de 614 participantes (18-82 años). La escala total y las subescalas mostraron una consistencia interna de buena a excelente. Utilizando el análisis factorial confirmatorio, un modelo de cinco factores mostró un buen ajuste entre la estructura teórica y los datos empíricos. Se obtuvo evidencia de validez convergente y discriminante a través del análisis de las correlaciones del cuestionario con medidas de preocupación, supresión del pensamiento, rumiación y estilos de afrontamiento. Los resultados arrojaron datos preliminares satisfactorios sobre la adaptación española del CAQ, que podría proporcionar mayores avances en la práctica clínica y la investigación sobre procesos cognitivos y trastornos de ansiedad. Cognitive avoidance refers to strategies and efforts toward prevention of aversive experiences and events that provoke anxiety. The present study analyzed the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire (CAQ; Sexton & Dugas, 2008), an instrument that assesses five worry-related cognitive avoidance strategies. The Spanish translation was administered to a non-clinical sample of 614 participants (18-82 years). The total scale and subscales showed good to excellent internal consistency. Using confirmatory factor analysis, a five-factor model showed a good fit between the theoretical structure and the empirical data. Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity was obtained through analysis of the correlations of the questionnaire with measures of worry, thought suppression, rumination and coping styles. The results yielded satisfactory preliminary data on the Spanish adaptation of the CAQ, which could provide for further advances in clinical practice and research on cognitive processes and anxiety disorders.

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Qi, Yanyan, Martin J. Herrmann, Luisa Bell, Anna Fackler, Shihui Han, Jürgen Deckert, and Grit Hein. "The mere physical presence of another person reduces human autonomic responses to aversive sounds." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1919 (January 22, 2020): 20192241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.2241.

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Social animals show reduced physiological responses to aversive events if a conspecific is physically present. Although humans are innately social, it is unclear whether the mere physical presence of another person is sufficient to reduce human autonomic responses to aversive events. In our study, participants experienced aversive and neutral sounds alone (alone treatment) or with an unknown person that was physically present without providing active support. The present person was a member of the participants' ethnical group (ingroup treatment) or a different ethnical group (outgroup treatment), inspired by studies that have found an impact of similarity on social modulation effects. We measured skin conductance responses (SCRs) and collected subjective similarity and affect ratings. The mere presence of an ingroup or outgroup person significantly reduced SCRs to the aversive sounds compared with the alone condition, in particular in participants with high situational anxiety. Moreover, the effect was stronger if participants perceived the ingroup or outgroup person as dissimilar to themselves. Our results indicate that the mere presence of another person was sufficient to diminish autonomic responses to aversive events in humans, and thus verify the translational validity of basic social modulation effects across different species.

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Kahneman, Daniel, Barbara L. Fredrickson, Charles A. Schreiber, and Donald A. Redelmeier. "When More Pain Is Preferred to Less: Adding a Better End." Psychological Science 4, no. 6 (November 1993): 401–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00589.x.

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Subjects were exposed to two aversive experiences: in the short trial, they immersed one hand in water at 14 °C for 60 s; in the long trial, they immersed the other hand at 14 °C for 60 s, then kept the hand in the water 30 s longer as the temperature of the water was gradually raised to 15 °C, still painful but distinctly less so for most subjects. Subjects were later given a choice of which trial to repeat. A significant majority chose to repeat the long trial, apparently preferring more pain over less. The results add to other evidence suggesting that duration plays a small role in retrospective evaluations of aversive experiences; such evaluations are often dominated by the discomfort at the worst and at the final moments of episodes.

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Undeger, Irem, Renée M. Visser, and Andreas Olsson. "Neural Pattern Similarity Unveils the Integration of Social Information and Aversive Learning." Cerebral Cortex 30, no. 10 (June 4, 2020): 5410–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaa122.

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Abstract Attributing intentions to others’ actions is important for learning to avoid their potentially harmful consequences. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging multivariate pattern analysis to investigate how the brain integrates information about others’ intentions with the aversive outcome of their actions. In an interactive aversive learning task, participants (n = 33) were scanned while watching two alleged coparticipants (confederates)—one making choices intentionally and the other unintentionally—leading to aversive (a mild shock) or safe (no shock) outcomes to the participant. We assessed the trial-by-trial changes in participants’ neural activation patterns related to observing the coparticipants and experiencing the outcome of their choices. Participants reported a higher number of shocks, more discomfort, and more anger to shocks given by the intentional player. Intentionality enhanced responses to aversive actions in the insula, anterior cingulate cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, and the anterior superior temporal sulcus. Our findings indicate that neural pattern similarities index the integration of social and threat information across the cortex.

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May, April C., Joanna Jacobus, Jennifer L. Stewart, Alan N. Simmons, Martin P. Paulus, and Susan F. Tapert. "Do Adolescents Use Substances to Relieve Uncomfortable Sensations? A Preliminary Examination of Negative Reinforcement among Adolescent Cannabis and Alcohol Users." Brain Sciences 10, no. 4 (April 5, 2020): 214. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10040214.

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Alcohol and cannabis use are highly prevalent among adolescents and associated with negative consequences. Understanding motivations behind substance use in youth is important for informing prevention and intervention efforts. The present study aims to examine negative reinforcement principles of substance use among adolescent cannabis and alcohol users by pairing a cue reactivity paradigm with an aversive interoceptive stimulus. Adolescents (ages 15–17), classified as controls (CTL; n = 18), cannabis and/or alcohol experimenters (CAN+ALC-EXP; n = 16), or individuals meeting clinical criteria for cannabis and/or alcohol use disorder (CAN+ALC-SUD; n = 13) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during which they experienced an aversive interoceptive probe delivered via breathing load while simultaneously performing a cue reactivity paradigm. Participants also provided self-report ratings of how their substance use is positively or negatively reinforced. While experiencing the breathing load, CAN+ALC-SUD exhibited greater (p < 0.05) deactivation in the right amygdala, the left inferior frontal gyrus, and the left parahippocampal gyrus than CAN+ALC-EXP and CTL, who did not differ. Across all substance users, activation during the breathing load within the left parahippocampal gyrus negatively correlated with cannabis and alcohol lifetime use episodes and the left inferior frontal gyrus activity negatively correlated with lifetime alcohol use episodes. CAN+ALC-SUD reported experiencing more positive and negative reinforcement of using their substance of choice than CAN+ALC-EXP; both user groups reported higher levels of positive than negative reinforcement. Adolescents with a cannabis/alcohol use disorder demonstrate an altered response to interoceptive perturbations. However, adolescent cannabis/alcohol use does not appear to be driven by negative reinforcement, as viewing substance images did not dampen this response. Based on self-report data, the experience of positive reinforcement may be stronger for adolescents. Future studies should examine whether positive reinforcement contributes to adolescent substance use.

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Kenardy, Justin, Bruce Arnow, and W. Stewart Agras. "The Aversiveness of Specific Emotional States Associated with Binge-Eating in Obese Subjects." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 30, no. 6 (December 1996): 839–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048679609065053.

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Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the hypothesis that non-purge-related binge-eating in obesity is maintained by a ‘trade-off’ in which a highly aversive emotional state is exchanged for a less aversive state. Method: Ninety-eight obese binge-eaters meeting the DSM-IV criteria for binge-eating disorder [1] were contrasted with 65 non-binge-eating controls on their perceived distress associated with negative mood states usually experienced before and after binges. Results: Binge-eaters reported significantly greater distress and lower tolerance of negative mood compared to controls. Furthermore, when compared with controls, binge-eaters reported that emotions typically reported before binges (e.g. anger) were more aversive than those reported after (e.g. guilt). Conclusions: These results were interpreted as supporting the ‘trade-off’ theory and have implications for the treatment of binge-eating disorder.

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Kunz, Miriam, Jessica Peter, Sonja Huster, and Stefan Lautenbacher. "Pain and Disgust: The Facial Signaling of Two Aversive Bodily Experiences." PLoS ONE 8, no. 12 (December 9, 2013): e83277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083277.

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Brown, Adam D., Amy Joscelyne, Michelle L. Dorfman, Charles R. Marmar, and Richard A. Bryant. "The impact of perceived self-efficacy on memory for aversive experiences." Memory 20, no. 4 (May 2012): 374–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2012.667110.

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Takanashi, Rieko, Naoki Yoshinaga, Keiko Oshiro, Satoshi Matsuki, Mari Tanaka, Hanae Ibuki, Fumiyo Oshima, Yuko Urao, Daisuke Matsuzawa, and Eiji Shimizu. "Patients’ perspectives on imagery rescripting for aversive memories in social anxiety disorder." Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 48, no. 2 (September 17, 2019): 229–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1352465819000493.

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AbstractBackground:Imagery rescripting (IR) for early aversive memories in patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) has shown promising results, but no study has investigated the reactions and perspectives of patients who received IR.Aims:This study aimed to gain understanding of patients’ experiences/perspectives on IR as an adjunct to cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for SAD.Method:Twenty-five individuals with SAD received one or two sessions of IR over 16 CBT sessions. Contents of recurrent images and linked memories were identified during IR. Outcome measures included social anxiety, image and memory distress and vividness, and encapsulated belief. Patients completed a questionnaire about their perspectives of IR after the session. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data.Results:IR resulted in significant within-session improvement in most outcome measures. Linked memories to negative recurrent images in social situations were categorized into nine groups. Common memories were ‘Being criticized by others’, ‘Being made fun of’, ‘Failing or not doing something well’ and ‘Being left out in a group’. Most patients (82%) experienced IR as impressive, and more than half of patients (59%) found IR effective. Themes of reasons of impressiveness and effectiveness were categorized as ‘Results of IR session’ and ‘Processes of IR session’. The theme ‘Results of IR session’ included six subthemes, and the theme ‘Processes of the IR session’ included five subthemes.Conclusions:Regarding patients’ perspectives, although they may experience negative emotions in the process of an IR session, our results suggest that many patients with SAD found IR sessions effective.

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Heinz, Andreas. "Pre-Reflective Self-Awareness in Psychotic Disorders." ProtoSociology 36 (2019): 434–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/protosociology20193617.

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Disorders of the self figure prominently in psychotic experiences. Subjects describe that “alien” thoughts are inserted in their mind by foreign powers, can sometimes hear their thoughts aloud or describe complex voices interacting with each other. Such experiences can be conceptualized in the framework of a Philosophical Anthropology, which suggests that human experience is characterized by centric and excentric positionality: subjects experience their environment centered around their enlived body and at the same time can reflect upon their place in a shared lifeworld from an excentric point of view. Pre-reflective self awareness has been suggested to ensure that subjects can identify their own thoughts or actions as belonging to themselves, even when they reflect upon them from an excentric point of view. This pre-reflective self awareness appears to be impaired during psychotic experiences, when subjects no longer identify thoughts in their own stream of consciousness as belonging to themselves and instead attribute them to an outside agent. Among several potential causes, it is suggested that such impairments can be due to discriminatory or traumatic experiences, which affect the enlived (centric) position of a person and make her feel encircled and deeply threatened by aversive powers. As a consequence, the afflicted individual may fundamentally distance herself from her current centric position in a hostile environment, at the price of experiencing her own thoughts or actions as alien. Philosophical Anthropology may thus help to explain how social exclusion, discrimination and traumatization can promote psychotic experiences and why social support is of primary importance for any treatment of psychosis.

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Karwicka, Wiktoria, Marta Wiatrowska, Kacper Kondrakiewicz, Ewelina Knapska, Miron Bartosz Kursa, and Adam Hamed. "Relaying Aversive Ultrasonic Alarm Calls Depends on Previous Experience. Empathy, Social Buffering, or Panic?" Brain Sciences 11, no. 6 (June 8, 2021): 759. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11060759.

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Ultrasonic vocalizations are among the oldest evolutionarily forms of animal communication. In order to study the communication patterns in an aversive social situation, we used a behavioral model in which one animal, the observer, is witnessing as his cagemate, the demonstrator, is experiencing a series of mild electrical foot shocks. We studied the effect of the foot shock experience on the observer and the influence of a warning sound (emitted shortly before the shock) on USV communication. These experiments revealed that such a warning seems to increase the arousal level, which differentiates the responses depending on previous experience. This can be identified by the emission of characteristic, short 22 kHz calls of a duration below 100 ms. Two rats emitted calls that overlapped in time. Analysis of these overlaps revealed that in ‘warned’ pairs with a naive observer, 22 kHz calls were mixed with 50 kHz calls. This fact, combined with a high fraction of very high-pitched 50 kHz calls (over 75 kHz), suggests the presence of the phenomenon of social buffering. Pure 22 kHz overlaps were mostly found in ‘warned’ pairs with an experienced observer, suggesting a possible fear contagion with distress sharing. The results show the importance of dividing 22 kHz calls into long and short categories.

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Rouel, Melissa, Richard J. Stevenson, Josephine Milne-Home, and Evelyn Smith. "Differences in emotions and cognitions experienced in contamination aversion." Journal of Experimental Psychopathology 9, no. 3 (July 1, 2018): 204380871879482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2043808718794826.

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A current model of contamination aversion suggests that it has distinct affective and cognitive components that interact to respond to threats. The affective component involves disgust and responds preferentially to direct contaminants (e.g., feces). The cognitive component involves obsessive beliefs and responds preferentially to indirect contaminants (e.g., money). This study examined characteristics of the two components by comparing emotional and cognitive responses to different contaminants. In total, 47 participants completed behavioral avoidance tasks with direct, indirect, and harmful contaminants. Participants rated their disgust, fear of contamination, and threat estimation while in contact with each contaminant. The contaminants produced different emotional and cognitive responses, suggesting the differential involvement of affective and cognitive factors depending on the type of threat. Additionally, it was found that disgust did not habituate over time in contact with contaminants, whereas fear of contamination and threat estimation appeared to decline. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

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Norton, Alice R., and Maree J. Abbott. "The Role of Environmental Factors in the Aetiology of Social Anxiety Disorder: A Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature." Behaviour Change 34, no. 2 (May 17, 2017): 76–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/bec.2017.7.

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Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is characterised by a marked and persistent fear of social/performance situations, and a number of key environmental factors have been implicated in the aetiology of the disorder. Hence, the current article reviews theoretical and empirical evidence linking the development of SAD with parenting factors, traumatic life events, and aversive social experiences. Specifically, research suggests that the risk of developing SAD is increased by over-controlling, critical and cold parenting, an insecure attachment style, aversive social/peer experiences, emotional maltreatment, and to a lesser extent other forms of childhood maltreatment and adversity. Moreover, these factors may lead to posttraumatic reactions, distorted negative self-imagery, and internalised shame-based schemas that subsequently maintain SAD symptomatology. However, further research is necessary to clarify the nature, interactions, and relative contributions of these factors. It is likely that SAD develops via a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors, and that multiple aetiological pathways underlie the development of the disorder.

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Dworkin, Jodi. "Adolescents’ Negative Experiences in Organized Youth Activities." Journal of Youth Development 1, no. 3 (March 1, 2007): 44–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2007.373.

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Research indicates that organized youth activities are most often a context of positive development. However, there is a smaller body of evidence suggesting that these activities are sometimes a context of negative experiences that may impede learning or lead to dropping out. To better understand negative experiences in youth activities, we conducted ten focus groups with adolescents. Youths’ descriptions provide an overview of the range of types of negative experiences they encountered, as well as how they responded to them. The most frequent types of negative experiences involved peers and peer group dynamics and aversive behavior attributed to the adult leaders of the activities. The youth described two types of responses to their negative experiences - a passive response of feeling negative emotions, and active coping, which sometimes led to learning.

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Wanke, Nadine, and Lars Schwabe. "Subjective Uncontrollability over Aversive Events Reduces Working Memory Performance and Related Large-Scale Network Interactions." Cerebral Cortex 30, no. 5 (December 14, 2019): 3116–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhz298.

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Abstract Lack of control over significant events may induce a state of learned helplessness that is characterized by cognitive, motivational, and affective deficits. Although highly relevant in the pathogenesis of several mental disorders, the extent of the cognitive deficits induced by experiences of uncontrollability and the neural mechanisms underlying such deficits in humans remain poorly understood. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we tested here whether uncontrollability over aversive events impairs subsequent working memory performance and, if so, which neural processes are involved in such deficits. We assessed working memory and the involved neurocircuitry in the MRI scanner before and after participants underwent a task in which they could either learn to avoid electric shocks or had no instrumental control over shocks. Our results show that subjective, but not objective, uncontrollability over aversive events impaired working memory performance. This impact of subjective uncontrollability was linked to altered prefrontal and parahippocampal activities and connectivity as well as decreased crosstalk between frontoparietal executive and salience networks. Our findings show that the perceived uncontrollability over aversive events, rather than the aversive events themselves or the actual, objective control over them, disrupts subsequent working memory processes, most likely through altered crosstalk between prefrontal, temporal, and parietal areas.

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Landoll, Ryan R., Annette M. La Greca, and Betty S. Lai. "Aversive Peer Experiences on Social Networking Sites: Development of the Social Networking-Peer Experiences Questionnaire (SN-PEQ )." Journal of Research on Adolescence 23, no. 4 (January 31, 2013): 695–705. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jora.12022.

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Sánchez Z., Elias. "Análisis de riesgos en proyectos de inversión." Pensamiento Crítico 11 (September 8, 2014): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.15381/pc.v11i0.9014.

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En casi todos los proyectos privados utilizan conceptos como demanda, oferta, aversión al riesgo, etc.; sin embargo, pocas veces observamos la aplicación de instrumentos propios del análisis económico para evaluar estos aspectos. Mi experiencia profesional me permite verificar la importancia del instrumental económico al medir el impacto del grado de aversión al riesgo del decisor, en particular, y el análisis de riesgos, en general. Ante escasos recursos, alta incertidumbre y escasas alternativas de elección elevan la certeza en las decisiones; sin embargo, pocas veces son utilizados por su “complicada” aplicación, percepción que pretendemos reducir con el presente artículo.

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Cabib, S., and S. Puglisi-Allegra. "Opposite responses of mesolimbic dopamine system to controllable and uncontrollable aversive experiences." Journal of Neuroscience 14, no. 5 (May 1, 1994): 3333–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.14-05-03333.1994.

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Giza, Barbara K., Karen Ackroff, Stuart A. McCaughey, Anthony Sclafani, and Thomas R. Scott. "Preference conditioning alters taste responses in the nucleus of the solitary tract of the rat." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 273, no. 4 (October 1, 1997): R1230—R1240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1997.273.4.r1230.

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Aversive conditioning has an impact on the neural signal for the gustatory conditioned stimulus (CS). Here, we determined whether the code is also affected by preference conditioning. We paired the taste of MgCl2 (CS+) with intragastric nutrients in some rats (MG), and citric acid (CS+) with nutrients in others (CI). A control group (Control) experienced both tastants without nutrients. Preferences (>90%) developed for each CS+. We recorded responses to 16 taste stimuli in the nucleus of the solitary tract. Responsiveness of acid-oriented neurons to MgCl2 in MG rats was lower than in Controls, and its profile was more distinct from those of acidic and bitter stimuli. Total activity to citric acid was unchanged in CI rats. However, its temporal profile showed a decreased phasic component, making citric acid temporally distinct from nonsugars. Therefore, the responses to both CS+ were modified, each in its own manner, to be more distinct from those of aversive stimuli. The effects of preference conditioning, however, were weaker than those of aversive conditioning.

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Claes, Nathalie, Johan W. S. Vlaeyen, Emelien Lauwerier, Michel Meulders, and Geert Crombez. "Goal conflict in chronic pain: day reconstruction method." PeerJ 6 (August 15, 2018): e5272. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5272.

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Background When suffering from chronic pain, attempts to control or avoid pain often compete with other daily activities. Engaging in one activity excludes engaging in another, equally valued activity, which is referred to as “goal conflict.” As yet, the presence and effects of goal conflicts in patients with chronic pain remain poorly understood. Methods This study systematically mapped the presence and experience of goal conflicts in patients with fibromyalgia compared to healthy controls. A total of 40 patients and 37 controls completed a semi-structured interview in which they first reconstructed the previous day, identified conflicts experienced during that day, and classified each of the conflicting goals in one of nine goal categories. Additionally, they assessed how they experienced the previous day and the reported conflicts. Results Results showed that patients did not experience more goal conflicts than healthy controls, but that they did differ in the type of conflicts experienced. Compared to controls, patients reported more conflicts related to pain, and fewer conflicts involving work-related, social or pleasure-related goals. Moreover, patients experienced conflicts as more aversive and more difficult to resolve than control participants. Discussion This study provides more insight in the dynamics of goal conflict in daily life, and indicates that patients experience conflict as more aversive than controls, and that conflict between pain control (and avoidance) and other valued activities is part of the life of patients.

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Cheng, Kent Jason, Scott Landes, and Janet Wilmoth. "Risk Aversion Among Male Older Adults: Does Veteran Status Matter?" Innovation in Aging 4, Supplement_1 (December 1, 2020): 636. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa057.2180.

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Abstract Risk aversion determines how people make decisions and is known to predict a wide array of economic outcomes. This study assessed whether there are veteran status differences in risk aversion utilizing the Health and Retirement Study. Risk aversion is based on hypothetical financial gambles (N=2,121; 2006 wave) and self-reported risk attitudes on selected topics (N= 4,980; pooled 2014 and 2016 waves of the Leave-Behind Survey). Results from multivariate analyses reveal that veterans were more likely to be risk averse than nonveterans in financial matters, occupation, and health, but veteran status is not statistically significant in explaining risk taking in driving and leisure, and sport risk. Further research is needed to discern the role of military service-related experiences in determining levels of risk aversion among veterans and the extent to which risk aversion accounts for veteran status differences in later-life economic outcomes. Part of a symposium sponsored by the Aging Veterans: Effects of Military Service across the Life Course Interest Group.

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Deng, Kebin, Zhong Ding, and Yalu Wang. "Peasant youth experiences of CEOs, risk aversion and corporate performance." Rationality and Society 32, no. 3 (August 2020): 278–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043463120945636.

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This article examines the impact of spiritual tempering on corporate performance by investigating the experiences of CEOs who were part of the “peasant youth” between 1957 and 1976 in China. Using a sample of China’s listed companies and by developing propensity score matching and a difference-in-differences model, we find that CEOs who had profound peasant youth experiences have a stronger awareness of risk prevention and that these experiences lead to an improvement in corporate performance of over 3%. In addition, the positive impact of CEOs’ peasant youth experience on corporate performance is pronounced in either state-owned or non-state-owned enterprises. Overall, this study confirms that spiritual tempering has a significant positive impact on corporate performance.

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Jacobson, S. L., H. D. Freeman, R. M. Santymire, and S. R. Ross. "Atypical experiences of captive chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ) are associated with higher hair cortisol concentrations as adults." Royal Society Open Science 4, no. 12 (December 2017): 170932. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170932.

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Experiences during early development are influential on the lives of human and non-human primates into adulthood. The population of captive chimpanzees in the USA can provide insight into this relationship, as collectively they have experienced a wide range of exposure to both conspecifics (those raised in natal groups) and humans (those raised as personal pets or performers). Our study investigated chimpanzee exposure to humans using a continuous measure of categorization, the chimpanzee–human interaction index, and the relationship between this experience and cortisol concentrations in adulthood. Historical records and hair samples were collected from 60 chimpanzees which were socially housed in 13 zoos and sanctuaries. We found that more human exposure throughout the life of a chimpanzee was associated with higher hair cortisol concentrations in adulthood. Sex was also a significant factor affecting cortisol concentration, with male chimpanzees having higher cortisol concentrations than female chimpanzees. These results build upon the extensive literature about aversive effects of atypical social histories for chimpanzees and emphasize to managers the importance of monitoring potential negative health consequences and social deficits these individuals may exhibit.

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Nastiti, Anindrya, Barti Setiani Muntalif, Dwina Roosmini, Arief Sudradjat, S. V. Meijerink, and A. J. M. Smits. "Coping with poor water supply in peri-urban Bandung, Indonesia: towards a framework for understanding risks and aversion behaviours." Environment and Urbanization 29, no. 1 (February 1, 2017): 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816686485.

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This paper explores the daily risks of households with respect to dimensions of inadequate water access and supply (quality, quantity, continuity and affordability). We describe how perceptions of risk are shaped and how households seek to reduce possible health impacts and potential economic losses through aversion behaviours. To this end, households’ activities relating to water storage, treatment and usage, together with water source preference, were analysed using a qualitative approach. We developed a framework that describes actual risk, risk perceptions and aversion behaviours. Risk perceptions and the adoption of aversion behaviours of varying frequency and intensity are based on a complex interaction between personal and shared experiences that relate to water supply dimensions, socioeconomic characteristics, and social networking. Moreover, we discuss household risk management strategies and provide some recommendations aimed at improving future approaches to the study of aversion behaviours.

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Laycock, G., C. E. Hale, and A. J. Hemmings. "The effects of prior handling experiences on the stress responses of semi-feral foals at auction." Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science 2007 (April 2007): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1752756200020743.

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Welfare is often defined as the state of an individual to cope with the environment in which it finds itself (Fraser and Broom, 1997). This statement is further endorsed by the assertion that stress is triggered by environmental stimuli that cause a defence reaction or ‘stress response’ (Mostl and Palme, 2002). Stress can be measured by alterations in behaviour and through changes in physiological parameters. In a recent report, the Farm Animal Welfare Committee (2005) postulated that elevated levels of stress in semi feral ponies at auction maybe apparent in those ponies herded through auction sale rings by handlers displaying limited competence and knowledge of equine husbandry. Aversive handling and the consequent fear that animals feel towards humans can be a major source of stress and should be considered a welfare concern (Rushen et al., 1999). Research into aversive handling has a propensity to be more focused on intensively farmed production animals. However, it is apparent that the fast movement of pony stock through sale rings, and the often aggressive manner in which this can be carried out, may not be considered optimal for the welfare of these ponies. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prior handling experience on the stress response of semi feral foals at auction.

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Heller, Aaron S. "From Conditioning to Emotion: Translating Animal Models of Learning to Human Psychopathology." Neuroscientist 26, no. 1 (August 5, 2019): 43–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073858419866820.

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Emotional responses are not static but change as a consequence of learning. Organisms adapt to emotional events and these adaptations influence the way we think, behave, and feel when we encounter similar situations in the future. Integrating recent work from rodent models and research on human psychopathology, this article lays out a model describing how affective events cause learning and can lead to anxiety and depression: affective events are linked to conditioned stimuli and contexts. Affective experiences entrain oscillatory synchrony across distributed neural circuits, including the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens, which form associations that constitute the basis of emotional memories. Consolidation of these experiences appears to be supported by replay in the hippocampus—a process by which hippocampal firing patterns recreate the firing pattern that occurred previously. Generalization of learning occurs to never before experienced contexts when associations form across distinct but related conditioned stimuli. The process of generalization, which requires cortical structures, can cause memories to become abstracted. During abstraction, the latent, overlapping features of the learned associations remain and result in the formation of schemas. Schemas are adaptive because they facilitate the rapid processing of conditioned stimuli and prime behavioral, cognitive, and affective responses that are the manifestations of the accumulation of an individual’s conditioned experiences. However, schemas can be maladaptive when the generalization of aversive emotional responses are applied to stimuli and contexts in which affective reactions are unnecessary. I describe how this process can lead to not only mood and anxiety disorders but also psychotherapeutic treatment.

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Paolini, Stefania, and Kylie McIntyre. "Bad Is Stronger Than Good for Stigmatized, but Not Admired Outgroups: Meta-Analytical Tests of Intergroup Valence Asymmetry in Individual-to-Group Generalization Experiments." Personality and Social Psychology Review 23, no. 1 (February 23, 2018): 3–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868317753504.

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Theories of risk aversion, epistemic defense, and ingroup enhancement converge in predicting greater impact of negative (vs. positive) experiences with outgroup members on generalized evaluations of stigmatized outgroups. However, they diverge in predictions for admired outgroups. Past tests have focused on negative outgroups using correlational designs without a control group. Consequently, they have not distinguished between alternative explanations or ascertained the direction of causality/generalization, and they have suffered from self-selection biases. These limitations were redressed by a meta-analysis of experimental research on individual-to-group generalization with positive and negative outgroups (59 tests; 3,012 participants). Controlling for modest confounds, the meta-analysis found a generalization advantage of negative experiences for stigmatized outgroups and a generalization advantage of positive experiences for admired outgroups. These results highlight the centrality of valenced expectations about outgroups, consistent with epistemic defense and ingroup enhancement and inconsistent with risk aversion. Implications for positive changes in intergroup dynamics are discussed.

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Sterpenich, V., L. Perogamvros, G. Tononi, and S. Schwartz. "Experiencing fear in dreams relates to brain responses to aversive stimuli during wakefulness." Sleep Medicine 40 (December 2017): e259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2017.11.759.

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Rose, Jason P., Andrew L. Geers, Stephanie L. Fowler, and Heather M. Rasinski. "Choice-making, Expectations, and Treatment Positivity: How and When Choosing Shapes Aversive Experiences." Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 27, no. 1 (February 11, 2013): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bdm.1775.

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Scharf, Miri, and Ofra Mayseless. "Disorganizing Experiences in Second- and Third-Generation Holocaust Survivors." Qualitative Health Research 21, no. 11 (December 28, 2010): 1539–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732310393747.

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Second-generation Holocaust survivors might not show direct symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder or attachment disorganization, but are at risk for developing high levels of psychological distress. We present themes of difficult experiences of second-generation Holocaust survivors, arguing that some of these aversive experiences might have disorganizing qualities even though they do not qualify as traumatic. Based on in-depth interviews with 196 second-generation parents and their adolescent children, three themes of disorganizing experiences carried across generations were identified: focus on survival issues, lack of emotional resources, and coercion to please the parents and satisfy their needs. These themes reflect the frustration of three basic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy, and this frustration becomes disorganizing when it involves stability, potency, incomprehensibility, and helplessness. The findings shed light on the effect of trauma over the generations and, as such, equip therapists with a greater understanding of the mechanisms involved.

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Journal articles on the topic 'EXPERIENCIA AVERSIVA'

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