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Journal articles on the topic 'Exploration of outer space'
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1
Zheleznyakov, A. B., and V. V. Korablev. "JAPAN’S OUTER SPACE EXPLORATION." St. Petersburg State Polytechnical University Journal 219, no. 2 (June 2015): 195–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.5862/jest.219.22.
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Norris, Leah Faye. "Sharing outer space." Science Fiction Film & Television 15, no. 3 (October 1, 2022): 337–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/sfftv.2022.25.
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D.C. Fontana’s contributions to the Star Trek franchise test the epistemological consequences of sharing space. Fontana wrote screenplays for various Star Trek series from 1966 until 2006. Her scripts challenge cultural readings of progress driven by absolute individual freedom, which is an obstacle to functional community. The franchise, in idealizing free exploration, tends to celebrate the infinite accumulation of knowledge, but Fontana’s narratives destabilize and limit knowledge instead. She writes stories about cohabitation and symbiotic relationships that enable collaborative futures.
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Khodykin, Alexander. "Outer Space Exploration as a Sociological Problem." Sotsiologicheskoe Obozrenie / Russian Sociological Review 18, no. 4 (2019): 47–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.17323/1728-192x-2019-4-47-73.
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To date, the topic of Space goes beyond the natural sciences and is increasingly studied by humanitarian and social disciplines. Space exploration by mankind adds a new space of social communication. Space is essential for its development features in several ways: first, the impossibility of survival of biological organisms without special equipment that supports vital functions; secondly, the huge distances and difficulty of movement; and third, the availability of the Space vacuum that is a much larger space of space objects. The study of mankind’s going beyond the Earth from a sociological position is the subject of a new sociological discipline, that of astrosociology. Astrosociology is defined by the author as a branch of the sociological discipline that is related to the sociology of space which studies the social actions, connections, and collective representations of people which arise in the course of Space exploration and appropriation. The task of astrosociology is to answer the questions of how will the space of social interactions change after mankind enters Outer Space, and how will these interactions change and continue to change in the case of the physical presence of social actors in Outer Space. The theoretical problem of astrosociology is formulated by the question of to what extent will existing sociological theories allow to investigate the changes of communities and interactions of social actors mediated by the exploration and appropriation of Outer Space. In order to provide astrosociology with theoretical resources, the author analyzes the sociological theory of space, the theory of globalization and mobility, and the actor-network theory. The analysis allows us to come to a preliminary conclusion about the presence of modern sociology of theoretical resources for research from the sociological standpoint of the human spacewalk.
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Islam, Md Badrul. "Space and Counter-Space Activities of Great Powers in Outer Space." Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 22, no. 2 (July 3, 2022): 397–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2022-22-2-397-410.
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The article is dedicated to outer space as a space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, open for exploration and use by all. Celestial bodies are natural resources of the common heritage of humanity. Their exploration and use for the benefit and discovery of all countries is the result of the ownership of all mankind. However, since the end of the 20th century and especially in the 21st century, outer space has gradually become militarized. This is due to changes in the system of warfare, which is likely to be heavily transformed in the coming future. In this transformational system, all domains of warfare will be interlinked and outer space will play a significant role. One example of such processes is the Gulf War, also called the First Space War, in which the US Army successfully used the outer space systems for its Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) activities. Since then, outer space has become an integral part of US military operations. Consequently, other great powers like Russian Federation and People’s Republic of China are also trying to develop the same capability to counter US dominance in outer space. Simultaneously, the US is continuing its counter-space capabilities to maintain the dominance in outer space. The growing dependence on outer space is not only applicable to the military operation but also to commercial and civilian activities. As a result, great powers are more actively engaging in various space and counter-space activities to pursue their national interests; such activity turns outer space into an arena for inter-state rivalry.
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Baitukayeva, D., Ph Achilleas, and A. Baitukayeva. "International cooperation of states in outer space exploration." KazNU BULLETIN. International relations and international law series 90, no. 2 (June 3, 2020): 45–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.26577/irilj.2020.v90.i2.06.
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Ferreira-Snyman, Anel. "Challenges to the Prohibition on Sovereignty in Outer Space - A New Frontier for Space Governance." Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal 24 (March 29, 2021): 1–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2021/v24i0a8685.
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The current space arena has changed significantly since the 1950s, when outer space activities commenced. At the time of the adoption of the Outer Space Treaty (and the related General Assembly Resolutions), the outer space arena was largely dominated by the political interests of the two major space powers, the USA and the (then) USSR. Although states have remained the primary actors in regulating the use of outer space, the extent to which private companies would become involved in the exploration and use of space was not envisaged at the time of the conclusion of the space treaties. It is particularly the involvement of private space actors that complicates the traditional understanding of the prohibition on territorial sovereignty in outer space. With specific reference to the outer space boundary, the principle of the common heritage of humankind and property rights in outer space, this contribution aims to highlight some of the challenges to the prohibition of sovereignty in view of current developments in the arena of outer space. This analysis suggests that the blanket prohibition on sovereignty in outer space should be re-evaluated in order to keep up with the fast developing technological advancements in space exploration, and that clear legal rules be developed to provide legal certainty for all role players.
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ЕЛИЗАРОВ, Михаил Владимирович. "INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE PEACEFUL EXPLORATION OF OUTER SPACE: PROBLEMATIC ASPECTS." Rule-of-law state: theory and practice 17, no. 3(65) (October 22, 2021): 225–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.33184/pravgos-2021.3.18.
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This paper examines the efficiency of the international legal framework governing activities of States in outer space in view of the existing gaps within it allowing for space weaponization and the use of force in outer space. Purpose: the paper attempts to answer the following question – is there a clear line between peaceful exploration and militarization of outer space, and is it legally permissible to deploy anti-satellite and anti-missile systems in outer space? Methods: the study employs general scientific methods, legal interpreting and forecasting. Results: the following conclusions have resulted from the study: the 1967 Outer Space Treaty does not cover potentially harmful activities of States in outer space; there is no general agreement on the definition of «space weapon»; the line that's drawn between peaceful space exploration and militarization appears to be blurry; the emphasis in understanding the term «peaceful» has shifted towards the meaning of «non-aggressive»; non-aggressive military uses of space allow for the deployment of defensive weapon systems in space.
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Krivokapich, Boris. "Outer space law." Juridical Analytical Journal 15, no. 2 (July 12, 2021): 17–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.18287/1810-4088-2020-15-2-17-35.
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Given that sudden breakthroughs in conquering the cosmos are expected, some basic questions about the law governing relations in respect to outer space and in it can be expected to be triggered, starting already with the issue how one has to call that law and what is its real content. The first part of the paper deals with the naming of this branch of law and concludes that for the time being the term outer space law is the best and widely accepted. In the second part, the author states that many scientific papers and even official documents, do not define outer space law at all. There are even opinions that the outer space is a phenomenon which cannot be defined at all, suggesting that it is not possible to define a cosmic right either. The author considers that a distinction should be made between national space law of states and international space law (space law in the narrow sense a branch of international law containing legal rules governing relations in respect to the space and in the space, and in particular the regime of that space and celestial bodies it contains, exploration and exploitation of the space, the regime of navigation in the space, the legal position of the astronauts and space objects, international legal liability for damage caused by space activities, etc.). When so is clearly stated, one can also speak of space law in a broad sense, which, in addition to the norms of space law in the narrow sense, would include norms that are part of soft law, agreements and legal customs between states and non-state entities, and even at some point so-called. metalaw (law that may one day govern relations between humanity and creatures of other worlds).
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Lord, Brendan. "On the Economic Use of Outer Space: A Clash of Values." Air and Space Law 44, Issue 2 (April 1, 2019): 139–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/aila2019011.
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As the exploration and use of outer space by private entities adds a commercial dimension to space law, corporate law and theory will act as an extrinsic regulatory force upon outer space activities. Although private actors advance humanity’s aspirations for the exploration and use of outer space, these actors have a different set of duties and obligations that prima facie conflict with the humanist treaty values. This article explores the conflict that arises when domestic laws overlap with larger public interest obligations.
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Burger, Merve Erdem. "International Responsibility to Protect Freedom of Outer Space Exploration versus Freedom of Use of Outer Space." International Institute of Space Law 65, no. 3 (September 2022): 163–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.5553/iisl/2022065003002.
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Havez, Muhammad, and Muhammad Insan Tarigan. "Penyelesaian Sengketa Terhadap Aktivitas di Ruang Angkasa oleh Pihak Non-Negara (Privat)." Jurnal Yustika: Media Hukum dan Keadilan 21, no. 02 (April 23, 2019): 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.24123/yustika.v21i02.1714.
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Nowadays lots of State are interested to have access in to the outer space. Because the outer space is known to have good potensial side and the outer space activities will continues to grow. The commercialism of outer space activity grows in the scale that never happen before. At first, the outer space activity only limited to the exploration such as launch the telecommunication sattelites, however currently it is developed and possible for states to do other activities such as space mining, space flight tourism which is kind of activities that more than exploration, but it is a massive exploitation. Those kinds of activities will increase and develop, until the things that never have imagine by states before. The main point is there are many possibilities of cases that is gonna happen in the future because of the grows with the technology that will affect the outer space making of law process. It is important that the law needs to have good dispute settlement that related with outer space activities.
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Volynskaya, Olga A. "The Code of Conduct in Outer Space as a New Stage of Development of International Space Law." Moscow Journal of International Law, no. 1 (March 30, 2014): 134–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/0869-0049-2014-1-134-140.
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The dynamic development of modern space activities pursues a primary goal which unifies all spacefaring states – which is stability and long-term sustainability of exploration and exploitation of outer space. In order to achieve the set goal the following conditions shall be met: general recognition and acceptability of and compliance by all space activity participants with international norms and principles pertaining to the conduct of space operations within the framework of current agreements, recommendations and initiatives. This approach, as well as the principles of its realization, could be reflected in the draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (CoC), an ambitious European project which is positioned as a quintessence of the modern international legal regime of the activities on the exploration and exploitation of outer space.
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Strobeyko, Adam. "Space for Change: The ASAT Tests in Outer Space in Light of the UN Liability Convention." Polish Review of International and European Law 8, no. 1 (August 20, 2020): 91–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/priel.2019.8.1.04.
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As space exploration is gathering pace, special care must be attributed to preserving outer space as a shared environment that can be explored freely by humankind. Currently, there exists no comprehensive legal framework regulating the use of conventional weapons in outer space. This has been made evident by repeated tests of anti-satellite weapons (ASATs) which took place in the XXI century and produced massive amounts of debris, possibly interfering with the rights of other states to explore space freely. This article examines the rules provided by the UN Liability Convention and their application to ASAT tests in outer space. The author reviews academic suggestions in the field and concludes that a multilateral and comprehensive legal framework needs to be established in order to guarantee unrestrained exploration of space.
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Vermeer, Arjen. "A Legal Exploration of Force Application in Outer Space." Military Law and the Law of War Review 46, no. 2 (December 2007): 299–333. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/mllwr.2007.02.03.
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Christie, Andrea. "News&Views: Send your students to outer space." Teaching Children Mathematics 17, no. 5 (December 2010): 268–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/tcm.17.5.0268.
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Do you want to travel to the moon for research and exploration? Would you like to find out what walking really feels like there? You and your students can do just that in NASA's newest three-dimensional game, Moonbase Alpha, launched in July 2010. Moonbase Alpha is a multiplayer game scenario set on a hypothetical lunar settlement. Players can work together as an exploration team or alone in this twenty-minute game that requires students to apply their knowledge of mathematics in order to succeed.
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Masson-Zwaan, Tanja. "New States in Space." AJIL Unbound 113 (2019): 98–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aju.2019.13.
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The actors in outer space have changed dramatically, involving not only new states but also private entities including start-ups, universities, and other new market entrants. The topics that require regulation have also changed, moving from broad principles to govern the initial stages of space exploration to much more complex questions with greater interests at stake. These topics include new kinds of activities, made possible by fast technological progress and often involving great potential for commercial gain, and also issues of growing concern for humankind as a whole with regard to the continued exploration and use of outer space. This essay looks at how new state participants view established and emerging international legal principles regulating space activities and highlights potential points of agreement or disagreement in that respect.
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Deplano, Rossana. "INCLUSIVE SPACE LAW: THE CONCEPT OF BENEFIT SHARING IN THE OUTER SPACE TREATY." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 72, no. 3 (July 2023): 671–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589323000234.
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AbstractThis article examines the legal principles governing the sharing of benefits deriving from the exploration and use of outer space. It shows that, over time, three strands of State practice have developed different understandings of the content of the obligation contained in Article I, paragraph 1 of the Outer Space Treaty. While drawing parallels with other areas of international law, the article examines the role of equity in the structure of the obligation and evaluates the possibility of replacing considerations of equivalence with a proportionality test to facilitate the fulfilment of the benefit sharing obligation under the Outer Space Treaty.
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Leshinsky, Rebecca. "Situating real estate law for the new outer-space economy." Journal of Property, Planning and Environmental Law 13, no. 2 (August 3, 2021): 152–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jppel-02-2021-0010.
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Purpose With current commercial space activities accelerating, the purpose of this paper is to contexualise enlivening the discipline of real estate law for outer space. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on essential topics in real estate law, contracts and insurance, this paper discusses these themes in their terrestrial and extra-terrestrial contexts. Findings Real estate law for the outer space environment carries many similarities to real estate law but also significant differences. At this early stage in human space exploration and travel, there is a need to deal more with goods/chattels (property assets); however, this will change as land – the Moon, asteroids, planets – are made available for mining and other activities. Given outer space activities carry high risk for spacecraft and humans, there are reciprocal lessons for real estate law and practice. Practical implications Real estate law for outer space is an area already in existence. However, as access to space develops further, particularly with inevitable human presence on the Moon and exploration to Mars, real estate law will also grow in importance and sophistication. Real estate law for outer space relies on contract and property law. These are levers for commercial activities, and a further array of complex law and governance – the Outer Space Treaties, international and national law, international custom, guidelines, codes and standards. Real estate law for space will require an interdisciplinary and global approach in an era where human needs are already reliant on goods and services derived from space, as well as in the quest for exploration beyond the earth and the moon itself. Originality/value The time is ripe for space law to be taken into nuanced areas, with real estate law being an important step. Entrenched into the combined real estate and outer space disciplinary context must be consideration of the environment (earth and beyond), sustainability, heritage protection issues, etc., as well as ensuring outer space has equitable opportunities for all nations and citizens.
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Klinova, M. V., and A. I. Nikitin. "Politics of France for obtaining European strategic autonomy in outer-space exploration." Полис. Политические исследования, no. 2 (March 27, 2024): 165–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2024.02.12.
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The development of such an immense strategic domain as an outer-space is based upon two pillars – civil and military. Space is a subject of competition between the most influential world powers, with the participation of state and inter-state structures, as well as private companies. Areas of panEuropean cooperation in the space sector are analyzed, including the participation of France and the EU and ESA, and the key and in some cases the leading role of France in these processes. The geopolitical significance of the outer-space in global competition and the evolution of the position of European powers and specifically of France in relation to the military component of space exploration are studied. Outer-space and cyber-space now are interpreted in Western military strategies as the fourth and the fifth “domains” of military operations, together with land-, sea- and air-domains. Western powers are coordinating and integrating their military-space activities. France and the governing structures of the European Union place an emphasis on assuring the strategic independence of Europe from the USA and from the technologies of “third countries” in space exploration, the military exploration of space included. The EU pays great attention to the formation and development of the “space economy” and the links between the state space programs with the private sector and private investments. The outer- space in the third decade of the XXI century has become a domain of everyday and constant activities of “space powers”, and because of the role of space technologies in the areas of communications, internet and cell communications, geo-positioning, TV-broadcasting, etc. widely interfere in the life of all other states on the planet. The militarization of the outer-space in different formats is actively progressing and requires active political efforts to ensure its peaceful use.
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Bulusu, Tarakeshwari D. "Unbridled Space Exploration and the Problem of Space Debris: Creating a veritable junkyard in the space?" RESEARCH HUB International Multidisciplinary Research Journal 11, no. 2 (February 29, 2024): 01–09. http://dx.doi.org/10.53573/rhimrj.2024.v11n2.001.
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From weather reporting to tracking ecological changes, from live telecast of various events to military intelligence, satellites have become indispensable in today’s world. Consequently, exploration of Air space, Outer space and Celestial bodies has grown exponentially. More and more countries and private companies are embarking on space missions, space tourism and space mining. The lower orbit of the Earth contains about 11,500 tonnes of all space objects. The unbridled space exploration has brought with it the problem of space debris, collisions and re-entry of space objects into the Earth’s atmosphere. These have the potential of endangering life and environment on Earth. Also, future space operations would be jeopardised. There is a need to take pre-emptive steps to mitigate the problem of space debris. It is imperative to regulate space exploration so as to leave a sustainable space environment for the future generation of astronauts and astronomers. The present paper draws the attention to the problem of unbridled space exploration, analyses the efficacy of the various international instruments governing the space exploration and suggests measures to mitigate the problem of space debris.
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Pasaribu, Desi, and Helga Yohana Simatupang. "The United States and the Privatization of Celestial Bodies under the Outer Space Treaty 1967." Contemporary Society and Politics Journal 2, no. 2 (December 31, 2023): 48–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.32939/cspj.v2i2.3414.
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Every country has an equal right to conduct space exploration, both in the development of science and technology and in the utilization of space resources for the survival needs on Earth. Space is the most challenging region to reach as it requires significant time and costs for exploration. This research aims to assist in the regulation of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty regarding the United States’ efforts to explore and privatize planets and moons. The research uses a qualitative descriptive method based on applicable international laws and treaty articles. The findings indicate that the United States has launched policies supporting the development of private space industries, yet there are legal considerations to be addressed, including the Outer Space Treaty, applicable in the context of privatizing planets and moons. The efforts made by the United States in privatizing planets and moons, in line with the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, raise various legal, ethical, and policy questions. The treaty defines international laws governing the use of outer space, including planets and moons.
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Данильян, Олег Геннадійович, and Олександр Петрович Дзьобань. "PROBLEMS OF OUTER SPACE SAFE EXPLORATION: PHILOSOPHICAL AND LEGAL APPROACH." Bulletin of Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University. Series: Philosophy, philosophies of law, political science, sociology 3, no. 42 (June 19, 2018): 8–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.21564/2075-7190.42.170276.
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Witze, Alexandra. "Ethics in outer space: can we make interplanetary exploration just?" Nature 617, no. 7960 (May 8, 2023): 245–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01551-7.
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Grigoriev, A. I., O. I. Orlov, and A. N. Potapov. "ROLE OF THE NATIVE SPACE MEDICINE AND PHYSIOLOGY IN EXPLORATION OF OUTER SPACE." Aerospace and Environmental Medicine 57, no. 1 (2023): 5–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.21687/0233-528x-2023-57-1-5-20.
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The review emphasizes that native space medicine will be focused on biological, physiological and psychological aspects of the human being in light of preparation for next milestones in space exploration. The current knowledge and expertise serve as a solid ground for new concepts and technologies that will safeguard humans against risks and events they will inevitably encounter in an unfamiliar world.
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Grigoriev, A. I., O. I. Orlov, and A. N. Potapov. "The Role of Native Space Medicine and Physiology in Exploration of Outer Space." Human Physiology 49, no. 7 (December 2023): 851–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0362119723070228.
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Bagrov, A. V. "PROTECTION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ASSOCIATED WITH THE EXPLORATION OF OUTER SPACE." Innovatics and Expert Examination, no. 1(26) (March 15, 2019): 21–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.35264/1996-2274-2019-1-21-26.
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Patent law, which arose at the beginning of the industrial revolution and protects the rights of the patent holder solely on the territory of patenting, does not apply to inventions used in outer space. Space is not included in any patenting territory. It is necessary on a new basis to form the space law on the protection of innovative solutions, which will take into account the uncertain time between the filing of an application for an invention and its first use in space. Now it often exceeds the generally accepted period of validity of patents. For space patents, it is advisable to establish their validity for at least 50 years from the date of first use. All outer space, including all objects located in it, is proposed to be declared a single patent territory. It is necessary to exclude duties on the maintenance of patents used in space flights, if they are used only by the developer or are transferred to them for free leasing.
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Ispolinov, Aleksei. "International space law of the era of the beginning of the business colonization of space." Meždunarodnoe pravosudie 10, no. 4 (2020): 22–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.21128/2226-2059-2020-4-22-44.
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Traditional approach to the activity in outer space as exclusive domain of few big space faring states through special governmental agencies as a sort of natural monopolies is rapidly placing by the prevailing view that such activity could be successfully and efficiently performed by private entities and fair competition between such players shall be allowed and is even desirable. Increasing participation of private capital in exploration of the resources of outer space is a persuasive confirmation of the emerging large-scale, self-sufficient economy of the New Space attractive for potential investors. Such economy requires sufficient level of legal certainty in a form of effective legal rules adequately reflecting contemporary reality and capable to guarantee the rights of commercial players in exploration of space resources including ownership rights on space resources obtained. Arguably, such reshaping of international space law will take place outside the UN and would not be based on the concept of space as a common heritage of mankind. Main drivers of this reshaping will be unilateral national laws like the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act or Luxembourg Space, bilateral agreements or international treaties with small number of participants (like the International Space Station Agreement or the Artemis Accords). Such national practice and international treaties claiming that they are adopted in implementation and in full conformity with the Outer Space Treaty will be viewed as subsequent practice and subsequent agreements clarifying, amending and even modifying rather vague provisions of the Outer Space Treaty. The values of the Outer Space Treaty will increase due to a lack of strict rules regulating or prohibiting commercial exploitation of space resources. It will allow to perform evolutionary reform of international space law using new avenues of the treaty creating new rules which will implement and improve provisions of the Outer Space Treaty.
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Movilla Pateiro, Laura. "MISCELÁNEA: ¿HACIA UN CAMBIO DE PARADIGMA EN EL DERECHO DEL ESPACIO ULTRATERRESTRE?: LOS ACUERDOS ARTEMISA." Revista española de derecho internacional 73, no. 2 (June 25, 2021): 285–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.17103/redi.73.2.2021.1b.04.
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The current state of development of outer space law faces significant challenges arising from new space exploration and exploitation activities. In this context, several States, under the auspices of the United States, signed in October 2020 the «Artemis Accords. Principles for cooperation in the civil exploration and use of the Moon, Mars, comets and asteroids for peaceful purposes». This paper examines the possible contribution of these Accords to the consolidation of a paradigm shift in the Law of Outer Space, especially in relation to two aspects. On the one hand, with respect to their own development, as they were adopted outside the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), the forum in which space law has historically been configured. Second, in relation to the legal regime of space resources, by consolidating an interpretation of the principle of non-appropriation that legitimizes their exploitation.
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Stankiewicz, Wojciech. "Rywalizacja państw w kosmosie." Przegląd Politologiczny, no. 2 (November 2, 2018): 109–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/pp.2010.15.2.10.
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The paper emphasizes that outer space has become an object of interest for different states relatively recently. Therefore, there is no detailed international law to regulate the activity of states in outer space. Current regulations were mainly drawn up at the turn of the 1960s, and they do not fully correspond to the reality of today. The drawing up of modern space law will be a dynamic process owing to the rapid evolution of space technology and an increasing exploration potential. As the activity of states in outer space is rapidly changing, laws to be drawn up may frequently be prepared ad hoc, in response to the newly emerging problems. It may be exceptionally difficult to enact a new convention to regulate general issues of outer space, in the way it has been done with respect to the law of the sea, as some countries (in particular the United States) may oppose the limitation of their plans to explore and utilize outer space. In order to maintain peace and balance, it may be necessary to establish a new international organization for the purpose of dealing with outer space. This organization would provide a forum to solve disputes, such as those concerning the development of satellite systems, the principles of teledetection, or armaments in space. A considerable portion of inter-state disputes concerning outer space will have to be solved by bilateral agreements, reached through a compromise, as there are no specialized organs authorized to act in the realm of outer space. A dynamically conducted exploration of outer space depends on the amount of expenditure allocated to the space programs of individual states. The amount of financing available is influenced by the economy (at the time of the slowdown that began in 2008 space agencies have had to envisage limited budgets). The prestige of space exploration is an aspect of particular importance. In order to increase its importance in the international arena, states are ready to allocate considerable means for spectacular space activities. It can be observed at present that states are increasingly competing with each other for prestige rather than for strategic purposes. This can easily be observed with respect to the developing countries, such as China and India. The pace of activities in space will be influenced by the ability of the states to cooperate. The specific nature of great space investments usually requires huge expenditure, therefore it would be advantageous to combine the financial contributions of various states. Joint projects would promote peaceful utilization of outer space.
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Permatasari, Yunita. "The Urgency of Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities for Indonesia." Jurnal Global & Strategis 13, no. 2 (November 25, 2019): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/jgs.13.2.2019.63-74.
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The rapid increase in the use and exploration of outer space raises concerns about its sustainability in a sustainable manner. Countries seek multilateral solutions through the guidelines for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA) which was adopted in June 2019 in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) forum. Indonesia as a country that organizes the use and exploration of outer space has an interest in ensuring the security of the implementation of outer space in a sustainable manner. Thus, it is necessary for the mapping of Indonesia’s interest in implementing the LTSOSA guidelines. The interest mapping will illustrate the urgency of the LTSOSA guidelines for Indonesia's national security particularly outer space security. The analysis shows that the LTSOSA guidelines contain items related to outer space security which are of vital national importance to Indonesia. This article is expected to become input for Indonesia's attitude and position towards the implementation of the LTSOSA guidelines.Keywords: Indonesia, long term sustainability of outer space activities, outer space security Penggunaan dan eksplorasi antariksa yang semakin pesat menimbulkan kekhawatiran terhadap kelestariannya secara berkelanjutan. Negara-negara mencari solusi secara multilateral melalui pedoman kegiatan antariksa berkelanjutan jangka panjang atau dikenal guidelines for the long-term sustainability of outer outer space activities (LTSOSA) yang disahkan pada Juni 2019 dalam forum United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Outer space (UNCOPUOS). Indonesia sebagai negara yang menyelenggarakan penggunaan dan eksplorasi antariksa berkepentingan untuk menjamin keamanan penyelenggaraan keantariksaannya secara berkelanjutan. Dengan demikian, perlu adanya pemetaan kepentingan Indonesia dalam mengimplementasikan guidelines LTSOSA. Pemetaan kepentingan akan menggambarkan mengenai urgensi guidelines LTSOSA bagi keamanan nasional Indonesia khususnya bidang keantariksaan. Tulisan ini menemukan bahwa guidelines LTSOSA memuat butir-butir terkait keamanan keantariksaan yang menjadi kepentingan nasional vital bagi Indonesia. Artikel ini diharapkan menjadi bahan masukan sikap dan posisi Indonesia terhadap implementasi guidelines LTSOSA. Kata-kata kunci: Indonesia, keamanan keantariksaan, keberlanjutan kegiatan luar angkasa dalam jangka panjang
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Millwood, Scott. "A Very Famous Payload: The Launch of a Car into Orbit around the Sun Offers an Opportunity to Reconsider the International Framework for the Prevention of Harmful Contamination of Outer Sp." Air and Space Law 43, Issue 6 (November 1, 2018): 521–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/aila2018035.
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On 6 February 2018, the US corporation SpaceX launched a highly publicized payload into orbit around the sun. Although the use of a car as a payload mass simulator might be dismissed as a publicity stunt, it represents an opportunity to examine whether the current legal framework governing what we put into space is adequate. The Outer Space Treaty provides all States with the freedom of scientific investigation, exploration and use of outer space, while balancing this with obligations to avoid its harmful contamination. In the burgeoning New Space era, will commercial space operators be held to the same standards as national space agencies? Is it legal to launch a car into orbit, contributing to the growing problem of space debris? How should we ensure private space operators comply with their obligations to prevent the harmful contamination of outer space? This article explores these questions in the context of theOuter Space Treaty, the Planetary Protection Policy maintained by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and the UN Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, offering proposals to strengthen these guidelines, while highlighting the unique opportunity COSPAR has to redefine the role it plays in protecting the environment of outer space.
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Hurwitz, Bruce A. "Israel and the Law of Outer Space." Israel Law Review 22, no. 4 (1988): 457–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021223700009432.
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With the launching of Israel's first satellite, Offeq–1, on September 19, 1988, Israel's commitments in international space law came into practical effect. Specifically, Israel is bound through ratification to the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies; the 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched Into Outer Space; and the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. Two additional treaties, the 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched Into Outer Space, and the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, have yet to be signed or ratified by Israel.
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Xing, Xingao, Shuchang Jiao, Ding Zhu, Yongzhe Zhang, and Jiejie Tang. "Asteroid Mining Impact Prediction Model." Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology 4 (July 26, 2022): 74–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/hset.v4i.848.
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According to the Outer Space Treaty of the United Nations, "Space exploration shall be the common domain of all mankind," and all mankind should share outer space resources. With the continuous advancement of science and technology, the gap in comprehensive strength between countries is increasing, and there is a gap in the acquisition of outer space resources between countries. In order to measure the fair distribution of this resource, we quantify the fairness and formulate relevant policies by collecting data to build a model.
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Bergstresser, John. "To Boldly Go: An Analysis of Luxembourg Space Resources Law in Light of the EU Treaty." Business Law Review 42, Issue 3 (June 1, 2021): 143–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/bula2021020.
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In 2017, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg passed a law permitting ownership over asteroids for the purposes of exploration and commercial exploitation. This Paper focuses on whether such a law is permissible under the Outer Space Treaty, European Union laws, and potential implications it has on the internal market. Space resources, exploration, exploitation, commercial Space, international Law
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Tyasworo, Niken, and Mas Nana Jumena. "Tanggung Jawab Perusahaan Dalam Komersialisasi Ruang Angkasa dan Implikasinya Terhadap Outer Space Treaty 1967 (Studi Tentang Wisata Ruang Angkasa)." Uti Possidetis: Journal of International Law 2, no. 2 (June 8, 2021): 131–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.22437/up.v2i2.12203.
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The exploratory utilization of outer space is currently take a place following the development of science and technologies. At first, the exploration was done by government only, in this time, private companies also take part to do the outer space exploration.The outer space tour activities is one form of outer space commercialization. This time, those activities is still in the developing process for the better future business, especially in the law aspect for the outer space tour activities. So that, an explanation of the outer space tour activity is one particular part that should be extremely clear and understandable for the sake of tourist’s security. Such as, how far the responsibility is given by government and private companies in case of an accident during the outer space tour activities.The conclusion of this research is to mention that Outer Space Treaty 1967, Rescue Agreement 1968, Liability Convention 1972 and Registration Convention 1975 are all be able to applied as basic law for the outer space tour activities. Therefore, the outer space tour activity is something that could have been done routinely in the future and that makes the laws and regulations must be evident, equitable, and liable in order to ensure comfort and safety for the outer space tourists.
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Chaben, Jack B. "Extending Humanity’s Reach: A Public-Private Framework for Space Exploration." Journal of Strategic Security 13, no. 3 (October 2020): 75–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.13.3.1811.
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The Cold War initiated not only rapid weaponization campaigns within the United States and the Soviet Union, but launched a space race between the ideological opponents. The Soviet Union claimed an early victory by becoming the first nation to launch a satellite into space. Despite the United States' rough start, the country triumphed during its Apollo Program to become the leader in space. Treaties and international norms emerged throughout this time to prevent these technologically raging nations from weaponizing the expansive environment of outer space, but the resulting protections against national ownership of space limited incentives for future deep space travel. As the U.S. Space Shuttle program came to an end in 2011, the United States forfeit its capabilities to transport humans to the International Space Station. This apparent abandonment of outer space, however, began to reveal the seminal role of the commercial space industry and its revolutionary technologies. This article traces the transition from the Cold War-era space race to today’s robust public-private expansion into space. It highlights the foundational importance of international cooperation to protect the interests of private companies, and presents a model of cooperative succession between space agencies and companies to send humans to Mars.
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Auster, Carol J. "Specification of Melbin's Frontier Hypotheses: An Application to Outer Space Exploration." Sociological Inquiry 57, no. 1 (January 1987): 102–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682x.1987.tb01182.x.
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Meyer, Paul. "Could an optional protocol be the way to stop the weaponization of outer space?" International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis 76, no. 2 (June 2021): 332–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00207020211020521.
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Since the early 1980s, the United Nations General Assembly and its affiliated forum, the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva, has had the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space issue on its agenda. In the intervening years, the threat of weapons being introduced into the outer space realm has waxed and waned, but, in the main, a benign environment free from man-made threats has prevailed, allowing for great strides in the exploration and use of space. Recently, a renewal of great power rivalry including the development of offensive “counter-space” capabilities has resurrected the spectre of armed conflict in space. With widespread political support for the non-weaponization of outer space, has the time come to give legal expression to this goal by means of an optional protocol to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty?
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Rivaldi, Regi. "THE ARTEMIS ACCORDS AND PROPERTY RIGHTS IN OUTER SPACE." Journal of Law and Policy Transformation 7, no. 2 (December 31, 2022): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.37253/jlpt.v7i2.7236.
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On 13 October 2020, The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the representatives of eight other space-faring nations signed The Artemis Accords. The Accords is a set of 13 provisions to establish international collaboration on sustainable human exploration in outer space. The most controversial provision in the Accords is the provision in Section 10 that relates to exploiting space resources which is not inherent with Article II of The Outer Space Treaty and Article 11 of The Moon Agreement that will cause the implementation of the Artemis Accords may violate international law. The different interpretations in interpreting the provisions in Article II of The Outer Space Treaty raises questions related to property rights in outer space, especially on issues that are related to the extraction of natural resources. Is it part of the subject of the non-appropriation principle or not.
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Crawford, Hannah. "The Future of the United Kingdom’s Space Industry in a Post-brexit World: Mitigating the Effects of Brexit on the UK’S Commercial Space Industry." Air and Space Law 46, Issue 1 (January 1, 2021): 81–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/aila2021004.
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International cooperation exists as the fundamental legal cornerstone of space exploration and has underpinned the United Kingdom’s role in outer space. Instigated by a surge of commercial activity in outer space, mankind is approaching a second space age whilst many of the world’s governments are captivated by increasing levels of nationalism. Focusing on the nationalism of the United Kingdom and corresponding ideology, this article purports that ‘Brexit’ poses a risk to the survival of the United Kingdom’s commercial space industry. As such, this article seeks to consider the ways in which this former great power can hone in on its history of integration and alliance in outer space and thrive in these burgeoning commercial space ventures. European Union, Space Policy, Brexit
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Greco, Orsola. "Small Satellites: A Threat for the Future Sustainability of Outer Space Exploration?" Air and Space Law 44, Issue 1 (February 1, 2019): 91–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/aila2019006.
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Sustainability is a very well-known issue in international environmental law, especially with regard to outer space activities and the related debris proliferation. Bearing in mind that outer space is a res communis area (i.e. outside the jurisdiction of any State), the present article discusses the need to re-think the concept of ‘exploration and use’ under the guidance of the sustainable development principle. In this context, special attention is given to the well-known threat posed by small satellites to the sustainability of the Low Earth Orbit environment and some proposals are made regarding the way forward.
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Capova, Klara Anna. "The New Space Age in the making: Emergence of exo-mining, exo-burials and exo-marketing." International Journal of Astrobiology 15, no. 4 (June 23, 2016): 307–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550416000185.
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AbstractAt the beginning of the 21st century we witness considerable global developments in space exploration and a new era has begun: the New Space Age. The principal symbols of that age are firstly internationalization of space activities, secondly commercial utilization of space technologies, and lastly emergence of outer space economy. This paper presents selected signposts of the New Space Age. Three cases of recent outer space enterprises: recovery of asteroid resources (exo-mining), post-cremation memorial spaceflight (exo-burials) and first extraterrestrial advert (exo-marketing), are introduced in order to emphasize the monetary and social dimension of commercial application of space technologies. To give an illustration of these trends, this paper provides a brief socioculturally minded account of three outer space undertakings that are interpreted as signposts of the new era.
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Zwaan, Tanja L. "Space debris: ex facto sequitur lex." Leiden Journal of International Law 1, no. 1 (May 1988): 89–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156500000716.
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Unfortunately, today's exploration of outer space is exposed to a rapidly expanding collection of what has come to be called space debris. Innumerous objects of variable size ranging from tiny paint chips to entire - defunct - satellites and produced by various causes, such as collisions, explosions, or simply exhaustion of fuel, are rotating around the Earth and create dangers to our space missions.
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Abashidze, Aslan Kh, and Irina A. Chernykh. "United States policy and legislation on the exploration of natural resources of celestial bodies (international legal aspects)." Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Law 13, no. 1 (2022): 158–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu14.2022.109.
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The present article attempts to integrate and comprehensively analyze the main stages in the formation and development of the U. S. policy and legislation on the use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies. In connection with recent announcements — the new lunar space program “Artemis” launched by NASA in May 2019, negotiations on bilateral “Artemis Accords” with potential partners in May 2020 (concluded by the U. S. with several states in October 2020), and Donald Trump’s Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources — the article focuses on U. S. policy and legislation in the light of the principles and norms enshrined in the following space treaties: the Outer Space Treaty, 1967 (main space treaty), and the Moon Agreement, 1979. The authors, using historical-legal, formal-legal, and comparative legal methods, show the changing position of the U. S. taken by their delegation during the drafting of the aforementioned international treaties, and the U. S. authorities’’ constant adjustment of their national policy and legislation on the exploration of space and its natural resources. To clarify the initial U. S. Position on key aspects, the authors refer to the travaux preparatoires of both the Outer Space Treaty, 1967, and “uncertainty” (according to the U. S. authorities, which had been the active drafter at the time) of the Moon Agreement, 1979. Condensed opinions of leading space experts and famous researchers on international space law are submitted in the article resulting for the authors in: U. S. pursue destructive policy aiming at undermining enshrined in the Outer Space Treaty, 1967, fundamental basis of international space law.
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Martinez, Larry F. "Science in Service of Power: Space Exploration Initiatives as Catalysts for Regime Evolution." Air and Space Law 32, Issue 6 (November 1, 2007): 431–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/aila2007047.
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Since the turn of the millennium, a growing number of governments have announced major space exploration initiatives, highly-visible commitments requiring trillions of dollars in additional space budget expenditures to reach their goals on the ‘Moon, Mars, and beyond’. The initiatives represent a significant transformation in the international political economy of outer space, signaling the re-emergence of governments into an increasingly civilian-commercialized space arena, which, over the past two decades, has become dominated by privatized multinational consortia. The initiatives appear to indicate that leading space-faring nations are taking steps to reassert their decision-making prerogatives about how space is used and regulated, with profound implications for the outer space legal regime. In particular, these space-faring nations are using the initiatives to legitimize their proposals to shift the regime’s basis for decision-making from inclusive, principles-based treaties and organizations, to more exclusive, science-based agreements over which they exert a controlling influence. In so doing, the international space legal regime is evolving in a direction paralleling other technology-based commons regimes, such as those for Antarctica and the Internet.
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Anderson, Braden N. "Mining the Milky Way: How to Bring America’s Extraterrestrial Excursions Back Into Compliance With International Obligations." Journal of Air Law and Commerce 87, no. 3 (2022): 637. http://dx.doi.org/10.25172/jalc.87.3.10.
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In November of 2015, the 114th United States Congress enacted the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 (Space Act) and, in turn, thrusted the door to outer space mining wide open for Americans. Unfortunately, while the Space Act provided a solution for corporations, it created a di- lemma for the United States. As currently enacted, the Space Act directly conflicts with the world’s foundational and most basic framework for international space law: The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty). To reassure other signatories and to ensure the United States complies with its international obligations under the Outer Space Treaty, Congress should establish a centralized regulatory authority to govern the activities of American entities in outer space and amend the Space Act to require bonding and permit- ting processes for entities wishing to engage in asteroid mining. This Article is the first to analyze how to modify existing legislation to impose sufficient regulation so the United States may once again comply with its international obligations under Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty. This Article will show that given the inherent risks of outer space mining, the intent and origins of the Outer Space Treaty, and the conflicting allowances contained in the Space Act, changes must be enacted to ensure that the tradition of treaty compliance and mineral- extraction regulation does not stop at our planet’s troposphere.
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von der Dunk, Frans G. "Private Property Rights and the Public Interest in Exploration of Outer Space." Biological Theory 13, no. 2 (July 4, 2017): 142–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13752-017-0271-9.
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Ge, Chao, Weiwei Zhang, Hong Wang, and Xiaoyi Li. "An Adaptive Regulator for Space Teleoperation System in Task Space." Abstract and Applied Analysis 2014 (2014): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/501860.
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The problem of the gravity information which can not be obtained in advance for bilateral teleoperation is studied. In outer space exploration, the gravity term changes with the position changing of the slave manipulator. So it is necessary to design an adaptive regulator controller to compensate for the unknown gravity signal. Moreover, to get a more accurate position tracking performance, the controller is designed in the task space instead of the joint space. Additionally, the time delay considered in this paper is not only time varying but also unsymmetrical. Finally, simulations are presented to show the effectiveness of the proposed approach.
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van Wingerden, Enrike, and Darshan Vigneswaran. "The terrestrial trap: International Relations beyond Earth." Review of International Studies 50, no. 3 (May 2024): 600–618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210524000184.
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AbstractHuman capacity to explore and shape outer space will increase substantially over the next 50 years. Yet, International Relations (IR) theory still treats outer space as an isolated, unique, or inconsequential realm of political life. This paper moves IR beyond its ‘terrestrial trap’ by theorising planetary politics as inherently embedded in relations with environments and actors that are located beyond Earth. To face the momentous and often alarming political developments taking place in outer space, from space militarisation to space colonisation, we challenge two of IR’s terrestrial biases. First, we confront the assumption that developments in international relations take place only or primarily on Earth. We show how the historically constituted ideologies and political economies of colonisation and domination are extended to – but also transformed within – outer space exploration and settlement. Second, we challenge the notion that developments in outer space form a logical extension of politics as it has emerged on the habitable surface of our planet. We move beyond zones of human habitation and explore how the material conditions of space intersect with situated histories of political governance and control. By analysing politics beyond Earth, we retool IR theory to confront an extraterrestrial political future.
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Lee, Andrew Y. "The Future of the Law on the Moon." Journal of Air Law and Commerce 88, no. 1 (2023): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.25172/jalc.88.1.2.
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Outer space is rapidly becoming the domain for industrial-scale private-sector innovation and entrepreneurship. By developing and maturing the unprecedented technology for vertical landing and partial reuse orbital-class rockets, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) has reduced the cost of access to orbital space by a staggering factor of magnitude, i.e., to one-tenth the previous rate. SpaceX is now on the cusp of launching its next-generation launch system called Starship to orbit. Starship is designed to be fully and rapidly reusable (land, refuel, and fly like airplanes) and expected to decrease the cost of access to orbital space to a level comparable to air travel— whereby private-sector industry in outer space would become economically viable. SpaceX is developing Starship at a breakneck speed, planning for an orbital launch in April 2023. Starship would function as the Earth–Moon transportation infrastructure for private-sector lunar activities like tourism, hospitality, mining, research, entertainment, construction, health, agriculture, and manufacturing. And the Moon is just three days away. Assuming a large fleet of reusable Starships would take flight to the Moon in the coming years, lawyers have an urgent and exciting task of laying the legal groundwork on the Moon for the complex modern governance and economy. But the legal discussion on the future of the law of the Moon has not even begun. This Article aims to fix this lacuna by first presenting specific and realistic parameters for discussion: namely, SpaceX would likely give the United States the exclusive, economic, and scalable access to the Moon within a few years, enabling a sizable private sector presence (persons and property) on the Moon engaged in commercial ventures within a decade. A commercialized Moon would require the United States to assert legislative jurisdiction (U.S. federal law taking effect), exercise adjudicatory jurisdiction (personal jurisdiction over persons and property and subject matter jurisdiction regarding controversies that arise), and install a governing body physically on the Moon. After a brief introduction of today’s space industry, Part II surveys the history of U.S. regulation of commercial space exploration. Part III summarizes the current regulatory framework that governs only the launch and landing of space vehicles on Earth. Part IV is a more detailed analysis of the space industry and the economics of space exploration. Part V shows the possibility of domestic jurisdiction in outer space, delimited by binding international space treaties and customs. Part VI focuses on two treaties as providing the foundation of domestic jurisdiction in space. As an example of the governing body, in Part VII, this Article introduces the U.S. Lunar Court and sketches the legal contours of this new adjudicatory body. The Appendix shows detailed calculations of Starship’s expected capabilities and economics based on Falcon 9’s historical data.