Academic literature on the topic 'External coil'

Elements of Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications discusses the principles of electromagnetic induction and the setup and use of induction heating processes and equipment. The first few chapters cover the theory of induction heating and the factors that must be considered when selecting and configuring components for a given application. As the text explains, the frequency required for efficient heating is determined by the geometry of the coil, the properties, size, and shape of the workpiece, and the need to maintain adequate skin effect. It also depends on proper tuning and load matching, which is explained as well. Subsequent chapters discuss the use of external cooling, temperature sensing, and power-timing devices, the fundamentals of process control, the role of flux concentrators, shields, and susceptors, and the integration of material handling equipment. The book also covers coil design and fabrication and explains how induction heating systems can be tailored for specific applications such as billet and bar heating, surface hardening, pipe welding, tin reflow, powder metal sintering, and brazing, and for curing adhesives and coatings. For information on the print version, ISBN 978-0-87170-308-8, follow this link.

The AngioVac system, which consists of a coil-reinforced large-bore cannula, bypass circuit, bubble trap/filter, and reinfusion cannula, allows percutaneous removal of unwanted vascular debris, such as venous thrombus or cardiac vegetations, during veno-veno bypass. External suction is applied via a centrifugal bypass pump and debris is funneled into the cannula and trapped in the bubble trap/filter. The blood is then returned through an 18 Fr venous reinfusion cannula. The use of the device in the iliocaval venous segments and right heart is effective and safe. Due to the challenging anatomy, pulmonary artery thrombectomy carries an increased risk of complication and should be undertaken with great care. The AngioVac system is a versatile tool for removing thrombus and other unwanted debris from the central venous system and the right heart.

Fournier’s gangrene (FG) defines a life-threatening necrotizing fasciitis of the external genitalia and perineum with a peak incidence at 50 years of age. It is associated with a mixed bacterial infection with Escherichia coli and Bacteroides spp. predominating. The diagnosis is made clinically with symptoms of skin necrosis, swelling, pain, crepitus, and feculent odour, and local and systemic signs of severe sepsis. Initial resuscitation with fluid replacement, oxygen therapy, and broad-spectrum empirical antibiotics should be rapidly followed by complete and aggressive surgical debridement with postoperative placement of an occlusive dressing. Urinary and faecal diversions are often required. Debridement should be repeated until all necrotic tissue has been excised, allowing later reconstruction. Early diagnosis and immediate therapy is crucial to improve survival in patients with FG.

This chapter turns to the other side of the coin—the failure of magical belief. Glamour conjures up a transfigured counter-reality and acts as a bridge to that imagined existence. But the entire symbolic edifice is built on fancy and prone to collapse, with reality reasserting itself and dragging us back from our projection into the dreamworld. Many film musicals warn against glamour as mystification or deceit. Four types of examples are discussed, each skeptical in a different way (joking, haunted, wishful, manipulative). Concluding discussion shows how the musical genre has affinities with the hybrid aesthetic of “magical realism.” The incorporation of a realistic dimension into the discourse of musical fantasy preserves an external vantage point for critical reflection—a demystifying impulse in tension with glamour’s mystique.

This encyclopedia offers the most comprehensive and up-to-date resource on the European integration process. Under the editorial directorship of Finn Laursen and associate editors Derek Beach, Roberto Domínguez, Sung-Hoon Park, Sophie Vanhoonacker, and Amy Verdun, the publication brings together peer-reviewed contributions by leading researchers on the European Union as a global actor. Topics include the basic treaties, institutions and policies of the European Union and the previous European Communities, the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community, and the European Atomic Energy Community. It also includes articles on the various conceptual frameworks and theories that have been developed by political scientists to guide research into the integration process and the policy- and decision-making processes with a focus on the roles of the different institutions, the European Council, the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the Court of Justice of the EU. Additionally, the publication includes articles on the member states as well as external relations and foreign policies of the EU. As a result, the Oxford Encyclopedia of European Union Politics is a vital resource for students, scholars, and policymakers.

This thematically arranged book examines the evolution of rail transport and a number of railway workforces across Europe in the modern era, from around 1880 to 2023. Each chapter explores how, within the context of a social railway, rail workers developed distinct national and international perspectives on the nature of their work and their roles in societies and states. David Welsh convincingly argues that workers formed a raft of entirely new and enduring organisations such as trade unions that, in turn, became ramparts of hope. Welsh goes on to consider how the insurgent character of these organisations produced moments of fury during tumultuous periods in the 20th century. The Social Railway and its Workers in Europe’s Modern Era, 1880-2023 explores the national and European contexts in which both characteristics came to the fore, including the ecology of fossil fuel technology (coal and oil). Above all, it argues that social, economic and political forces are not simply external ‘scene-shifting’ but integral to the history of railway systems. The book examines the cultural construction of European railways through literature, art and other forms of writing as well as recent oral history. It also includes a detailed investigation of the role played by nationalisation and public ownership in Europe. In the context of neoliberalism and globalization, it proposes a 21st century programme for the social railway.

AbstractMedical implants that require recharging typically use magnetic resonant coupling of transmit (external) and receive (internal) RF coils. Apart from magnetic field, the transmit coil creates a time-varying electric field that excites currents not only in the receive coil but also in the surrounding tissues. Radio frequency (RF) exposure assessment for inductive systems used in wireless powering and telemetry is done using electric field, specific absorption rate (SAR), and induced current as metrics. Full-wave analysis using RF simulation tools such as Ansys HFSS is generally used to estimate these metrics, and the results are widely accepted. However, such simulation-based analysis is quite rigorous and time-consuming, let alone the complexities with setting up the simulation.In this paper, we present a simple approach to estimating exposure (electric field, SAR, induced current) from fundamental electromagnetic principles enabling ability to arrive at results quickly. It significantly reduces the computational time in iterative approaches where multiple simulation runs are needed.

Abstract This chapter aims to shed light on the function of the morphemes li, sa and se, that licence Topic-prominence in Mauritian Creole. The prevalence of Topic-Comment sentence structure, subjectless sentences, and a limited use of passives in the Creole provide evidence of a typological shift from Subject-prominence to Topic-prominence. This is attributed to the loss of the French functional categories, namely the definite article, the copula, and a Case assigning preposition. The occurrence of bare nouns in argument positions triggered a shift in noun denotation from predicative in French to argumental in the Creole, where bare nouns can function as topics without the need for Case assignment or quantification by an external operator. Topic-prominence is also attested in the noun phrase, where genitive constructions are shown to be Topic-Possessive structures. Finally, the specificity marker la is analyzed as a discourse Topic marker. The analysis provides an insight into processes of creolization and grammaticalization.

AbstractWith the new technologies applied in the Power Electrical System, we enable the shared use of the Ultraviolet Measurement Apparatus, for Corona Measurement (the corona effect is just one type of partial discharge characterized by its visibility when propagating in external mediums due to electric field - potential) in Transmission Lines, into the Assets of Hydropower Plants with rotating machinery from Small Hydropower Plants - SHPs, within Predictive Maintenance. The gain from this Predictive Maintenance brought evaluation benefits in the reception after treatment of generators related to Partial Discharge on the surface, particularly the part related to surface corona effect on rotating machinery. Measurements before and after surface treatment recovery, mainly in coil heads and other parts of the generating unit, show us the results more through frequency spectrum, ranges, and events/minutes measures, associated with a scale already worked for measurement points in Transmission Lines assets, values understood above 5000 events/minutes and mainly the region with the highest concentration of records signaling points to improve or redo specific treatment. It's worth mentioning here that it doesn’t substitute tests by offline and online partial discharge devices in peak measures (pC) or nano Coulomb (nC), but it brings the focus spectral sampling region that deserves more attention or reinforcement in treatment to mitigate corona effect, also can be used to evaluate generator cleanliness when intensities are recorded in predictive maintenance. The SBUV camera, Solar Blind filter, has higher sensitivity, compatible wavelength, bi-spectral, and a range from 240 nm to 280 nm (nanometers), which can bring gains in this technological application. The tool, when customized, provides risk assessment for each generator in trials and ensures an operational view of the Asset from the perspective of its health in this regard - Health Index. The new technology is already implemented and has been successfully used in our plant, in its punctual maintenance plan regarding measuring, evaluating own or third-party services, and determining the best time to act in new surface treatments or asset cleaning, mitigating the risk of early burnout due to this phenomenon. Direct gains in application come from the integration of Asset Management with Reliability-Centered Maintenance, optimizing the Maintenance Plan and the concepts of Engineering Applied to the company's Assets.

Abstract This paper looks at possible Indo-Aryan influence on the grammar of Mauritian Creole. Although several Indo-Aryan languages have been in close contact with Mauritian Creole for almost two hundred years, they appear to have had only minimal impact on its syntax. So far, the NP so NP genitives (Corne 1986) and the semantics of certain prepositions (Kriegel et al. 2008) have been identified as having been influenced by the Indo-Aryan languages. This paper revisits the NP so NP genitives and looks at three other aspects of Mauritian Creole syntax, viz., null subjects of finite transitive clauses, subject-less finite clauses with topic object, and the obligatory presence of a second subject pronoun in serial verb constructions and argues that these may have been modelled on, or reinforced by, parallel structures in Indo-Aryan languages. This paper then contributes to our understanding of the development of Mauritian Creole syntax as well as supports the thesis that in language contact situations syntax is also susceptible to external influence although not to the same extent as phonology and morphology (Thomason and Kaufman 1988; Heine and Kuteva 2005).

AbstractThe pandemic has forced all educational institutions to grapple with challenges. Throughout this time Symbiosis International University (SIU) in India has been proactive in leading change not only at the university but also in K-12 schools. While the university transitioned to virtual teaching and learning, a methodical approach was laid out in assisting its eight elementary and senior secondary schools in both urban and rural areas, through the Symbiosis Schools Central Directorate (SSCD), to adapt to the needs of a public health crisis. While connectivity challenges continue to haunt schools, especially in rural areas, training and capacity building of K-12 teachers and administrators by university professors and experts has been a saving grace in navigating the pandemic.The focus of this case is understanding the parallels and the partnership between SIU and its K-12 schools. It reflects a bottom-up approach in dealing with the pandemic where Symbiosis Society, the non-profit organization that has established the schools as well as the University, invested in teacher capacity building at its elementary and secondary schools through its Symbiosis Schools Central Directorate (SSCD) in both rural and urban areas to ensure continuity of teaching and learning while adapting to this new normal. The investment in teacher capacity building has enabled the leadership to address the emerging circumstances, stimulate momentum to create or demand needed change at their institutions, inspire peer learning, and foster innovation in strategy and practice for the greater benefit of its stakeholders including students and parents.This case study reflects on SIU experiences in dealing with the dynamic circumstances such as training and capacity building with respect to supporting teachers in developing skills to adapt their content to virtual mode, blended learning, and integrating Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) into the curriculum. In addition, SIU had to counsel students and parents to adapt to this new way of learning. SIU’s experience encompasses a coordinated approach of working with internal and external stakeholders to develop a response to the crisis, short-to-medium-term strategic planning in the face of uncertainty, exploring technology solutions, partnership management, and effective communication processes with its stakeholders. Special emphasis has been put on ensuring the mental and physical wellbeing of the learner, constant communication and guidance to parents, and virtual activities to promote community engagement to mitigate the loss of physical social interactions at this crucial time.

A hybrid-integrated external-cavity laser stabilized to an integrated 10-meter-coil-resonator measures 7.1 Hz fundamental and 237 Hz integral linewidths, 3×10-13 ADEV at 5.1 ms, 7.0 kHz/s drift, 65 dB SMSR, 60nm tuning, and reduced feedback sensitivity.

Abstract A multi-coil electromagnetic induction type detector had been applied for in-field measurement of the depth of the carburized layer in ethylene furnace tubes. Laboratory tests showed that under conditions where the entire tube wall may be carburized, the technique can give erroneous indications. To identify the complex interaction of the inner and the external magnetic layers, a variable frequency metal sorting instrument was included in the field inspection procedures. Furthermore, dimension and thickness measurements, visual inspection and surface replica techneques also support this improvement of the field inspection method.

Abstract Two 3000-ton capacity reinforced concrete coal silos and one 5000-ton capacity reinforced concrete coal silo in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia were deteriorated due to corrosion of steel reinforcement. The storage silos are a critical asset necessary to facilitate the efficient delivery of coal. Serious concrete deterioration of the silos and corrosion to external post-tensioned cables had the potential to catastrophically interrupt the supply chain. A risk and structural assessment of the silos was undertaken and a condition investigation completed. A remedial option scenario analysis was conducted for each silo to provide a serviceable strengthening solution. The remedial solutions ultimately adopted used either carbon fiber laminates (CFL) and/or post tensioned cables, all externally applied. In both cases where delaminated (drummy) zones of concrete were present or where concrete had severely spalled (internally and externally) concrete repair was undertaken with a sprayed repair mortar. An elastomeric anti-carbonation coating system was then applied to external silo concrete surfaces.

Abstract The failure of a 9 Chromium Vanadium-Modified superheater tube in a Heat Recovery Steam Generation (HRSG) boiler at a Co-Generation (Co-Gen) plant took place only 20 hours after the plant was brought on-line. Final failure of the tubing occurred due to tensile overload in the presence of preexisting cracks that were concluded to have been introduced during hydro-testing and a total of 3 startup cycles that took place within the first 20 hours of operation. The cracks were a consequence of brittle crack initiation that occurred in a low-toughness, high hardness region in a heat-affected zone (HAZ) at the tube-to-stub end weld at the discharge header. The high hardness was attributed to a line of arc strikes and weld spatter along the HAZ on the tube side of the weld joint. The weld spatter was found to have a composition of 73 percent nickel and 12 percent chromium. HAZ hardness under the line of arc strikes/weld spatter reached a maximum of 303 Brinell, while the hardness of the HAZ away from the failure, and the tube base metal, were 210-220 Brinell and 150-170 Brinell, respectively. The HAZ hardness within the failure region supported the conclusion that the weld spatter most likely originated from an event external to the fabrication of the superheater coil that took place after welding and Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) of the tube/discharge header had been completed.

Abstract This paper discusses the possible use of a dual powder system, the latest external coating for buried steel pipe. The suitability of dual powder system for high mechanical properties (gouge resistance, impact resistance, penetration resistance, etc.) and/or heat resistance are discussed. The advantages includes easy plant application process, high quality, easy repair and its suitability for joint coatings, etc compared to single layer fusion bonded epoxy resin coating, coal tar enamel and three layer polyethylene. Some cases that dual powder system was used in China pipeline construction projects were introduced too.

Abstract There are several pipeline external coatings classified into different types, among them are extruded and tape polyethylene, fusion bonded epoxy (FBE), coal tar enamel, coal tar epoxy, polyurethane, wax, cementitious epoxy and multilayer systems. These coatings are assumed to protect the pipeline for a certain period of time. In order to select the most appropriate coating, several accelerated laboratory tests need to be carried out to obtain their properties and correlate them with the performance in the field. Cathodic disbonding tests at different temperatures and voltages, adhesion at different temperatures, impact resistance, loss of adhesion against time under water immersion conditions, differential scanning calorimetry analysis and water uptake are the most important tests to carry out in this study. The results indicate that coatings perform differently in each test. For this reason the selection must be done according to the soil characteristics, considering the results obtained in laboratory. This paper will provide a guideline to select a coating for a specific environment and the results that should be expected in the field. For example, the multilayer system presented the best performance like low cathodic disbonding, excellent adhesion, high impact resistance, excellent behavior under hot water immersion and high temperature resistance. This system can be used in all types of soil with high life time expectancy in protecting the pipeline. On the other hand, the polyurethane coating presented high impact resistance but very low adhesion and high cathodic disbonding that limits its use in corrosive soil.

Abstract A buried carbon steel gas flowline suffered from accelerated external corrosion after one-year operation. The flowline was protected by an impressed current cathodic protection and liquid epoxy polymer coating system. Root cause analysis revealed that coal seam oxidation under wet condition generated an aggressive acidic soil environment around the pipe. The coating and cathodic protection system in a low pH and elevated temperature (90-110°C) environment was not able to provide adequate protection from external corrosion for this flowline.

Abstract Coal-tar epoxy (CTE) coating was selected to protect the external surfaces of the pre-stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) in aggressive ground conditions of Libya. This coating was selected based on cost and application efficiency. CTE has good track record and has good dielectric properties. However, it ages fast, cracks easily and is brittle. This paper compares two CTE coatings, from different suppliers. It also presents and discusses the results of the testing programs carried out to evaluate the performance of CTE after fifteen (15) years of service. The test results showed acceptable performance of the coal tar epoxy coating.

The use of a cylindrical array of air jets to cool a 4.1 tonne coil of Aluminium alloy is shown, theoretically, to improve the free convection cooling time over the 673K (752°F) to 323K (122°F) range from 49hrs to roughly 4hrs. The transient theory developed to model this process includes both radiation and convection heat loss in a numerical solution which is applicable to large coils of aluminium typically produced on a hot strip mill. In situations where liquid spray chambers are not chosen as an alternative cooling method, the results indicate that air impingement jets are a viable technique for cooling unscheduled coil batches which require rapid handling to meet market demands. When comparing the various combinations of surfaces of the coil that may be cooled, impingement cooling the entire surface area (cooling time 3.75hrs) offers little advantage over neglecting to cool the coil’s hollow inner core (cooling time 4.28hrs). However, impingement cooling only the external and internal cylindrical areas (cooling time 5 hrs) represents possibly the easier method of cooling to apply in industry yet only extends the cooling time by 1.25hrs. Predictions for such coils of 6mm thick sheet over this 350K (662°F) range, suggest that cooling times of roughly 6hrs may be possible in practice.

In this paper, we report a finite element modeling of an electromagnetic-coils targeting system to locate a distal screw-hole in intramedullary interlocking-nail surgery. The system consists of an internal coil, external coil, and control/measurement electronics. The internal coil is embedded in a distal screw-hole of the nail inserted into the bone. A current is applied to the internal coil to produce a directional magnetic flux penetrating the nail/bone. Thus, the external coil scans different regions of the nail/bone will receive different amount of magnetic flux, and thereby produces different voltage outputs due to the electromagnetic induction. By analyzing the voltage outputs, the distal screw-hole is targeted. However, to precisely apply this system to many different nails for people in different regions, modification and optimization of the system are needed. For rapid modification and optimization, we implement finite element method to model the targeting system. Because the modeling results are qualitatively consistent to experimental results, the modeling is successfully validated to be able to qualitatively predict experimental trends and thereby can be used for rapid system modification and optimization.

As the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) was in the last year of its 2015–2021 strategic plan, COL sought to evaluate the impact of its interventions in open and innovative schooling (OIS) in the period 2018–2021 through an external review. An online quantitative study was carried out in Belize, Malawi, Mozambique, Trinidad and Tobago, and Zambia, followed by a contextual cost–benefit analysis, and a social return on investment (SROI) analysis. Overall, COL’s contribution to the OIS programme in terms of Phase 1 and Phase 2 activities is perceived to have significantly contributed to the success noted so far in the five countries under study. The SROI ratios for all countries were positive, indicating that the social returns on this intervention are desirable, justifying a case for continued support of such OIS initiatives.

Frozen, breaded, ready-to-cook chicken products have been implicated in outbreaks of salmonellosis. Some of these outbreaks can be large. For example, one outbreak of Salmonella Enteritidis involved 193 people in nine countries between 2018 and 2020, of which 122 cases were in the UK. These ready-to-cook products have a browned, cooked external appearance, which may be perceived as ready-to-eat, leading to mishandling or undercooking by consumers. Continuing concerns about these products led FSA to initiate a short-term (four month), cross-sectional surveillance study undertaken in 2021 to determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in frozen, breaded or battered chicken products on retail sale in the UK. This study sought to obtain data on AMR levels in Salmonella and E. coli in these products, in line with a number of other FSA instigated studies of the incidence and nature of AMR in the UK food chain, for example, the systematic review (2016). Between the beginning of April and the end of July 2021, 310 samples of frozen, breaded or battered chicken products containing either raw or partly cooked chicken, were collected using representative sampling of retailers in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland based on market share data. Samples included domestically produced and imported chicken products and were tested for E. coli (including extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing, colistin-resistant and carbapenem-resistant E. coli) and Salmonella spp. One isolate of each bacterial type from each contaminated sample was randomly selected for additional AMR testing to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for a range of antimicrobials. More detailed analysis based on Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) data was used to further characterise Salmonella spp. isolates and allow the identification of potential links with human isolates. Salmonella spp. were detected in 5 (1.6%) of the 310 samples and identified as Salmonella Infantis (in three samples) and S. Java (in two samples). One of the S. Infantis isolates fell into the same genetic cluster as S. Infantis isolates from three recent human cases of infection; the second fell into another cluster containing two recent cases of infection. Countries of origin recorded on the packaging of the five Salmonella contaminated samples were Hungary (n=1), Ireland (n=2) and the UK (n=2). One S. Infantis isolate was multi-drug resistant (i.e. resistant to three different classes of antimicrobials), while the other Salmonella isolates were each resistant to at least one of the classes of antimicrobials tested. E. coli was detected in 113 samples (36.4%), with counts ranging from <3 to >1100 MPN (Most Probable Number)/g. Almost half of the E. coli isolates (44.5%) were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested. Multi-drug resistance was detected in 20.0% of E. coli isolates. E. coli isolates demonstrating the ESBL (but not AmpC) phenotype were detected in 15 of the 310 samples (4.8%) and the AmpC phenotype alone was detected in two of the 310 samples (0.6%) of chicken samples. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing showed that five of the 15 (33.3%) ESBL-producing E. coli carried blaCTX-M genes (CTX-M-1, CTX-M-55 or CTX-M-15), which confer resistance to third generation cephalosporin antimicrobials. One E. coli isolate demonstrated resistance to colistin and was found to possess the mcr-1 gene. The five Salmonella-positive samples recovered from this study, and 20 similar Salmonella-positive samples from a previous UKHSA (2020/2021) study (which had been stored frozen), were subjected to the cooking procedures described on the sample product packaging for fan assisted ovens. No Salmonella were detected in any of these 25 samples after cooking. The current survey provides evidence of the presence of Salmonella in frozen, breaded and battered chicken products in the UK food chain, although at a considerably lower incidence than reported in an earlier (2020/2021) study carried out by PHE/UKHSA as part of an outbreak investigation where Salmonella prevalence was found to be 8.8%. The current survey also provides data on the prevalence of specified AMR bacteria found in the tested chicken products on retail sale in the UK. It will contribute to monitoring trends in AMR prevalence over time within the UK, support comparisons with data from other countries, and provide a baseline against which to monitor the impact of future interventions. While AMR activity was observed in some of the E. coli and Salmonella spp. examined in this study, the risk of acquiring AMR bacteria from consumption of these processed chicken products is low if the products are cooked thoroughly and handled hygienically.

External coatings are routinely used to protect transmission pipelines from corrosion; however, coatings may degrade or disbond over time enabling corrosion to occur. Transmission pipeline operators often use magnetic flux leakage (MFL) in-line inspection tools to detect metal loss corrosion defects. Rather than finding the cause of a problem, failure of the coating within a corrosive environment, MFL corrosion surveys only find the result of the problem, corrosion defects that may permanently alter the pressure carrying capacity of the pipeline. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) can be detected using in-line inspection (ILI) technology, but the availability of tools is limited and the cost of inspection is high compared to MFL inspection. SCC almost always occurs at coating faults; direct coating assessment could indicate future problems that could degrade the serviceability of the pipeline. In this project, a new sensor was developed to assess external coating that could work with currently available ILI tools for minimal additional cost to perform the inspection. The sensors, electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs), generate ultrasonic waves that are guided by the pipe material around the circumference of the pipe. The coating material and adherence can influence the propagation of the ultrasonic waves; changes in ultrasonic signal features were attributed to coating faults. This development used modeling and experiments to establish a more optimal configuration for coating assessment. A multiple feature approach was used. A commonly used feature, signal amplitude, provided good sensitivity to coating condition but was influenced by inspection variables. One unique feature identified in this development is arrival time of the ultrasonic wave. For the wave type and frequency selected, the wave velocity was different for bare and coated pipe. Therefore, disbonded or missing coating can be detected by monitoring arrival time of the ultrasonic wave, a feature that is amplitude independent. Another feature for assessing coating, absorption of selective frequencies, was also demonstrated. Coating assessment capability was experimentally demonstrated using a prototype EMAT ILI tool. All three detection features were shown to perform well in an ILI environment as demonstrated at Battelle"s Pipeline Simulation Facility and BJ Inspection Services pull rigs. Improvement to the prototype occurred between each test; the most significant improvement was the design and construction of a novel set of thick-trace transmitting and receiving Printed Circuit Board (PCB) EMAT coils. Implementation variables such as moisture and soil loading were shown to have a minimal influence on results.

In 2024, the macroeconomic adjustment process continued, characterized by a sustained reduction in inflation that began in 2023 and a decline in the current account deficit of the balance of payments. This adjustment took place in the context of a contractionary monetary policy, with a gradual reduction in the monetary policy interest rate. GDP grew by 1.7%, driven by investment and consumption, while employment increased by 2.2%. Foreign reserves remained at adequate levels, and Banco de la República recorded a profit of COP 10,041 billion, benefiting from the returns on foreign reserves. Macroeconomic environment The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank estimate that the global economy grew by 3.2% in 2024, a rate similar to that observed in 2023 (3.3%). This occurred in a context of moderating inflation and declining monetary policy interest rates in most countries. Global inflation moderated over the course of 2024. However, inflation rebounded toward the end of the year in some advanced economies, mainly due to rising energy costs. In Latin America, inflation trends were mixed. While some economies experienced sustained price stability, in most cases, inflation remained above the targets set by their respective central banks. Monetary policy interest rates in most Latin American economies continued to decline, reflecting a moderation in inflation and inflation expectations. However, some countries in the region recently raised interest rates in response to renewed inflationary pressures. Oil production increased in 2024, leading to a 3% decrease in oil prices, with Brent crude averaging around USD 80 per barrel. However, geopolitical tensions prevented a more pronounced decline. The U.S. dollar appreciated against most currencies, driven by expectations that the Federal Reserve (Fed) would implement more gradual policy rate cuts. In 2025, global economic growth is projected to be similar to that of 2024, supported by declining inflation, wage recovery, sustained employment growth, and a less restrictive monetary policy stance. However, geopolitical tensions and U.S. trade policies introduce uncertainty. More gradual reductions in the Fed’s interest rate are expected, with the possibility of pauses if inflationary pressures resurface. In Latin America, central banks are expected to continue cutting interest rates, although monetary policy may remain contractionary where inflation has not yet reached target levels. Domestic economic activity Colombia’s GDP grew by 1.7% in 2024, reflecting a moderate recovery compared to the previous year. This occurred in an environment of lower interest rates, improved domestic demand, and an increase in remittances and exports. Private consumption and fixed capital investment—particularly in infrastructure projects such as the Bogotá metro—contributed to economic growth. However, investment in housing declined. Agricultural and services sectors led economic growth, while mining and manufacturing contracted. The loan portfolio experienced low nominal growth, though some segments showed signs of recovery toward the end of the year. For 2025, economic activity is expected to continue recovering, approaching its productive capacity and aligning with the convergence of inflation toward its target. Employment Employment grew by 2.2% in 2024, resulting in the creation of 508,000 jobs. This expansion was driven by rural areas, where employment increased by 3.2%, surpassing the 1.4% growth in urban areas. The commerce, accommodation, manufacturing, public administration, health, and education sectors were the primary contributors to job creation. Wage employment grew by 2.7%, exceeding pre-pandemic levels, while non-wage employment increased by 1.8%, leading to a decline in informality to 55.6%. The national unemployment rate fell by 0.6 percentage points, reaching 9.7%, with a more pronounced reduction in rural areas. For 2025, the unemployment rate is expected to remain stable, supported by a positive economic outlook. Inflation and Monetary Policy Headline inflation in Colombia fell significantly from 9.3% in 2023 to 5.2% in 2024, primarily due to a restrictive monetary policy that moderated domestic demand and contributed to a reduction in the current account deficit. Core inflation (excluding food and regulated products) declined from 8.4% to 5.2%, reflecting the effectiveness of contractionary monetary policy. Inflation of goods dropped sharply, from 7.1% to 0.6%, due in part to the resolution of logistical disruptions and the appreciation of the peso. In contrast, services inflation declined more moderately, from 9% to 7%, influenced by indexation to past inflation and the increase in the minimum wage. Prices of food decreased from 5.0% to 3.3%, driven by lower pressures on processed food prices, benefiting from reduced costs of imported raw materials and a favorable exchange rate. Prices of regulated items dropped to 7.3%, following smaller adjustments in gasoline prices (after the required increases in 2023) and lower electricity and public service tariff increases, except for gas prices, which continued to rise. Inflation is expected to continue converging toward the 3% target in 2025, with headline inflation projected to close the year at around 4.1%, continuing its downward path into 2026. However, new risks have emerged, including a recent rise in producer costs, a significant increase in the minimum wage, and a rebound in inflation expectations. Balance of payments Colombia’s current account deficit narrowed to 1.7% of GDP between January and September 2024, down from 2.5% in the same period in 2023. This improvement was driven by higher remittance inflows, an improved services trade balance, and lower factor income outflows. Remittances reached a record USD 11,848 million, with the United States and Spain as the main sources of these inflows. A decline in the profits of foreign direct investment (FDI) companies, particularly in the oil and coal sectors, also contributed to reducing external imbalances. The trade deficit widened due to a greater imbalance in the trade of goods within a context of lower commodity prices. However, this was partially offset by strong agricultural and industrial exports. Additionally, the good performance of service exports, supported by higher international tourist arrivals, helped contain a larger trade imbalance. The financial account recorded net capital inflows equivalent to 1.1% of GDP, lower than the 2.5% recorded in 2023, primarily due to a decline in foreign direct investment in mining, transportation, and oil. This was partially offset by growth in financial and business services investment. The current account deficit is estimated to have closed 2024 at 1.8% of GDP, with a projected widening to 2.5% in 2025, in line with higher expected economic growth and stronger domestic demand. Public finances According to preliminary figures from the 2025 Financial Plan (PF-25) presented by the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (MHCP), Colombia’s General Government deficit reached 4.8% of GDP in 2024, marking a 2.1 percentage-point increase compared to 2023. This deterioration was mainly driven by a worsening in the balances of the Central National Government (GNC) (2.6 pp) and the Social Security subsector (0.4 pp), partially offset by a 0.8 pp improvement in Regional and Local Government balances. The reduction in the deficit position of the Fuel Price Stabilization Fund (FEPC for its acronym in Spanish) was notable, following gasoline price adjustments, which closed the gap between the reference price and local market prices. However, fiscal pressures persist due to ongoing subsidies for ACPM (diesel fuel). The total and primary deficits of the Central Government stood at 6.8% and 2.4% of GDP, respectively, driven by a decline in tax revenue—particularly from income and external taxes—alongside increased government spending. The net debt of the Central Government increased to 60% of GDP, exceeding previous forecasts. For 2025, a total and primary deficit of 5.1% and 0.2% of GDP is projected, with tax revenue expected to grow by 22.6%. Compliance with the fiscal rule and the stabilization of public finances will be critical in 2025, given the potential impact of fiscal slippage on the country’s risk premiums. Failure to meet fiscal targets could raise interest rates for both the Government and the broader economy. Maintaining credibility in fiscal policy will be key to preventing macroeconomic adjustments from exerting additional pressure on interest rates. International Reserves As of December 31, 2024, Colombia’s net international reserves stood at USD 62,481 million, reflecting an increase of USD 2,873 million during the year. This growth was primarily driven by returns on reserves, which reached 3.65%, benefiting from higher global interest rates, and Banco de la República's reserve accumulation program, which added USD 1,479.4 million to reserves. According to the IMF’s reserve adequacy methodology, Colombia maintains a reserve ratio of 1.29. This falls within the adequate range (1.0 – 1.5), indicating that Colombia’s reserves are sufficient to withstand extreme external shocks and balance of payments risks. Profits obtained by Banco de la República The Bank's profits reached a record COP 10,041 billion in 2024, resulting from revenues of COP 13,948 billion and expenses of COP 3,907 billion. Profits increased by COP 815 billion compared to 2023, primarily due to lower expenses, although partially offset by a decline in revenues. For 2025, profits are projected at COP 10,512 billion, supported by the high expected profitability of foreign reserves. However, this projection is subject to uncertainty related to reserve performance and monetary base growth.

Macroeconomic summary Several factors contributed to an increase in projected inflation on the forecast horizon, keeping it above the target rate. These included inflation in December that surpassed expectations (5.62%), indexation to higher inflation rates for various baskets in the consumer price index (CPI), a significant real increase in the legal minimum wage, persistent external and domestic inflationary supply shocks, and heightened exchange rate pressures. The CPI for foods was affected by the persistence of external and domestic supply shocks and was the most significant contributor to unexpectedly high inflation in the fourth quarter. Price adjustments for fuels and certain utilities can explain the acceleration in inflation for regulated items, which was more significant than anticipated. Prices in the CPI for goods excluding food and regulated items also rose more than expected. This was partly due to a smaller effect on prices from the national government’s VAT-free day than anticipated by the technical staff and more persistent external pressures, including via peso depreciation. By contrast, the CPI for services excluding food and regulated items accelerated less than expected, partly reflecting strong competition in the communications sector. This was the only major CPI basket for which prices increased below the target inflation rate. The technical staff revised its inflation forecast upward in response to certain external shocks (prices, costs, and depreciation) and domestic shocks (e.g., on meat products) that were stronger and more persistent than anticipated in the previous report. Observed inflation and a real increase in the legal minimum wage also exceeded expectations, which would boost inflation by affecting price indexation, labor costs, and inflation expectations. The technical staff now expects year-end headline inflation of 4.3% in 2022 and 3.4% in 2023; core inflation is projected to be 4.5% and 3.6%, respectively. These forecasts consider the lapse of certain price relief measures associated with the COVID-19 health emergency, which would contribute to temporarily keeping inflation above the target on the forecast horizon. It is important to note that these estimates continue to contain a significant degree of uncertainty, mainly related to the development of external and domestic supply shocks and their ultimate effects on prices. Other contributing factors include high price volatility and measurement uncertainty related to the extension of Colombia’s health emergency and tax relief measures (such as the VAT-free days) associated with the Social Investment Law (Ley de Inversión Social). The as-yet uncertain magnitude of the effects of a recent real increase in the legal minimum wage (that was high by historical standards) and high observed and expected inflation, are additional factors weighing on the overall uncertainty of the estimates in this report. The size of excess productive capacity remaining in the economy and the degree to which it is closing are also uncertain, as the evolution of the pandemic continues to represent a significant forecast risk. margin, could be less dynamic than expected. And the normalization of monetary policy in the United States could come more quickly than projected in this report, which could negatively affect international financing costs. Finally, there remains a significant degree of uncertainty related to the duration of supply chocks and the degree to which macroeconomic and political conditions could negatively affect the recovery in investment. The technical staff revised its GDP growth projection for 2022 from 4.7% to 4.3% (Graph 1.3). This revision accounts for the likelihood that a larger portion of the recent positive dynamic in private consumption would be transitory than previously expected. This estimate also contemplates less dynamic investment behavior than forecast in the previous report amid less favorable financial conditions and a highly uncertain investment environment. Third-quarter GDP growth (12.9%), which was similar to projections from the October report, and the fourth-quarter growth forecast (8.7%) reflect a positive consumption trend, which has been revised upward. This dynamic has been driven by both public and private spending. Investment growth, meanwhile, has been weaker than forecast. Available fourth-quarter data suggest that consumption spending for the period would have exceeded estimates from October, thanks to three consecutive months that included VAT-free days, a relatively low COVID-19 caseload, and mobility indicators similar to their pre-pandemic levels. By contrast, the most recently available figures on new housing developments and machinery and equipment imports suggest that investment, while continuing to rise, is growing at a slower rate than anticipated in the previous report. The trade deficit is expected to have widened, as imports would have grown at a high level and outpaced exports. Given the above, the technical staff now expects fourth-quarter economic growth of 8.7%, with overall growth for 2021 of 9.9%. Several factors should continue to contribute to output recovery in 2022, though some of these may be less significant than previously forecast. International financial conditions are expected to be less favorable, though external demand should continue to recover and terms of trade continue to increase amid higher projected oil prices. Lower unemployment rates and subsequent positive effects on household income, despite increased inflation, would also boost output recovery, as would progress in the national vaccination campaign. The technical staff expects that the conditions that have favored recent high levels of consumption would be, in large part, transitory. Consumption spending is expected to grow at a slower rate in 2022. Gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) would continue to recover, approaching its pre-pandemic level, though at a slower rate than anticipated in the previous report. This would be due to lower observed GFCF levels and the potential impact of political and fiscal uncertainty. Meanwhile, the policy interest rate would be less expansionary as the process of monetary policy normalization continues. Given the above, growth in 2022 is forecast to decelerate to 4.3% (previously 4.7%). In 2023, that figure (3.1%) is projected to converge to levels closer to the potential growth rate. In this case, excess productive capacity would be expected to tighten at a similar rate as projected in the previous report. The trade deficit would tighten more than previously projected on the forecast horizon, due to expectations of an improved export dynamic and moderation in imports. The growth forecast for 2022 considers a low basis of comparison from the first half of 2021. However, there remain significant downside risks to this forecast. The current projection does not, for example, account for any additional effects on economic activity resulting from further waves of COVID-19. High private consumption levels, which have already surpassed pre-pandemic levels by a large margin, could be less dynamic than expected. And the normalization of monetary policy in the United States could come more quickly than projected in this report, which could negatively affect international financing costs. Finally, there remains a significant degree of uncertainty related to the duration of supply chocks and the degree to which macroeconomic and political conditions could negatively affect the recovery in investment. External demand for Colombian goods and services should continue to recover amid significant global inflation pressures, high oil prices, and less favorable international financial conditions than those estimated in October. Economic activity among Colombia’s major trade partners recovered in 2021 amid countries reopening and ample international liquidity. However, that growth has been somewhat restricted by global supply chain disruptions and new outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff has revised its growth forecast for Colombia’s main trade partners from 6.3% to 6.9% for 2021, and from 3.4% to 3.3% for 2022; trade partner economies are expected to grow 2.6% in 2023. Colombia’s annual terms of trade increased in 2021, largely on higher oil, coffee, and coal prices. This improvement came despite increased prices for goods and services imports. The expected oil price trajectory has been revised upward, partly to supply restrictions and lagging investment in the sector that would offset reduced growth forecasts in some major economies. Elevated freight and raw materials costs and supply chain disruptions continue to affect global goods production, and have led to increases in global prices. Coupled with the recovery in global demand, this has put upward pressure on external inflation. Several emerging market economies have continued to normalize monetary policy in this context. Meanwhile, in the United States, the Federal Reserve has anticipated an end to its asset buying program. U.S. inflation in December (7.0%) was again surprisingly high and market average inflation forecasts for 2022 have increased. The Fed is expected to increase its policy rate during the first quarter of 2022, with quarterly increases anticipated over the rest of the year. For its part, Colombia’s sovereign risk premium has increased and is forecast to remain on a higher path, to levels above the 15-year-average, on the forecast horizon. This would be partly due to the effects of a less expansionary monetary policy in the United States and the accumulation of macroeconomic imbalances in Colombia. Given the above, international financial conditions are projected to be less favorable than anticipated in the October report. The increase in Colombia’s external financing costs could be more significant if upward pressures on inflation in the United States persist and monetary policy is normalized more quickly than contemplated in this report. As detailed in Section 2.3, uncertainty surrounding international financial conditions continues to be unusually high. Along with other considerations, recent concerns over the potential effects of new COVID-19 variants, the persistence of global supply chain disruptions, energy crises in certain countries, growing geopolitical tensions, and a more significant deceleration in China are all factors underlying this uncertainty. The changing macroeconomic environment toward greater inflation and unanchoring risks on inflation expectations imply a reduction in the space available for monetary policy stimulus. Recovery in domestic demand and a reduction in excess productive capacity have come in line with the technical staff’s expectations from the October report. Some upside risks to inflation have materialized, while medium-term inflation expectations have increased and are above the 3% target. Monetary policy remains expansionary. Significant global inflationary pressures and the unexpected increase in the CPI in December point to more persistent effects from recent supply shocks. Core inflation is trending upward, but remains below the 3% target. Headline and core inflation projections have increased on the forecast horizon and are above the target rate through the end of 2023. Meanwhile, the expected dynamism of domestic demand would be in line with low levels of excess productive capacity. An accumulation of macroeconomic imbalances in Colombia and the increased likelihood of a faster normalization of monetary policy in the United States would put upward pressure on sovereign risk perceptions in a more persistent manner, with implications for the exchange rate and the natural rate of interest. Persistent disruptions to international supply chains, a high real increase in the legal minimum wage, and the indexation of various baskets in the CPI to higher inflation rates could affect price expectations and push inflation above the target more persistently. These factors suggest that the space to maintain monetary stimulus has continued to diminish, though monetary policy remains expansionary. 1.2 Monetary policy decision Banco de la República’s board of directors (BDBR) in its meetings in December 2021 and January 2022 voted to continue normalizing monetary policy. The BDBR voted by a majority in these two meetings to increase the benchmark interest rate by 50 and 100 basis points, respectively, bringing the policy rate to 4.0%.