Academic literature on the topic 'Extrinsic product attributes'
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Journal articles on the topic "Extrinsic product attributes"
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Bolha, Anja, Urška Blaznik, and Mojca Korošec. "Influence of intrinsic and extrinsic food attributes on consumers’ acceptance of reformulated food products: A systematic review." Slovenian Journal of Public Health 60, no. 1 (December 31, 2020): 72–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/sjph-2021-0011.
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Abstract Introduction Reducing the salt, sugar and fat content of food is recognised worldwide as one of the strategies available for reducing the incidence of obesity and non-communicable diseases. The food industry has a major influence on achieving these goals by preserving intrinsic (chemical and sensory properties) and modifying extrinsic (food packaging and other external information) food attributes that can influence purchasing decisions. This article is a literature review of studies that analyse the influence of intrinsic and/or extrinsic attributes on consumer product preference and purchasing decisions. Methods A keyword search for relevant studies was conducted using Web of Science, an interdisciplinary electronic resource. Articles from other sources were also included and systematically reviewed. Results The search string identified 266 results. Thirty-eight articles were included in the final analysis and coded according to intrinsic and extrinsic food attributes, reformulated nutrient, food category, condition, research methods, consumer response, study location and sample size. There are several authors investigating the effect of intrinsic rather than extrinsic product attributes. Most research deals with processed foods in the category of milk and dairy products, followed by sweetened fruit juices, meat products, sweets and bread. Salt content is the attribute most often reduced, followed by sugar and fat. Conclusions Consumers find it hard to swap potential health benefits for hedonic attributes. When evaluating products in expected conditions, they usually rate the reformulated product more highly than the conventional one, while in informed conditions they usually choose the regular product. When products are labelled with a traffic light or nutritional warnings, consumers opt for a reformulated product, even in informed conditions. This review highlights the heterogeneity between food groups, and the fact that many factors influence consumers’ product preferences and purchasing decisions. The product should be analysed as a whole and tested in blind, expected and informed conditions, as each individual factor represents a phase of the consumer purchasing decision. The extent of nutrient reduction should be determined by calculating the difference threshold, and the industry should reformulate products gradually based on how consumers detect the reduction.
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Feng, Jie, and Purushottam Papatla. "Why Consumers Talk: An Investigation of the Extrinsic Motivators of Electronic Word of Mouth." Journal of Business Theory and Practice 2, no. 1 (January 18, 2014): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/jbtp.v2n1p63.
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<p><em>We investigate the relative effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators on online consumer word of mouth. Specifically, we examine how the influence of product satisfaction – an intrinsic motivator – compares to three extrinsic motivators, i.e., product life cycle stage, product attributes and expert opinions, in stimulating electronic word of mouth. We also examine the roles of different types of product attributes in generating electronic word of mouth. </em><em></em></p> <p><em>The context of our investigation is electronic word of mouth for automobiles. Our results suggest that while intrinsic motivators do play a strong role in generating electronic word of mouth, extrinsic motivators such as the product’s life cycle stage, its attributes and experts’ opinions play a stronger role. Specifically, new products are likely to generate more word of mouth than older ones. Following the product’s life cycle stage in importance are the product’s attributes and expert opinions, in that order, in their influence. We also provide implications for additional research on the role of extrinsic motivators in generating consumer word of mouth. </em><em></em></p>
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Kauppinen‐Räisänen, Hannele. "The impact of extrinsic and package design attributes on preferences for non‐prescription drugs." Management Research Review 33, no. 2 (January 22, 2010): 161–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01409171011015847.
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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of extrinsic attributes and package design attributes on consumer preferences of high‐risk products.Design/methodology/approachAn explorative conjoint analysis is conducted. A small‐scale sample, consisting of 18 consumers, conduct two conjoint tasks for two drug product types, i.e. painkillers and sore throat medicine.FindingsThe impact of the tested attributes varies according to the product type. The intrinsic attribute of taste is valued most in sore throat medicines, followed by colour and producer. Producer and colour are the most valued in painkillers. Colour is the most influential of the design attributes tested. Well‐known producer is perceived as more important in painkillers, whereas in sore throat medicine domestic producers are valued more.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is exploratory and limited due to the design with few statistical assumptions and to small‐scale sampling in one country only.Practical implicationsThe health care marketers should recognize the impact of package design on consumers' preferences of high‐risk products, such as non‐prescription drug.Originality/valueThere has been little research on the impact of package design attributes such as package colours on consumers in health care marketing.
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Lee, Dongmin, Junghoon Moon, and Min Ho Ryu. "The effects of extrinsic cues on online sales of fresh produce: a focus on geographical indications." Cahiers Agricultures 28 (2019): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2019014.
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Fresh produce has rich sensory attributes, and consumers generally prefer examining physically these sensory attributes prior to purchase. The nature of e-commerce, however, limits consumers’ ability to examine products’ sensory attributes while buying online. Customers receive very limited intrinsic cues of fresh produce (such as color) when buying online and thus use only extrinsic cues to assess the quality of fresh produce. This study investigates the effects of extrinsic cues on online shopping for fresh produce, with a particular focus on the effect of geographical indication (GI), which often assumes the role of brand names among producers of fresh groceries. We used data from an online South Korean marketplace for fresh produce to conduct a linear regression analysis. The results show that products linked to GIs sold more and were ordered more frequently; other control variables had somewhat significant effects. The volume of online product reviews was found to have a significant positive effect on the amount of orders and sales, but the product rating itself did not have an effect. The price had a negative effect on the amount of orders, while the number of certifications (e.g. “organic agriculture”) had a significant positive effect on the number of orders.
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Proboyo, Adelina, and Bram Imantaka Kusuma. "The Impact of Product Attributes, Price, Place, Advertising, and Sales Promotion: A Case of Kids Shampoo in Indonesia." Petra International Journal of Business Studies 2, no. 2 (November 1, 2019): 59–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.9744/ijbs.2.2.59-70.
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Kids shampoo has been the main driver of growth for the slow-growing baby and child hair care industry in Indonesia. Knowing this phenomenon, Company A launched Product X, a kids shampoo product, in 2016. The purpose of this research is to do a gap analysis between the perception and the expectation of intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes, sales promotion, and place. Prior to the gap analysis, 109 data is collected through online questionnaires and then analyzed using a multiple regression analysis to know the impact of intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes, price, place, advertising, and sales promotion on purchase intention. The result shows that intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes, sales promotion, and place influence purchase intention significantly, while price and advertising are not significant. From the gap analysis, the perceived performance of Product X on four significant elements is lower than the expectation.
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Enneking, Ulrich, Claudia Neumann, and Sven Henneberg. "How important intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes affect purchase decision." Food Quality and Preference 18, no. 1 (January 2007): 133–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.09.008.
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D'Souza, D. N., D. Cleary, and R. J. E. Hewitt. "Consumers want pork with ‘adjectives'." Animal Production Science 57, no. 12 (2017): 2331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an17362.
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Pork is the most consumed meat globally, but its consumption varies widely across the major pork-consuming nations. Consumers consider a wide variety of intrinsic and extrinsic cues, and credence attributes, when making purchasing and consumption decisions for food products. Brand recognition has been an important extrinsic cue for consumers, especially in the case of pork-product quality. However, the branding of fresh pork products in Australia has not been very prominent, due to the dominance of retailer ‘home-brand’ labels. However, increasingly these retailer labels are using information and branding relating to adjectives (credence attributes), for example, animal welfare, production systems, environment. The role of these credence attributes in Australia are now very much regarded by consumers as surrogate indicators of pork quality. The present paper will look at consumer preferences and attitudes to pork and the role credence attributes play when consumers purchase pork. In addition, the paper looks at the role of retailers in delivering pork with adjectives.
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Robertson, Jeandri, Caitlin Ferreira, and Elsamari Botha. "The influence of product knowledge on the relative importance of extrinsic product attributes of wine." Journal of Wine Research 29, no. 3 (July 3, 2018): 159–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09571264.2018.1505605.
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Taylor, James Joseph, Mark Bing, Dennis Reynolds, Kristl Davison, and Tanya Ruetzler. "Motivation and personal involvement leading to wine consumption." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 30, no. 2 (February 12, 2018): 702–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijchm-06-2016-0335.
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Purpose Wine sales are at the highest volumes ever and warrant a robust understanding of consumption behavior. Consequently, this study aims to examine intrinsic motivational factors (e.g. personal attributes) – those that push the consumer toward wine products – and the extrinsic motivational product attributes (e.g. situational attributes) those that draw – or pull – the consumer toward wine products. Design/methodology/approach A model has been tested in which intrinsic and extrinsic motivations interacted to predict personal involvement (PI) with wine, which in turn predicted wine consumption, forming a mediated moderation model. Findings Support has been found for a mediated moderation model of wine consumption. Thus, this study improves the understanding of how interactive motivations are mediated by PI in their influence on wine consumption. Research limitations/implications The sample is limited to participants in the National Restaurant Show, and thus the results may be limited to the sample investigated. Practical implications The findings suggest using intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors and PI with wine to influence marketing strategies. Social implications This study has helped to expand the understanding of interactive and mediating forces that drive wine consumption. Originality/value Although previous research proposed that motivational factors interact to predict wine consumption, this interaction has not been tested empirically prior to the current study. Therefore, this study adds new insights into wine consumption by demonstrating that intrinsic and extrinsic motivators interact to predict PI with wine, which subsequently predicts wine consumption in a holistic, mediated moderation model.
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Abadio Finco, Fernanda D. B., Rosires Deliza, Amauri Rosenthal, and Carlos H. O. Silva. "The Effect of Extrinsic Product Attributes of Pineapple Juice on Consumer Intention to Purchase." Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing 22, no. 1-2 (January 6, 2010): 125–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08974430903372963.
Full textDissertations / Theses on the topic "Extrinsic product attributes"
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Makgopa, Meriam Mmasupu. "Inexperienced adults' reliance on extrinsic product attributes to judge the quality of major household appliances." Diss., Pretoria : [s.n.], 2005. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-03102006-144715.
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Van, Belkum Mareli. "Male consumers’ evaluation of apparel assortments in South African speciality stores." Diss., 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/57330.
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Consumer behaviour and spending habits have changed drastically post-recession. This has affected how retailers conduct their business, driving retailers’ focus towards providing customers with the value they require. One way in which retailers can offer such value is through the implementation of advanced product assortment. Product assortments influence consumers’ purchasing decisions and their preferences for particular retailers, thereby making it an important factor in retailers’ strategy to maintain their success. Retailers’ product assortments which focus on male apparel consumers, such as speciality stores, are of particular importance as men represent a lucrative segment of the apparel industry. Speciality stores specialise in specific merchandise such as menswear and develop their apparel assortment to concentrate on certain customers such as male consumers. Although men are becoming more prevalent in retail venues and have taken responsibility for their own apparel shopping, research regarding male apparel consumers and their purchasing behaviour, particularly within the context of South Africa, is scarce. The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the product attributes used by male consumers when evaluating apparel product assortment of South African speciality stores.
The evaluation stage of the decision making process formed the basis of this study. Therefore, it was decided that the consumer decision making framework would be best suited as the theoretical framework. Namely, the consumer behaviour model of Hawkins and Mothersbaugh (2013) was used to guide the study. During the evaluation stage of the consumer decision making process, male consumers will use product attributes they consider important when evaluating the product assortment of speciality stores. Product attributes include intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes and male apparel consumers will employ the use of compensatory decision rules, allowing them to make trade-offs among these attributes.
The study employed an exploratory survey research design which was quantitative in nature. Non-probability sampling methods were used to collect the necessary data for the study. This included convenience and snowball sampling. Respondents completed a structured questionnaire which was developed according to the constructs implemented in the study and administered in a paper based and online electronic form. The sample included 204 male consumers, located in the greater Tshwane area, Gauteng. The majority of the sample were between the ages of 20-29, representing a relatively young sample. Conjoint analysis and exploratory factor analysis was applied to gain insight regarding the product attributes South African male apparel consumers apply when evaluating speciality stores’ product assortment. The conjoint analysis technique allows consumers to make trade-offs among attributes as they compare one attribute to another while evaluating assortments, thereby providing an indication of their actual preference structure. Cluster analysis was also performed on the conjoint data to provide additional information regarding male consumers’ preferences when evaluating speciality stores’ product assortment. By combining conjoint analysis with cluster analyses, the findings provided valuable information regarding the segmentation and socio-economic factors that may affect consumers’ preferences.
The results of the study indicated that South African male consumers employed both intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes when evaluating speciality stores’ product assortment. During the conjoint analysis, brand (extrinsic attribute) was the most important attribute among male consumers when making trade-offs between intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes. Male consumers’ preference for brand is an indication of brand consciousness. Style (intrinsic attribute) was the second most preferred attribute, followed by store image (extrinsic attribute). The exploratory factor analysis rendered three factors, labelled “Prestige sensitivity”, “Added value” and “Importance of fit”. These factors were a further indication of the evaluative criteria male consumers consider important when evaluating and selecting speciality stores’ product assortment. The results from the cluster analysis identified a four cluster solution, namely: style guys, cluster origin guys, brand loyalist and colour guys. This demonstrates that different consumer groups have distinct preferences when evaluating speciality stores’ product assortment. The study adds value and insight to current literature regarding male consumer behaviour and their preferences for certain intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes when evaluating speciality stores’ product assortment. This research can be beneficial to manufacturers, retailers and marketers who seek to enhance their merchandise mix by offering customised product assortments, improve advertising campaigns and ensure well trained sales staff.Dissertation (MConsumer Science)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
Consumer Science
MConsumer Science
Unrestricted
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Lei, Hsin-Yi, and 磊欣怡. "The Effect of Sex-Role Self-Concept on Product Gender Perception：Moderating Effects of Product Category, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Product Attributes." Thesis, 2005. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/15597835013767861466.
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Wijaya, Endang, and 葉志隆. "The Relationship of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Attributes of Perceived Product Quality and Customer Satisfaction: An Empirical Survey of Notebook Market in Indonesia." Thesis, 2010. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/53532308911810078051.
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碩士南台科技大學
企業管理系
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The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between intrinsic attributes of perceived product quality, extrinsic attributes of perceived product quality, satisfaction, and loyalty of notebook buyers in Indonesia. Seven dimensions of intrinsic attributes of perceived quality are checked to know whether they have significant influence on customer satisfaction. Those seven dimensions are performance, features, specification conformance, reliability, durability, serviceability, and aesthetic quality. Furthermore, this study only checks four variables of extrinsic attributes of perceived product quality whether they have significant influence on customer satisfaction. Those four variables are warranty, price, brand image, and brand awareness. Finally, the satisfaction level of notebook customers can be known and this study also shows the relationship between the satisfaction and loyalty of notebook buyers. The total sample used in this study is 334 respondents. All respondents are the notebook buyers in Indonesia especially from four largest cities in Indonesia which are Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, and Medan. Finally, for the result of this study, it shows generally that there are significant and partially significant positive relationships between the four constructs which are intrinsic attributes of perceived product quality, extrinsic attributes of perceived product quality, satisfaction, and loyalty of notebook buyers in Indonesia.
Book chapters on the topic "Extrinsic product attributes"
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Fabbris, Luigi, and Alfonso Piscitelli. "Wine preferences based on intrinsic attributes: A tasting experiment in Alto Adige/Südtirol province." In Proceedings e report, 129–34. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/978-88-5518-304-8.26.
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Different methods have been developed by researchers in modelling wine consumers purchase behaviour. The quality of a food product is described by a set of characteristics ascribable to the intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes (Olson and Jacoby, 1972). Price, brand, region of origin, grapes and gained awards are the key extrinsic attributes and physical characteristics of the wine such as taste and flavour are intrinsic attributes. This paper addresses the problem of measuring the intrinsic attributes that characterise the wine, based on specific characteristics and the impact on consumers in terms of preferences. To this end, a fractional factorial experiment held on a selection of white wines of the Alto Adige/Südtirol province in Italy. The sensorial experiment involved a voluntary sample of 33 mild wine consumers and concerned 6 grape varieties typical of that territory. For each variety, two producing cellars were selected for a total of 12 evaluated wines. The experiment followed a double-blind administration procedure to the sample and a paper questionnaire was used to elicit the consumers’ opinions on the tasted wines. The results show that intrinsic attributes, such as taste-olfactory intensity, harmony and olfactory complexity, are the drivers used in combination by consumers to rank wines in order of preference.
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"The Effects of Extrinsic Product Attributes on Buyers’ Perceptions of Product Quality: A Causal Approach." In Integrated View of Fruit & Vegetable Quality, edited by U. R. Orth, 293–302. CRC Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781351073769-40.
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Gómez-Suárez, Mónica, and María Pilar Martínez-Ruiz. "Attitude toward Private Label Brands." In Handbook of Research on Strategic Retailing of Private Label Products in a Recovering Economy, 54–78. IGI Global, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0220-3.ch003.
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The primary aim of this study was to identify the determinants of attitude toward Private Labels (PLs) in Spain in one of the most important industries for such brands: the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) industry. To this end, a conceptual model was proposed based on a review of the relevant literature in the field. To test the model, a database was compiled consisting of 626 consumers who had purchased FMCGs. These data were then analyzed using a structural equation model, which corroborated the association between the following variables: smart shopping, promotion proneness, value consciousness, and the perceived quality of PLs based on their extrinsic and intrinsic attributes. These results emphasize the need that grocery retailers pay special attention to the psychological bonds PLs are able to develop in consumer minds, aside to traditional variables related to their economic value benefits. In light of these findings, a number of implications for PL management are proposed.
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Brower, Andrew V. Z., and Randall T. Schuh. "Evaluating Hypothetical Scenarios of Evolution, Ecology and Adaptation." In Biological Systematics, 309–25. Cornell University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501752773.003.0010.
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This chapter discusses how the methods for testing theories of cospeciation are not well suited to test coevolutionary theories of ecological association, adaptation, and more loosely constrained patterns of host association. It is, nonetheless, desirable to evaluate such theories in a rigorous historical context. Indeed, the ability to use the results of cladistic analyses to evaluate ecological and adaptational theories represents a truly powerful application of the method. This area of inquiry has become a standard approach in contemporary phylogenetic research, to the extent that one's chances of publishing a study in a high-profile journal may be diminished if the tree is not couched as a test of such a hypothesis. Within the cladistic framework, two interrelated approaches to evaluating adaptational hypotheses have been proposed: mapping and optimization. The chapter then describes methodological approaches that are best suited to extrinsic data, but which also apply to the optimization of heritable traits that were not part of an analysis. The rationale is based on the desire to provide an independent test of theories about the evolution or association of attributes within individual lineages when there is no straightforward way to produce a hierarchic scheme for those attributes.
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Littlejohn, Murray J. "Variation in Advertisement Calls of Anurans across Zonal Interactions: The Evolution and Breakdown of Homogamy." In Geographic Variation in Behavior. Oxford University Press, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195082951.003.0014.
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The allopatric mode of speciation has become a dominant paradigm (sensu Kuhn 1970) in evolutionary biology over the last 50 years (Mayr 1942, 1992). In this model, the geographic range of a species is fragmented, the previously dedifferentiating effect of gene flow is interrupted, and the now separated populations diverge. If there is enough genetic differentiation during this period of isolation, then the disjunct daughter populations may become separate biological species (sensu Mayr 1942, 1992). This level of divergence is achieved by the development of sufficient genetic incompatibility, as reflected in an absolute infertility or sterility of hybrids or by sufficient reduction in the absolute or relative levels of adaptedness of hybrids so that none survives to maturity when in competition with parental individuals. Full and complete allopatric speciation, then, is marked by the acquisition of those properties needed for extensive and continuing coexistence. Broad overlap of geographic ranges (sympatry) can then develop without any significant interactions between individuals of the derived populations. In other situations, however, these essential properties may not have been acquired before the extrinsic barriers were removed. Thus, a critical stage is reached when the geographic ranges of previously separated daughter populations expand, and contact is established between individuals of the different genetic systems. Here the ecological compatibility, the specificity of mate choice, and the relative fitness of hybrids (if produced) are tested, and the following four outcomes may be envisaged. (1) If there is a cost to inbreeding, based on extrinsic and/or intrinsic factors, then the two lineages may diverge further in sympatry such that the attributes essential for stable coexistence arise, or are enhanced, through the direct action of natural selection within the context of the interaction (for references and recent commentaries, see Howard 1993, Littlejohn 1993, Butlin 1995). (2) If there is an ecological gradient and no cost to interbreeding because the hybrid progeny are as fit as, or fitter than, those of the parental taxa in part of the gradient, a geographically restricted and persistent hybrid zone may form (Moore 1977, Moore and Buchanan 1985, Littlejohn 1988, Hewitt 1989, Harrison 1993, Howard 1993).
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Jordan, David R., and Stephen R. Klapper. "Soft Tissue Fillers for Facial Aesthetics." In Surgery of the Eyelid, Lacrimal System, and Orbit. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195340211.003.0038.
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The search for an ideal soft tissue filler to correct facial folds and wrinkles has gone on for at least 100 years. Many products have been tried, including mineral oil, paraffin, and liquid silicone, in an effort to improve soft tissue imperfections. Most of the early substances were abandoned due to a high incidence of complications, including chronic edema, granuloma formation, scarring, and ulceration. The ideal tissue filler should be biocompatible, noncarcinogenic, nonteratogenic, nonmigratory, and free of adverse reaction. The ideal filler should also be inexpensive and easy to use, require little preparation, and provide long-lasting, natural, and predictable results with minimal recovery time. Although no currently available injectable substance possesses all of these ideal attributes, many currently available products provide more-than-satisfactory results and have excellent safety profiles. The indications for injectable filler agents have largely evolved through a better understanding of facial aging, specifically soft tissue deflation typically noted between youth and middle age. The limitations of surgical procedures to correct soft tissue atrophy, as well as the possibility of delaying surgical procedures by early intervention with injectable fillers, have made these agents very valuable in improving the appearance of the aging face. With the continued improvement in products and techniques during recent years, the clinical results with fillers have become more predictable. As a result of this improvement, an increasing number of patients are seeking nonsurgical methods for correcting age-related changes to their facial skin and soft tissue. There are essentially two types of natural facial wrinkles (or rhytides): dynamic and static. They may occur separately or in combination. Dynamic wrinkles appear within the skin due to repeated contracture by the underlying muscles of facial expression. Static wrinkles are present regardless of facial dynamics and result from intrinsic changes in the components of the dermal ground substance and from extrinsic factors such as smoking, gravity, and sun exposure. The formation of both dynamic and static wrinkles is influenced by the quality of the natural collagen matrix within the dermal layers of the skin. For the most part, dynamic wrinkles are best treated with Botulinum toxin injections, particularly in the upper face.
Conference papers on the topic "Extrinsic product attributes"
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Choi, Kun-Mo, Robert D. Hurt, Thomas E. Shea, and Richard Nishimura. "User Requirements and Criteria for Proliferation Resistance in INPRO." In 12th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone12-49211.
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In designing future nuclear energy systems, it is important to consider the potential that such systems could be misused for the purpose of producing nuclear weapons. INPRO set out to provide guidance on incorporating proliferation resistance into innovative nuclear energy systems (INS). Generally two types of proliferation resistance measures are distinguished: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic features consist of technical design features that reduce the attractiveness of nuclear material for nuclear weapon program, or prevent the diversion of nuclear material or production of undeclared nuclear material for nuclear weapons. Extrinsic measures include commitments, obligations and policies of states such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and IAEA safeguards agreements. INPRO has produced five basic principles and five user requirements for INS. It emphasizes that INS must continue to be an unattractive means to acquire fissile material for a nuclear weapon program. It also addresses as user requirements: 1) a balanced and optimised combination of intrinsic features and extrinsic measures, 2) the development and implementation of intrinsic features, 3) an early consideration of proliferation resistance in the development of INS and 4) the utilization of intrinsic features to increase the efficiency of extrinsic measures. INPRO has also developed criteria, consisting of indicators and acceptance limits, which would be used by a state to assess how an INS satisfies those user requirements. For the first user requirement, the most important but complex one, INPRO provides a 3-layer hierarchy of indicators to assess how unattractive a specific INS would be as part of a nuclear weapon program. Attributes of nuclear material and facilities are used as indicators to assess intrinsic features. Extrinsic measures imposed on the system are also assessed. Indicators to assess defence in depth for proliferation resistance include the number and robustness of barriers, and the redundancy or complementarity of barriers. The cost of incorporating proliferation resistant features is used to assess the cost-effectiveness of any particular INS in providing proliferation resistance. The stages in the development of an INS at which proliferation resistance is considered in the process are assessed. Awareness of extrinsic measures by designers and use of intrinsic features for verification illustrate how intrinsic features facilitate extrinsic measures. An INPRO-consistent methodology to assess the proliferation resistance of an INS is still under development, with feedback expected from the case studies undertaken by Argentina, India, Russia and the Republic of Korea.
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Vogt, William C., and Christopher G. Rylander. "Effects of Tissue Dehydration on Optical Diffuse Reflectance and Transmittance in Ex Vivo Porcine Skin." In ASME 2012 Summer Bioengineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/sbc2012-80935.
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Soft tissues are heterogeneous materials that may be considered mixtures of water, proteins, and cells. The high degree of mismatch in refractive index between these constituents causes tissues to be highly turbid media [1]. Mechanical optical clearing is a technique for reducing tissue scattering and improving light-based diagnostics and therapeutics. Mechanical optical clearing is performed using indentation to locally modify tissue optical response, and this effect has been shown to be reversible in vivo [2]. This effect is attributed to transient changes in tissue water distribution as a result of interstitial pore flow of water due to tissue compression. This leads to the hypothesis that tissue optical response is also correlated to the tissue’s state of hydration. The goal of this study was to investigate whether or not a difference in tissue water content produces a measurable difference in tissue optical response and to correlate that response with mechanical deformation. Both diffuse reflectance and transmittance were selected as extrinsic optical signals of interest.