Relevant bibliographies by topics / Extinct species

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers

Academic literature on the topic 'Extinct species'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 1 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Extinct species"

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Kyne, Peter M., and Vanessa M. Adams. "Extinct flagships: linking extinct and threatened species." Oryx 51, no. 3 (May 3, 2016): 471–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605316000041.

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AbstractDespite much effort to promote the conservation and recovery of threatened species, the extent of the current list of threatened vertebrates (> 7,600 species) underscores the need to develop novel communication and marketing tools to raise awareness and funding for their conservation. Although flagship species have been widely used in conservation marketing, the flagship role of extinct species has been largely overlooked and the status of lost species is rarely associated with the status of extant species facing a high risk of extinction. Some extinct species (e.g. the dodo Raphus cucullatus and the thylacine Thylacinus cynocephalus) are cultural and commercial icons and therefore familiar, and may appeal to the public as conservation flagships. We propose a wider use of extinct flagships to raise awareness for the conservation of threatened species by making a direct link between already extinct species and extant species at risk of extinction. We present examples of publicly recognized and iconic extinct species that could be used in marketing for the conservation of threatened species. These extinct species are familiar and may be readily linked to threatened species or species groups. We outline a roadmap for testing their appeal under the extinct flagship concept, through market research. If research identifies that a cognitive link is made between the fate of an extinct species (i.e. they went extinct from human causes) and what may happen to threatened species (i.e. they are at risk of extinction from human causes), extinct species may well have a wider role to play as conservation flagships.
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Moore, Peter D. "Quarrying for extinct species." Nature 331, no. 6156 (February 1988): 482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/331482a0.

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Thomas, Patrick R. "Preservation of an extinct species." Zoo Biology 17, no. 1 (1998): 37–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-2361(1998)17:1<37::aid-zoo5>3.0.co;2-b.

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Oksanen, Markku, and Timo Vuorisalo. "De-extinct species as wildlife." TRACE ∴ Journal for Human-Animal Studies 3 (April 24, 2017): 4–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.23984/fjhas.59487.

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The concept of wildlife embodies two sources of controversy regarding de-extinct animals. First, the multifaceted dependence of these animals on humans; and second, the property rights to de-extinct animals. Both provide reasons for not counting them as wildlife. A subsequent question is, however, whether we should maintain this divide or allow the boundaries to blur. If we aim to maintain it, we end up trying to stop a process that is evolving rapidly and difficult to curb by legal means. If we relinquish these boundaries, we give up customary cultural models and related cultural practices. In biology, the divide between domestic and wild species is usually considered arbitrary and the degree of synanthropy (degree of association with humans) to present a continuum. Still, wildlife is normally defined through the notion of domestication: those animals that are not domesticated are wildlife. De-extinction turns the setting upside down: the de-extinct animals would normally be classified as domesticated, since they are generated by human action and could be owned as private property, but the problem is that they are not intended as domestic – de-extinct animals are ultimately created to be wildlife. Thus the concept of wildlife calls for refinement so as to allow their inclusion. We present a classification of animal species based both on their degree of synanthropy and the complex ownership issues. It appears that de-extinct species would probably initially represent species with a low synanthropy index but a high need for human care, but might later evolve into “real” wildlife in the strict sense of the term.
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Anmarkrud, Jarl A., and Jan T. Lifjeld. "Complete mitochondrial genomes of eleven extinct or possibly extinct bird species." Molecular Ecology Resources 17, no. 2 (October 11, 2016): 334–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.12600.

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Shea, John J. "Neanderthal news: Extinct species exhibits variability." Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 20, no. 5 (September 2011): 198–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/evan.20322.

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Lees, Alexander C., and Stuart L. Pimm. "Species, extinct before we know them?" Current Biology 25, no. 5 (March 2015): R177—R180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.017.

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Lees, Alexander C., and Stuart L. Pimm. "Species, extinct before we know them?" Current Biology 25, no. 7 (March 2015): 969. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.03.001.

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Vignieri, Sacha. "Revealing behavioral secrets in extinct species." Science 372, no. 6542 (May 6, 2021): 584.5–585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.372.6542.584-e.

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Greenwald, Noah, Kieran F. Suckling, Brett Hartl, and Loyal A. Mehrhoff. "Extinction and the U.S. Endangered Species Act." PeerJ 7 (April 22, 2019): e6803. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6803.

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The U.S. Endangered Species Act is one of the strongest laws of any nation for preventing species extinction, but quantifying the Act’s effectiveness has proven difficult. To provide one measure of effectiveness, we identified listed species that have gone extinct and used previously developed methods to update an estimate of the number of species extinctions prevented by the Act. To date, only four species have been confirmed extinct with another 22 possibly extinct following protection. Another 71 listed species are extinct or possibly extinct, but were last seen before protections were enacted, meaning the Act’s protections never had the opportunity to save these species. In contrast, a total of 39 species have been fully recovered, including 23 in the last 10 years. We estimate the Endangered Species Act has prevented the extinction of roughly 291 species since passage in 1973, and has to date saved more than 99% of species under its protection.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Extinct species"

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Kourela, Genovefa. "Palaeoentomological reconstruction of the environment during the Late Quaternary : A comparison between living species in Europe and regionally extinct in British Isles." Thesis, Umeå universitet, Institutionen för idé- och samhällsstudier, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-152021.

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During the Late Quaternary, abrupt climate and cultural changes took place and made alternations to the past landscape. Climatic phenomena such as expand of ice masses,sea level rise, high and low temperatures, migration of humans, decline and increase of forest areas and more changes were the reason of changing the biodiversity of species and the formation of the land. Here cartographic maps with the use of GIS will be presented from reconstructions of the environment during the Late Quaternary, which then will be interpreted from coleopteran fossils for the whole of Europe. Furthermore, living and extinct species will be compared, in which the focus of the extinction will be in the British Isles. Each period will show a different abundance of species, the regional disappearance of the species will be depicted by the abrupt changes in the landscape during the past. Anthropogenic and natural factors will be discussed and be compared with the habitats of the species.
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Britto, Igor Galv?o de. "A perda de grupos funcionais em comunidades virtuais: efeito das intera??es entre esp?cies e grupos funcionais." Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, 2012. http://repositorio.ufrn.br:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/14030.

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High levels of local, regional, and global extinctions has progressively simplified communities in terms of both species and ecosystem functioning. Theoretical models demonstrated that the degree of functional redundancy determines the rates of functional group loss in response to species extinctions. Here, we improve the theoretical predictions by incorporating in the model interactions between species and between functional groups. In this study, we tested the effect of different scenarios of interspecific interactions and effects between functional groups on the resistance to loss of community functional groups. Virtual communities have been built with different distribution patterns of species in functional groups, both with high and low evenness. A matrix A was created to represent the net effect of interspecific interactions among all species, representing nesting patterns, modularity, sensitive species, and dominant species. Moreover, a second matrix B was created to represent the interactions between functional groups, also exhibiting different patterns. The extinction probability of each species was calculated based on community species richness and by the intensity of the interspecific interactions that act upon it and group to which it belongs. In the model, successive extinctions decrease the community species richness, the degree of functional redundancy and, consequently, the number of functional groups that remain in the system. For each scenario of functional redundancy, A, and B, we ran 1000 simulations to generate an average functional extinction curve. Different model assumptions were able to generate remarkable variation on functional extinction curves. More extreme variations occurred when the matrix A and B caused a higher heterogeneity in the species extinction probability. Scenarios with sensitive species, positive or negative, showed a greater variation than the scenarios with dominant species. Nested interactions showed greater variation than scenarios where the interactions were in modules. Communities with maximal functional evenness can only be destabilized by the interactions between species and functional groups. In contrast, communities with low functional evenness can have its resistance either increased or decreased by the interactions. The concentration of positive interactions in low redundancy groups or negative interactions in high redundancy groups was able to decrease the functional extinction rates. In contrast, the concentration of negative interactions in low redundancy groups or positive interactions in high redundancy groups was able to increase the functional extinction rates. This model shows results that are relevant for species priorization in ecosystem conservation and restoration
Os n?veis elevados de extin??es locais, regionais e globais t?m simplificado progressivamente comunidades em termos de esp?cies e funcionamento do ecossistema. Modelos te?ricos demonstraram que o grau de redund?ncia funcional determina as taxas de perda de grupos funcionais ? medida que as comunidades sofrem extin??o de esp?cies. Aqui n?s aprimoramos as predi??es te?ricas pela incorpora??o no modelo de intera??es entre esp?cies e entre grupos funcionais. Neste estudo, testamos o efeito de diferentes cen?rios de intera??es interespec?ficas e de efeitos entre grupos funcionais sobre a resist?ncia das comunidades ? perda de grupos funcionais. Comunidades virtuais foram constru?das com diferentes padr?es de distribui??o de esp?cies nos grupos funcionais, tanto com alta quanto com baixa equitabilidade. Uma matriz A foi criada para representar o efeito l?quido das intera??es interespec?ficas entre todas as esp?cies, representando padr?es de aninhamento, modularidade, esp?cies sens?veis ou dominantes. Al?m disto, uma segunda matriz B foi criada para representar as intera??es entre grupos funcionais, tendo tamb?m diferentes padr?es. A probabilidade de extin??o de cada esp?cie foi calculada com base na riqueza de esp?cie da comunidade e pela intensidade das intera??es interespec?ficas que atuam sobre ela e sobre o grupo funcional ao qual ela pertence. No modelo, extin??es de esp?cies sucessivas diminuem a riqueza da comunidade, o grau de redund?ncia funcional e consequentemente o n?mero de grupos funcionais que permanecem no sistema. Para cada cen?rio de redund?ncia funcional, A e B, n?s rodamos 1000 simula??es para gerar uma curva de extin??o funcional m?dia. Diferentes suposi??es do modelo foram capazes de gerar varia??es not?veis nas curvas de extin??o funcional. Varia??es mais extremas ocorreram quando as matrizes A e B definem um efeito diferencial acentuado na probabilidade de extin??o das esp?cies dos grupos funcionais. Cen?rios com esp?cies sens?veis, positivas ou negativas, apresentaram uma maior varia??o que os cen?rios com esp?cies dominantes. Intera??es aninhadas apresentaram maior varia??o do que cen?rios em que as intera??es s?o modulares. Comunidades com redund?ncia funcional m?xima podem somente ser fragilizadas pelas intera??es entre esp?cies e grupos funcionais. Em contraste, comunidades com baixa riqueza funcional pode ter sua resist?ncia aumentada ou diminu?da pelas intera??es. A concentra??o de intera??es positivas in grupos de baixa redund?ncia ou intera??es negativas em grupos de alta redund?ncia foi capaz de diminuir as taxas de extin??o funcional. Em contraste, a concentra??o de intera??es negativas em grupos de baixa redund?ncia ou de intera??es positivas em grupos de alta redund?ncia foi capaz de aumentar as taxas de extin??o funcional. Este modelo apresenta resultados relevantes para prioriza??o de esp?cies em trabalhos de conserva??o e restaura??o dos ecossistemas
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Dykes, Susan Jane. "Shape and size variability in lower second molars of extant hominoids and extinct hominin species with particular reference to modern homo sapiens and its potential for use as an analogue species in the context of fossil hominin dental variability comparisons." Thesis, 2018. https://hdl.handle.net/10539/25804.

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Thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the Faculty of Science, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2018
Teeth make up the bulk of hominin fossil material and are useful in taxonomic assessments. In this thesis, discriminant function, principal components and randomised CV analyses on large samples of lower second molars (n=778) from five extant reference species, both sexually dimorphic and non-dimorphic, provide estimates of ranges of size-shape variability to be expected within a single species. However, there is evidence that diet-driven tooth-size reduction and cusp simplification has expanded the ranges of shape and size variability of Homo sapiens in some populations, in areas exposed to soft, undemanding diets since the transition to agriculture and increased use of cooking, food processing and ceramics from about 12500 years ago. Molar size and shape changes are less evident in communities retaining a hunter-gatherer subsistence strategy, requiring strong dentognathic structures with robust teeth to masticate harder, tougher foodstuffs. These factors, driving divergent variability in tooth size and shape, are unique to modern humans. Using a novel mathematically-based landmarking methodology, developed to allow the inclusion of severely worn teeth, intra-species size-shape variability was assessed from 63 lower M2s representing nine African Plio-Pleistocene species. The first hypotheses tested in this thesis address the question of which extant hominoid species might be suitable for use as analogue species for comparisons with fossil hominin molars, and whether uniquely modern-human anomalous size-shape variability exhibited by lower second molars might disqualify modern Homo sapiens for such analyses. Secondly, where lower second molar size-versus-shape variability ratios measured for fossil species do not match those of either a sexually dimorphic or a non-dimorphic extant species, evaluations are made as to whether samples attributed to single hominin species might actually represent specimens from more than one species present in the relevant assemblages, whether sexual dimorphism may have been greater in fossil species than in extant species, and whether some individual specimens attributed to any fossil species might be misclassified. Results of the analyses indicate that uniquely human subsistence strategy divergences are identifiable in the size-shape variability of lower second molars. Furthermore, specimens representing Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus and Paranthropus robustus in this study exhibit very high variability and may indicate the presence of more than one species in their respective assemblages.
EM2018
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Books on the topic "Extinct species"

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Campbell, Douglas Ian, and Patrick Michael Whittle. Resurrecting Extinct Species. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5.

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Endangered & extinct species. Cambridge: Independence Educational Publishers, 2014.

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Balouet, Jean Christophe. Extinct species of the world. New York: Barron's, 1990.

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It stinks to be extinct! Columbus, Ohio: School Specialty Pub., 2007.

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Niskern, Diana. Endangered species (animals). Washington, D.C: Science Reference Section, Science and Technology Division, Library of Congress, 1985.

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Flannery, Tim F. Australia's vanishing mammals: Endangered and extinct native species. Surry Hills, NSW: RD Press, 1990.

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Jackson, Stephen M. Gliding mammals: Taxonomy of living and extinct species. Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2012.

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Jackson, Stephen M. Gliding mammals: Taxonomy of living and extinct species. Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2012.

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The encyclopedia of endangered and extinct animals. Brookfield, Conn: Copper Beech Books, 2001.

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Extinct species of the world: Lessons for our future. London: Letts in association with David Bateman, 1990.

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Book chapters on the topic "Extinct species"

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Price, George McCready. "Extinct Species." In Selected Works of George McCready Price, 34–41. London: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003003601-9.

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Campbell, Douglas Ian, and Patrick Michael Whittle. "Conservation in a Brave New World." In Resurrecting Extinct Species, 1–28. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_1.

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Campbell, Douglas Ian, and Patrick Michael Whittle. "Three Case Studies: Aurochs, Mammoths and Passenger Pigeons." In Resurrecting Extinct Species, 29–48. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_2.

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Campbell, Douglas Ian, and Patrick Michael Whittle. "Real or Fake? The Authenticity Question." In Resurrecting Extinct Species, 49–86. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_3.

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Campbell, Douglas Ian, and Patrick Michael Whittle. "Ethical Arguments For and Against De-extinction." In Resurrecting Extinct Species, 87–124. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_4.

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Bose, Rituparna, and Alexander J. Bartholomew. "Evolutionary Change: A Case Study of Extinct Brachiopod Species." In Macroevolution in Deep Time, 17–41. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6476-1_2.

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Delord, Julien. "Can We Really Re-create an Extinct Species by Cloning? A Metaphysical Analysis." In The Ethics of Animal Re-creation and Modification, 22–39. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137337641_2.

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Gamborg, Christian. "What’s So Special about Reconstructing a Mammoth? Ethics of Breeding and Biotechnology in Re-creating Extinct Species." In The Ethics of Animal Re-creation and Modification, 60–76. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137337641_4.

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Welchman, Jennifer. "Does Justice Require De-extinction of the Heath Hen?" In The International Library of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Ethics, 513–32. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63523-7_28.

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AbstractIt is often argued that we “owe it” to species driven to extinction “to bring them back.” Can justice really require us to make restitution for anthropogenic extinctions? Can it require de-extinction? And if so, can justice require us to attempt the North American Heath Hen’s de-extinction? I will first review the types of de-extinction technologies currently available. I will then discuss the criteria used to determine when restitution is owed for injuries as well as the special challenges arising when (i) victims are wild animals and (ii) are extinct. After arguing that restitution may be due for some extinctions and that de-extinction would sometimes be an appropriate means, I apply these arguments to the case of the Heath Hen.
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Gaycken, Oliver. "‘Don’t You Mean Extinct?’." In Special Effects, 241–53. London: British Film Institute, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84457-904-4_17.

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Conference papers on the topic "Extinct species"

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RACHMAT, HENTI HENDALASTUTI. "Conserving the previously reported extinct tree species Dipterocarpus cinereus: An ex-situ approach for species conservation strategy." In Seminar Nasional Masyarakat Biodiversitas Indonesia. Masyarakat Biodiversitas Indonesia, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/m010331.

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Tobaben, Eric J., Larry D. Martin, and Kenneth J. Fischer. "Determining the Natural Head Posture for Extant Animal Species Using Line-of-Sight From the Eyesocket and Optical Foramen." In ASME 2012 Summer Bioengineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/sbc2012-80828.

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Understanding natural head posture in animals is improtant in interpreting their biomechanics and behavior. For extinct animals, natural posture cannot be directly determined from the fossil record. There have been few prior studies of animal line of sight and head posture. Most line of sight studies have focused on the breadth of binocular vision versus panoramic vision in relation to behavior (predator type or grazer, for instance) or the animals typical environment (open or cluttered) [1]. For head posture some have studied changes in cognition or the environment or related aspects like the eyeball orientation as head posture changes [2]. Still others have focused on the areas of the brain that control 3D head position [3]. However, none of these studies address a method to determine the natural head posture or angle. While there currently is no definitive way to determine natural head angle in extinct animals, it seems reasonable to assume that the natural head posture would place the line of sight in the horizontal plane for most species. Therefore, we hypothesized that the opening for the optical (the optical foremen) and the eye socket structure itself can be used to accurately determine the natural head posture for a large portion of extant and extinct animal species. Specifically, if the skull is oriented such that the plane of sight (the plane common to both lines of sight) is horizontal, then the skull will be in the natural posture. If this hypothesis is shown to be valid, it will provide naturalists a reliable tool to determine the natural head posture (head angle) of extinct animals. The objective of this study was to test the above hypothesis on animals in the Felidae (cats).
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Oliphant, Elizabeth, Sierra V. Petersen, Andrea Dutton, and Kyger C. Lohmann. "INTERPRETING LIFECYCLE BEHAVIOR OF EXTINCT BIVALVE SPECIES THROUGH STABLE AND CLUMPED ISOTOPIC VARIATIONS." In GSA Annual Meeting in Seattle, Washington, USA - 2017. Geological Society of America, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/abs/2017am-302293.

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ABRAITIENĖ, Jolita, Gerda ŠILINGIENĖ, Rasa VAITKEVIČIŪTĖ, and Regina VASINAUSKIENĖ. "THE DIVERSITY OF HERBACEOUS VEGETATION AFTER FOREST FIRE." In RURAL DEVELOPMENT. Aleksandras Stulginskis University, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/rd.2017.105.

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Forest fire is an uncontrolled combustion of flammable materials in forested and non-forested areas. In Lithuania forest fires mainly occur in late spring and summer, mostly in young coniferous forests (Forest ..., 1987). The studies of herbaceous plants in fireplaces were carried out in 2016 in Jurbarkas SFE. Ground-level forest fire increased the projection coverage of herbaceous plants and their species composition in the fireplaces. According to the average data of the survey, 18 herbaceous plant species were ascertained in the fireplace and 14 species in the control stand. During the first year after fire, 9 new species were recorded in the fireplace and 5 species have disappeared, while in the seventh year - 7 new species were recorded and 1 disappeared, as compared with the control stand. Summarizing the obtained data it can be stated that low-intensity ground-level forest fire in pine forest increased the number of herbaceous plant species, however, the number of new and extinct species has been gradually decreasing, suggesting that in the fireplaces the diversity of herbaceous plant species will be like in the control stand.
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Bandyopadhyay, Sumahan, and Doyel Chatterjee. "A Salvage Linguistic Anthropological Study of the Endangered Māṅgtā Language of West Bengal, India." In GLOCAL Conference on Asian Linguistic Anthropology 2019. The GLOCAL Unit, SOAS University of London, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.47298/cala2019.15-2.

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The present paper is a salvage Linguistic Anthropology, in which attempt has been made to document a nearly-extinct language known as māṅgtā bhāsā, and to suggest appropriate measures for saving it from complete extinction. The word māṅgtā is said to have been derived from māṅā, which means ‘to ask for’ or ‘to beg’. The language is spoken by a few groups of the Bedia, which is a Scheduled Tribe (ST) in India with a population of 88,772 as per Census of India, 2011(Risley [1891]1981; Bandyopadhyay 2012, 2016, 2017). Bedia is a generic name for a number of vagrant gypsy like groups which Risley has divided into seven types. They live by a number of professions such as snake-charming, selling of medicinal herbs, showing chameleon art or multi-forming. Almost all of them have become speakers of more than one language for interacting with speakers of different languages in the neighbourhood for the sake of their survival. Even the present generation has almost forgotten their native speech, and their unawareness of the language becoming extinct is of concern to us. Elders still remember it and use it sometimes in conversations with the fellow members of their community. The ability to speak this language is construed with regard to the origin of this particular group of Bedia. In fact, the language had given them the identity of a separate tribal community while they demanded the status of ST in the recent past. Thus, socio-historically, the māṅgtā language has a special significance. In spite of being a distinct speech, there has been almost no study conducted on this language. This is one of the major motives for taking up the present endeavour. This project conducts morphological, phonological, syntactical and semantic studies on the māṅgtā language. Sociolinguistic aspects of this language have also been considered. The language has its roots in the Indo-European language family with affinity to the Austro-Asiatic family. The paper interrogates whether māṅgtā can be called language or speech. The study required ethnographic field work, audio-visual archiving, and revitalization, along with sustainable livelihood protection of speakers of the language.
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Patel, Nirdesh D., Ian Grosse, Dan Sweeney, David S. Strait, Peter W. Lucas, Barth Wright, and Laurie R. Godfrey. "An Efficient Method for Predicting Fracture of Hard Food Source." In ASME 2008 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2008-67675.

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In this paper we present a fast and reliable method for estimating the bite force required to fracture hard foods. The process involves complementary physical testing and finite element modeling. For physical testing, metal castings of upper or lower teeth are prepared. Metal tooth castings are mounted on a pivoting fixture interfaced to an Instron machine to simulate bite mechanics and thus to fracture hard food specimens. For the finite element model the tooth surfaces are modeled as rigid surface bodies in a nonlinear multi-load step contact analysis, while the food item is modeled as an elastic body. However, because only tooth surface information is needed in the model, we are able to automatically develop the geometry of the tooth surface using a tactile digitizing stylus with stereo lithographic surface profile information directly exported and subsequently imported into the FEA tool. We therefore avoid the need to laser scan tooth geometry which introduces significant “noise” into the surface model representation that must be painstakingly “cleaned” manually using software tools. The physical testing provides the force required to fracture the food item, while the finite element model provides the complete stress and strain state of the food item at the moment of fracture. Using this approach we have simulated the tooth biting mechanics of fossil primates to estimate biting force required to initiate a crack in a hard food source such as a macadamia nut. These analyses are designed to measure how occlusal morphology affects feeding performance, as the bite force needed to initiate a crack may vary according to tooth shape. The bite forces found using this approach will be used as an input for full-skull finite element models of early hominids (extinct fossil relatives of humans). The results of this work will be useful in testing the hypothesis that derived craniodental features in some of these hominids are adaptations for feeding on hard, brittle, seasonally available foods.
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