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Ejukonemu, Barbie O. M. "Refracting The Diseased Eye." Bayero Journal of Nursing and Health Care 3, no. 2 (September 11, 2022): 893–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bjnhc.v3i2.9.
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Refractive error refers to ocular refractive status where images of objects of regard do not fall on the retina in a relaxed eye - the ametropic eye. Thus, objects are perceived as blur. Refractive error is an aberration in an otherwise normal physiological phenomenon and not a disease. Uncorrected refractive errors are the second most causes of blindness after cataract and the cause of almost half of visual impairment. Clinical refraction is a careful scientific procedure employed to correct refractive error. Given that refractive error is the most common reason patients present to the eye care practitioner, a lot of attention must be given to refraction. When an irreversible eye disease co-exist with refractive error, then correction of refractive error under this circumstance; refracting the diseased eye (RDE) become very challenging and painstaking. There will be likelihood of irregularities in the transparent refractive surfaces of the eye due to disease or surgery which make refraction difficult both for the patient and the examiner. Personal clinical experience of the author who is a low vision consultant and review of related literature from textbooks and journals are brought to bear in this article. This paper is a review of the RDE algorithm with delineation of these steps to enable an effective refractive endpoint for the eye with disease. The paper will enable young Optometrists to deal with refractive error masquerading irreversible eye disease. It is also an essential reading for the low vision Optometrist in mastering the art and science of low vision refraction.
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Pyatyshina, O. V., O. V. Koycheva, A. P. Makarova, V. Y. Kostiv, and O. L. Kurbanova. "The structure of clinical eye refraction in adolescent children." Modern technologies in ophtalmology, no. 3 (June 1, 2023): 212–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.25276/2312-4911-2023-3-212-217.
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Purpose. To analyze the frequency of myopia in the structure of clinical eye refraction in adolescent children. Material and methods. Analysis of the results of an ophthalmological examination of 690 schoolchildren aged 11, 13, 15 years using the continuous sampling method. Results. In the structure of totality of the examined children, refractive errors were noted in 405 people (58.7 %), in the structure of myopia refractive error amounted to 339 people (83.7 %). 65.5 % of schoolchildren had mild myopia, 37.5 % had moderate myopia, and 1.8 % had high myopia. In 32 schoolchildren habitually excessive tension of accommodation was revealed. The progressive course of myopia was noted in 45 children (13 %), of which in half of the cases it was at the age of 11 years. According to the picture of fundus, the chorioretinal form of myopia predominated. In the structure of refractive errors, corneal astigmatism was detected in 118 children (29 %), of which in 55 % of children it was myopic, in 22 % it was mixed. 201 schoolchildren had incomplete vision correction due to refractive amblyopia, in 90 % of cases it was of a weak degree. Conclusion. In the structure of clinical refraction of the examined children, 285 (41.3 %) schoolchildren had emmetropia, 405 (58.7 %) schoolchildren had refractive errors. Of the entire set of refractive errors, myopia occurred in 339 people (83.7 %). Mild myopia occurred in almost half of the total population of pupils (62.5 %) of age from 11 to 15 years. There is a tendency to increase myopic refraction from 11 to 15 years of age. Keywords: refraction, myopia, childhood, morbidity
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Taludhar, S., and S. Dhakal. "Refractive Error Profile in a Tertiary Centre in Western Nepal." International Journal of Infection and Microbiology 2, no. 2 (July 20, 2013): 59–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijim.v2i2.8324.
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INTRODUCTION: Refractive error is one of the causes of avoidable blindness. Myopia, hypermetropia and astigmatism are the common types of refractive error. Not many studies are done to detect pattern of refractive error in Western Nepal. So, the study will determine the prevalence and distribution of refractive errors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective study of all consecutive patients of age less than 40 years who visited eye department, Gandaki Medical College, between May 2010 and May 2011 was conducted. Visual acuity, naked eye and pin hole examination was done by ophthalmic assistant with cycloplegic refraction when needed. Those who did not turn up for refraction were excluded from the study. RESULTS: A total of 601 patients were seen within the study period. Mean age of male patients was 22.4 years }0.6 (95% CI, 21.2-23.6 years) and mean age of female patients was 24.2 years }0.5 (95% CI, 23.2-25.2 years). Majority of the patients were in age group 11-20 years (39.3%). Myopia was the most common refractive error (43.3%) followed by simple myopic astigmatism (23.8%). Refractive errors were more common in females. CONCLUSIONS: Myopia was the commonest refractive compared to hypermetropia. Refractive error was more common in females than in males. Such studies help to know the picture of refractive errors in community and such reports are helpful in planning programme to prevent avoidable blindness.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijim.v2i2.8324 Int J Infect Microbiol 2013;2(2):59-63
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Al Bahhawi, Tariq, Anwar M. Makeen, Hadi Hassan Daghreeri, Mohannad Faisal Tobaigy, Abdulrahman Mohammed Adawi, Faisal Mohammed Guhal, Murad Abdullah Akkur, et al. "Refractive Error among Male Primary School Students in Jazan, Saudi Arabia: Prevalence and Associated Factors." Open Ophthalmology Journal 12, no. 1 (September 28, 2018): 264–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874364101812010264.
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Background: Refractive error is a common and serious eye disorder that affects more than 153 million people globally. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence and pattern of refractive error among male primary school children in Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among a randomly selected group of 395 students (aged 6-14 years) in Jazan region, Southwest Saudi Arabia. An optometrist and medical students assessed the refraction error using an autorefractor, a Snellen E chart and retinoscopy. Results: The overall prevalence of uncorrected refractive error in either eye was, 22% higher among rural students. The most prevalent refractive error was hyperopia (32.2%) followed by myopic astigmatism (31%) then myopia (17.2%). Next were hyperopic astigmatism (16.1%) and mixed astigmatism (3.5%). The following variables were associated with a higher risk of refractive errors and myopia: living in rural areas, having parents with refractive errors, spending more time on electronic devices and shorter visual distances. Conclusion: Refractive error was highly prevalent among primary school children in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. The rural students were more affected by refractive errors, mainly hyperopia. The preschool vision test should be reconsidered, and a periodic vision examination should be applied to detect vision problems as early as possible.
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BAZUAYE, K. N., O. M. ODIGIE, and D. S. ANDARIYO. "THE PREVALENCE OF STRABISMUS AND ASSOCIATED REFRACTIVE ERRORS IN SCHOOL CHILDREN IN AKURE SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT ONDO STATE." Nigerian Journal of Life Sciences (ISSN: 2276-7029) 6, no. 1 (December 10, 2022): 137–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.52417/njls.v6i1.316.
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Associations between strabismus and refractive errors have been reported inprevious studies. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence andassociation of strabismus with refractive errors in school aged children between10?16 years. A total sample size of2600 subjects was employed for this study.Routine eye examinations were carried out on the subjects. Unilateral cover test wasused to detect the presence of strabismus while alternate cover test was used formeasurement of the deviation, thereafter objective and subjective refraction wasconducted on the strabismic subjects. Spearman coefficient correlation test wasused to check for relationship between strabismus and refractive errors. Theprevalence of strabismus in this study was 1.92%.The prevalence of esotropia andexotropia was 1.15% and 0.65% respectively, followed by hypertropia with aprevalence of 0.08% and hypotropia with a prevalence of 0.04%. All strabismicchildren (n=50) had refractive errors. The prevalence of astigmatism, hyperopia andmyopia was 1.27%, 0.35% and 0.31% respectively. There was positive correlationbetween strabismus and refractive errors, (P < 0.05 and ?s was 0.63).Theprevalence of strabismus was low in this study. As the dioptric prism power ofstrabismus increased, the dioptric lens power of the refractive error also increased.Proper detection of refractive errors by eye care practitioners is key in themanagement of strabismus as high uncorrected refractive errors could lead todevelopment of strabismus.
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Amin, Farah, Mutahir Shah, Siraj Safi, Sadaf Qayyum, and Saif Ullah. "Assessment of the effect of Posterior Sub-capsular cataract on the refractive status of the eye at the outpatient department of Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar." Journal of Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University 5, no. 2 (February 23, 2023): 99–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.32593/jstmu/vol5.iss2.214.
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Introduction: Cataract-induced refractive change is the refraction change caused by a cataract. It can reach multiple diopters (D). It modifies expected refraction errors during cataract surgery by modifying axial length measurement.
Objective: To find the effect of the Posterior subcapsular Cataracts on the refractive status of the eye.
Methodology: A cross-sectional study was progressed in Eye OPD in Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar. 102 patients having Posterior Subcapsular Cataracts were part of this study. The anterior segment was examined with a slit lamp for evaluation of the posterior subcapsular cataract. The refractive status of an eye having a posterior subcapsular cataract was determined using Retinoscopy and subjective refraction techniques. The axial length of the eye was measured using A-Scan. Keratometric reading was measured using Keratometer.
Results: A total of 102 patients were included in this study. Of these, 27 were males and 75 were females. The mean age was 60.5 years with 5.8SD. Results from the study showed refractive error due to Posterior Subcapsular Cataracts were mainly myopic astigmatism and spherical myopia with 0.16SD. Patients with PSCs had myopic astigmatism with a mean value of (1.7diopters, 15.7%) with 0.93SD and spherical myopia with a mean value of (0.1D, 2.9%) with 0.67SD.
Conclusion: The most common refractive error found in PSCs was Astigmatism followed by Myopia. These results may help to clarify the types of refractive errors in patients with PSCs and the prediction of visual outcomes with spectacles.
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Krithiga M and Xavier Jayaseelan C. "Evaluation of Refractive Errors in Children." International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences 11, SPL4 (December 21, 2020): 2249–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v11ispl4.4449.
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The purpose of this study is to estimate the prevalence of refractive errors in children. Children of selected ages will be identified for visual acuity measurement, and primary eye examination will be performed. A cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the refractive errors in children in Saveetha medical college. A comprehensive eye examination was performed, and children with different types of refractive errors were found out. A total of 100 children were taken for the study. The sample size of the study is 100. Eye examination was performed, and refractive error was evaluated. The refractive errors that are most common in the affected age groups can be found out. The most common refractive error was found to be myopia, followed by hypermetropia and then astigmatism. This study helps to identify the most common type of error, and the causes can be found out. This is also helpful in the prevention of these errors. Early diagnosis will lead to proper and effective treatment. When these errors are left untreated, it can cause other severe effects in the eye. Awareness should be created among both the children and the parents about this problem, and the importance of regular eye examination can be stressed through this study.
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Saba Shah, Syeda Gulrukh, Mutayyaba Majeed, Shams Ul-Haq, Farhana Jabeen Shah, and Waqas Ali. "Prevalence of First Birth Order with Myopia Among KPK Population." Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences 15, no. 11 (November 30, 2021): 3146–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs2115113146.
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Objective: To find out the prevalence of myopia and hyperopia among the population of KPK. Study Designed: Cross-sectional analytical study. Place and duration of Study: OPD of tertiary care hospitals of KPK, Khyber Teaching Hospital and Hayatabad Medical Complex from 1st July 2020 to 30th June 2021. Methodology: Four hundred patients visiting to OPD of tertiary care hospitals of KPK, Khyber Teaching Hospital and Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar were enrolled. Both male and female were included from 17 to 24 years visiting to the hospital were included. All patients on any medication for any systemic illness like asthma, TB, cardiac issues, liver problems etc. patients suffering from eye disorders like glaucoma, cataract, diabetic retinopathy, uveitis etc. and patients who refused to give consent and uncooperative patients were excluded from the study. Results: Two hundred and seventy seven got normal eye structure, function and vision while 123 got abnormal eye vision, with the frequency of myopia 26.5% (106) while hyperopia was 4.3% (17). Among gender the refractive errors of an eye was found to be 25% in male while 35.5% in female pvalue-0.024. The frequency of refractive error was not significant in age 17, 18, 23 and 24years the refractive error was found to be less as compare to age 19-22 years the refractive errors were seen to be greater. The patients visiting to hospital for eye examination with abnormal refractive errors were 41.1% while the result was significant p value was 0.0001. Genetically 1st order birth got 40% refractive errors while other got 23.5% the results were significant (P=0.004). Conclusion: The prevalence of eye defects related to refractive errors was present among adult population of KPK. Age is not related to refractive errors and refractive errors can be genetically determine. Key words: Myopia, Hyperopia, Refractive errors, Birth order
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Teran, Emiliano, Efrain Romo-García, and Hector C. Santiago. "Refractive Errors of School Children from Economically Disadvantaged Areas in Northwest México." Journal of Clinical Medicine 13, no. 11 (May 25, 2024): 3094. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm13113094.
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Background: Refractive errors, including myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism, are the leading causes of visual impairment in school-aged children and can significantly impact their academic performance and quality of life. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of refractive errors among school children from economically disadvantaged areas in Northwest México, using a consistent methodology to facilitate comparison with global data. Methods: We adopted the Refractive Error Study in Children (RESC) protocol by the World Health Organization to examine the prevalence of myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism. The study comprised a systematic sampling of children aged 6 to 18 years from diverse schools in Northwest México. Trained optometrists conducted visual acuity testing and autorefraction, while ophthalmologists performed cycloplegic refraction to ensure accuracy. Results: The study found a myopia (SE ≤−1.50 D at least one eye) prevalence of 14.55% (95% CI: 13.27–15.91), with a higher incidence in females (6.92%) compared to males (6.00%) in at least one eye. Hyperopia (SE ≥ +1.00 D at least one eye) was less common, at 3.23% (95% CI: 2.61–3.95), with a slightly higher occurrence in males in at least one eye. Astigmatism (Cylinder ≥ 0.75 D at least one eye) was present in 18.63% (95% CI: 17.21–20.12) of the students in at least one eye, with no significant difference between genders. These findings are consistent with other studies in regions such as Puerto Rico and Iran, indicating widespread refractive error issues among schoolchildren. Conclusions: The high prevalence of refractive errors, particularly myopia and astigmatism, highlights the critical need for regular vision screenings in schools and the implementation of public health interventions to provide corrective eyewear. Our study confirms the importance of utilizing standardized methodologies like the RESC protocol to compare refractive error prevalence across different geographical and socio-economic contexts, thereby informing global public health strategies.
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Awasthi, S., B. P. Pant, and H. P. Dhakal. "Reduced Vision and Refractive Errors, Results from a School Vision Screening Program in Kanchanpur district of Far Western Nepal." Kathmandu University Medical Journal 8, no. 4 (June 4, 2012): 370–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/kumj.v8i4.6233.
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Background At present there is no data available on reduced vision and refractive errors in school children of far western Nepal. So, school screening records were used to obtain data useful for planning of refractive services. Methods Data are provided from school screening conducted by Geta Eye Hospital during February/March 2008. The cases with complete data sets on visual acuity, refractive error and age were included and analyzed using computer software. Results Of 1165 children (mean age 11.6±2.5 years) examined, 98.8% (n= 1151) had uncorrected visual acuity of 6/9 and better in at least one eye whereas 1.2% (n= 14) had acuity 6/12 and worse in both eyes. Among them, either eye of 9 children improved to 6/9 and better with correction. However, visual acuity was 6/12 and worse in both eyes of 5 children even after correction. There were 24 children with refractive errors (myopia, 1.54%; n= 18 and hypermetropia, 0.51%; n=6) in at least one eye. The spherical equivalent refraction was not significantly different with age and gender. ConclusionsThe incidence of reduced vision and refractive errors among school children of this semi rural district were low.http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/kumj.v8i4.6233 Kathmandu Univ Med J 2010;8(4):370-4
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Harb, Elise N., and Christine F. Wildsoet. "Origins of Refractive Errors: Environmental and Genetic Factors." Annual Review of Vision Science 5, no. 1 (September 15, 2019): 47–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-vision-091718-015027.
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Refractive errors are the product of a mismatch between the axial length of the eye and its optical power, creating blurred vision. Uncorrected refractive errors are the second leading cause of worldwide blindness. One refractive error currently attracting significant scientific interest is myopia, mostly owing to the recent rise in its prevalence worldwide and associated ocular disease burden. This increase in myopia prevalence has also been rapid, suggesting environmental influences in addition to any genetic influences on eye growth. This review defines refractive errors, describes their prevalence, and presents evidence for the influence of genetic and environmental factors related to refractive error development.
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Pebrianti, Kadek Tari, Pande Ayu Naya Kasih Permatananda, and Ni Nyoman Sunariasih. "PERBEDAAN TINGKAT KELELAHAN MATA PADA MAHASISWA DENGAN GANGGUAN REFRAKSI DAN TANPA GANGGUAN REFRAKSI." E-Jurnal Medika Udayana 12, no. 2 (February 28, 2023): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.24843/mu.2023.v12.i02.p05.
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Eye fatigue or asthenopia are symptoms that arise due to excessive use of the visual system that is in an imperfect condition to obtain visual acuity. Refractive error is one of the individual elements that affects eye fatigue. People with asthenopia have an accommodating reaction to refractive error. Eye fatigue is a condition that needs to be addressed because it can have a negative impact on a patient's quality of life. The purpose of this study was to determine the difference in the level of eye fatigue in medical students with refractive errors and without refractive errors at the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Warmadewa University. This research is an analytic observational study with a case control research design. Sampling was carried out in a total sampling with a total sample of 114 people, with total sample of 57 people in each case and control group. Data were obtained by measuring photostress recovery test (PSRT), checking visual acuity and consist of questionnaire.
The results of the study on the subject of eye fatigue showed low eye fatigue level of 26.4%, moderate eye fatigue level of 40.4% and severe eye fatigue level of 35.1%. The results of the bivariate analysis using chi square test showed that there was a relationship between refractive errors and eye fatigue (p value = 0.000) and there were differences in the level of eye fatigue in students with and without refractive errors (p value = 0.01).
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Srivastava, Namrata, P. N. Dwivedi, and Syed Aswad. "Evaluation the effect of posterior sub-capsular cataract on the refractive state of eye." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 11, no. 7 (June 30, 2023): 2611–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20232108.
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Background: Cataract refractive errors are caused by cataracts. It can go up to several dioptres (D). Correction of expected refractive errors during cataract surgery by altering the axial length measurement. Determine the effect of posterior sub-capsular cataracts on the eye's refractive status. Methods: 112 patients with posterior sub-capsular cataracts participated in the study. The most common refractive error found in PSC was astigmatism, followed by myopia. The study was conducted at Angel Eye Institute of Ophthalmology; Kanpur U.P. The refractive status of eyes with posterior sub-capsular cataracts was determined using retinoscopy and subjective refraction. Biometry is done by A-scan and keratometer. Results: A total of 112 patients were included in this study. Of these, 27 (26.5%) were males and 75 (73.5%) were females. The Patient’s age was about 60 years. The results showed that the refractive errors caused by posterior sub-capsular cataracts were mainly myopic astigmatism (97. 1%) and spherical myopia (2.9%), 0.16SD. The mean value of myopic astigmatism in patients with PSC was (1.7D, 15.7%), 0.93 SD and the mean value of spherical myopia was (0.1 D, 2.9%), 0.67 SD. Mean uncorrected visual acuity was 1 log MAR and 1.6 SD. The mean corrected visual acuity was 0.3 log MAR and 1.2 SD. Conclusions: The most significant refractive error in PSC was astigmatism, followed by myopia. These findings may help clarify the type of refractive error in patients with PSC and the prediction of ocular vision outcome.
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Kovalevskaya, M. A., and V. B. Antonyan. "Analysis of color perception in students with refractive errors." Modern technologies in ophtalmology, no. 3 (June 1, 2022): 216–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.25276/2312-4911-2022-3-216-220.
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There are more than 1.6 billion people in the world with various types of refraction. Dysfunction of the eye color function is a consequence of the pathology of the retina and optic nerve. Myopia ranks first among the types of refractive errors, accompanied by a high probability of complications. Thanks to the early screening of students, we were able to identify changes in refractive errors, and as a result, to form an exemplary algorithm for preventive and typed treatment. Purpous.To assess the role of timely diagnosis in the detection of diseases of the organ of vision. Timely predict the likelihood of diseases of the optic nerve and retina. Material and methods. The study involved 53 people, 20 female students (79 %), 7 male students (21 %). In young men, the right eye is myopia 60 %, emmetropia 20 %, hyperopia 20 %, left eye myopia 60 %, emmetropia 20 %, hyperopia 20 %. In girls, the left eye: myopia 73 %, emmetropia 22 %, hyperopia 5 %, right eye: myopia 75 %, emmetropia 20 %, hyperopia 5 %. Results. The analysis showed that the number of errors (right eye) had no statistically significant changes (p = 0.686), visual acuity (right eye) showed statistically significant changes (p = 0.029), and visual acuity (left eye) had statistically significant changes (p = 0.008), the number of errors (left eye) did not show statistically significant changes (p = 0.154). Conclusions. Today, the problem of violation of refractive in young people is a significant problem. Introspection-based functional tests such as the FM 100 make it possible to monitor disorders at the retinal and optic nerve levels. Keywords: violation of refraction, color perception, Farnsworth-Munsell test (Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test).
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Hazarika, Himanto Nath, Dipak Bhuyan, Suranjana Chaliha Hazarika, and Sujit Addya. "Refractive errors in age group seven to fifteen years: North-east India scenario." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 4, no. 6 (May 22, 2017): 1928. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20172151.
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Background: The objectives of study were to find out the different types of refractive errors in children between seven to fifteen years age group and the cause of uncorrected defective vision.Methods: A prospective study was designed of two thousand children aged between seven to fifteen years, attending outpatient department. Study period was one year. Consent was obtained from their guardian. Inclusion criteria were children with refractive errors. Children presenting with organic defects of ocular structures, infections, corneal opacity, cataract, choroid and retinal disorders were excluded from study. Data were collected by history taking and comprehensive ocular examination, visual tests for both near and distant vision. Refractive error assessed by cycloplegic drug with one percent Homatropine eye drops, by streak retinoscopy. Objective refraction were carried out and documented. Subjective refraction was done after one week. Both BCVA and uncorrected refractive errors were ascertained and recorded.Results: Out of two thousand children examined, myopic = 34%, hypermetropic = 11%, and astigmatic = 55%. M: F = 900:1000. Study showed headache as the commonest symptom. 17% of the patients had positive family history. Correctable errors constitute 91% of the total cases.Conclusions: Myopic astigmatism was found to be the most frequent refractive error in children. Mass screening is required for early diagnosis of refractive error. Prescribing corrective glasses for children with refractive errors at an early age will prevent childhood morbidity.
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ALAM, MOHAMMAD, and MOHAMMAD FAREED. "REFRACTIVE ERRORS." Professional Medical Journal 18, no. 04 (December 10, 2011): 649–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.29309/tpmj/2011.18.04.2656.
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Objective: To know the profile of refractive errors in school age children in DHQ Hospital Karak and group of teaching Hospitals Bannu. Setting: DHQ Hospital Karak and group of Teaching hospitals Bannu. Period: Two years study from August 2007 to August 2009. Design: Descriptive study. Materials & Methods: A work up proforma was prepared for record of children. School age children with age range from 5 to 15 years who attended the eye OPD were documented and informed consents were taken from children and their parents. They were screened for refractive errors with retinoscopy. In some children cycloplegic refraction was done.Fundoscopy was also done to exclude any lesion causing visual impairment in some children .Refractive errors was noted as spherical equivalent of myopia and hypermetropia in children who had both spherical and cylindrical error while in those children who had only cylindrical error were assigned as astigmatism .Children with any organic lesion in cornea lens and fundi were excluded from study. Results: Total 2680 school age children with age range from 5 to 15 years were examined out of which 1560(58.20%) were male and 1120(41.8%) were female.1688(62.98%) children were emmetropic while 992(37.01%) had refractive error .Spherical equivalent of myopia was present in 541(54.53%) while that of hypermetropia in 360 (36.29%)children. Astigmatism was present in 91(9.17%) children. Conclusions: Refractive error is a common ocular disorder affecting school age children. Myopia is more common followed by hypermetropia. Therefore routine careful visual check up in school age children should be carried out.
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Rohul, Jabeen, Aakifa Maqbool, Syed Arshad Hussain, Hamid Shamila, Fazli Anjum, and Zahoor Ahamad Hamdani. "PREVALENCE OF REFRACTIVE ERRORS IN ADOLESCENTS IN OUT- PATIENT ATTENDEES OF THE PREVENTIVE OPHTHALMOLOGY CLINIC OF COMMUNITY MEDICINE, S K I M S, KASHMIR, INDIA." Journal of Health and Allied Sciences NU 03, no. 01 (March 2013): 17–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1703627.
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AbstractBlindness is one of the most significant social problems in India with uncorrected refractive errors as the second major cause accounting for 19.7% of blindness and low vision.All adolescents (12-18 years) attending the eye clinic from Jan 2007-Jan 2009 for any eye ailment were examined and screened for refractive error using Snellen's chart.Out of total 930 adolescents, 508(54.62%) of adolescents had refractive errors. Of the total males and females examined 57.43% and 52.12% respectively had refractive errors. The mean age of presentation was 14.3 years. Most of the adolescents presented with myopia 257(50.59%) followed by astigmatism (35.23%) and hypermetropia (14.17%).High prevalence of refractive errors warrants early detection and treatment.
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Mahadik, Snehal, Shweta Khare, and Vinod Diwan. "YOGA eye exercises and Refractive Errors." Central India Journal of Medical Research 2, no. 02 (August 31, 2023): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.58999/cijmr.v2i02.130.
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The article delves into the prevalent issue of refractive errors, a common visual problem affecting a substantial portion of the global population, and particularly emphasizes its growing occurrence among school-going children. The surge in digital device usage due to the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified concerns, as extended screen time contributes in worsening the existing problem of poor vision. The article underscores the multifaceted impact of unaddressed refractive errors on children, including hindered academic performance, impaired social interactions, and a sedentary lifestyle. Socioeconomic and demographic factors play a role in the prevalence of refractive errors, with limited access to eye care services disproportionately affecting lower-income families. The importance of early diagnosis and intervention is highlighted to prevent unwanted consequences. A significant portion of the article explores the potential role of yoga in mitigating refractive errors. Yoga's holistic approach, incorporating eye exercises, mindfulness, stress reduction, and outdoor practice, offers promise in promoting eye health. While acknowledging that yoga may not correct refractive errors, the article emphasizes its potential to reduce eye strain caused by screen time and near-work activities, ultimately fostering healthier habits and overall well-being in children. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for complementary practices alongside standard eye care to ensure children's visual health and academic success while suggesting that embracing yoga could be a step toward safeguarding children's eye health and quality of life.
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Sakimoto, Tohru, Mark I. Rosenblatt, and Dimitri T. Azar. "Laser eye surgery for refractive errors." Lancet 367, no. 9520 (April 2006): 1432–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(06)68275-5.
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Lauriola, M. "Psychological correlates of eye refractive errors." Personality and Individual Differences 23, no. 5 (November 1997): 917–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00087-1.
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Al Ghailani, Noof Ali Salim, Babu Noushad, Faraz Khurshid, and Galal Mohamed Ismail. "PARENTS’ AWARENESS AND PERCEPTION OF CHILDREN’S REFRACTIVE ERROR. A QUALITATIVE STUDY." Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine 20, no. 3 (December 31, 2020): 85–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.37268/mjphm/vol.20/no.3/art.656.
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Uncorrected refractive error is the leading cause of moderate and severe visual impairment across the globe. An important driver for early detection and management of refractive errors among children is appropriate parental awareness. This study aims to understand the awareness and perception among parents of children with refractive errors utilizing the conceptual framework of Health Belief Model. This qualitative study focused to conduct semi-structured interviews of parents who sought eye care for their children. Thirty-five parents who visited an eye care center for refractive error correction of their children between 5 to 15 years of age were purposively selected. The four constructs of the Health Belief Model (perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits and perceived barriers) were applied to prepare the interview guide. The voice records of participants were transcribed verbatim, coded and qualitatively analyzed to generate relevant themes. All participants were well aware of refractive errors and the implications of them on the visual and social development of children if they leave the errors untreated. However,there were varying perception about refractive error leading to serious consequences. The enanced quality of life with proper refractive correction prompted parents to seek timely eyecare for their children.
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Al Ghailani, Noof Ali Salim, Babu Noushad, Faraz Khurshid, and Galal Mohamed Ismail. "PARENTS’ AWARENESS AND PERCEPTION OF CHILDREN’S REFRACTIVE ERROR. A QUALITATIVE STUDY." Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine 20, no. 3 (December 31, 2020): 85–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.37268/mjphm/vol.20/no.3/art.656.
Full textAbstract:
Uncorrected refractive error is the leading cause of moderate and severe visual impairment across the globe. An important driver for early detection and management of refractive errors among children is appropriate parental awareness. This study aims to understand the awareness and perception among parents of children with refractive errors utilizing the conceptual framework of Health Belief Model. This qualitative study focused to conduct semi-structured interviews of parents who sought eye care for their children. Thirty-five parents who visited an eye care center for refractive error correction of their children between 5 to 15 years of age were purposively selected. The four constructs of the Health Belief Model (perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits and perceived barriers) were applied to prepare the interview guide. The voice records of participants were transcribed verbatim, coded and qualitatively analyzed to generate relevant themes. All participants were well aware of refractive errors and the implications of them on the visual and social development of children if they leave the errors untreated. However,there were varying perception about refractive error leading to serious consequences. The enanced quality of life with proper refractive correction prompted parents to seek timely eyecare for their children.
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Lemzyakova, Olga. "Types of refractive errors and methods for their diagnosis." Spravočnik vrača obŝej praktiki (Journal of Family Medicine), no. 7 (July 1, 2020): 30–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/med-10-2007-04.
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Refraction of the eye means its ability to bend (refract) light in its own optical system. In a normal state, which is called emmetropia, light rays passing through the optical system of the eye focus on the retina, from where the impulse is transmitted to the visual cortex of the brain and is analyzed there. A person sees equally well both in the distance and near in this situation. However, very often, refractive errors develop as a result of various types of influences. Myopia, or short-sightedness, occurs when the light rays are focused in front of the retina as a result of passing through the optical system of the eye. In this case, a person will clearly distinguish close objects and have difficulties in seeing distant objects. On the opposite side is development of farsightedness (hypermetropia), in which the focusing of light rays occurs behind the retina — such a person sees distant objects clearly, but outlines of closer objects are out of focus. Near vision impairment in old age is a natural process called presbyopia, it develops due to the lens thickening. Both myopia and hypermetropia can have different degrees of severity. The variant, when different refractive errors are observed in different eyes, is called anisometropia. In the same case, if different types of refraction are observed in the same eye, it is astigmatism, and most often it is a congenital pathology. Almost all of the above mentioned refractive errors require correction with spectacles or use of contact lenses. Recently, people are increasingly resorting to the methods of surgical vision correction.
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Shrestha, Shristi, and Khem Raj Kaini. "Refractive errors in type II diabetic patients." Journal of Universal College of Medical Sciences 3, no. 3 (December 31, 2015): 17–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jucms.v3i3.24243.
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INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of diabetes is increasing rapidly. Refractive error in the diabetic population is considered a main cause of visual impairment. So this study was conducted to find out the pattern of refractive errors in patients with type II diabetes mellitus in Western Nepal.
MATERIAL AND METHODS: It was a hospital-based cross-sectional study. Three hundred forty eyes of one hundred seventy patients with type II diabetes underwent comprehensive eye examination including subjective and objective refraction and serum biochemistry.
RESULTS: The mean refraction was -0.132±0.88 D. Emmetropia was seen in 49.7% of the patients, hypermetropia in 22.6%, myopia in 12.6%, and astigmatism in 15% of the patients. Older age groups had more hypermetropic refractive error (p<0.05). Female gender was a risk factor for hypermetropia (p=0.042). Good glycemic control was seen in 49.7%. There was statistically significant correlation between fasting blood sugar level and spherical equivalent refraction (p<0.05, r = -0.115).
CONCLUSION: The present hospital-based study noted a refractive error in 50.3% among diabetic population in Pokhara with hypermetropia being the most common type (22.6%) than myopia (12.6%) and astigmatism (15%).
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Pinheiro, Francisco Irochima, Eduardo Pereira De Azevedo, Amália Cinthia Meneses Rêgo, Irami Araújo Neto, Irami Araújo Filho, and Paulo Schor. "A VIRTUAL SIMULATOR AS A TOOL FOR TEACHING REFRACTOMETRY." International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH 5, no. 10 (October 31, 2017): 23–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v5.i10.2017.2264.
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Significance: Several educational technological innovations are developed with the purpose of contributing to the training of future optometrists and ophthalmologists. However, very little is available for teaching refractometry. EYE REFRACTION is a simulator mobile applications (App) that works as a fast, straightforward and interactive interface tool for teaching refractometry. Purpose: Develop novel mobile application software (EYE REFRACTION) as a tool for teaching refractometry in medical schools. Methods: EYE REFRACTION software was developed by the emerging company “Ciência Ilustrada studio” incubated at “INOVA Metrópole” of the Digital Metropolis Institute of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil (IMD-UFRN), using the XCode 4.6.2. program (Apple Computer, Inc. Cupertino, CA, USA). This application software (App) was created for Tablets and has a fully interactive workspace, where after inserting the refraction data of the patient, the user can observe points or focal lines of the refractive errors and all the arrangements resulting from the various possible corrections. Results: After 90 days of blind and random simulations of the EYE REFRACTION App performed by volunteered ophthalmologists, six failures were detected and promptly corrected. Two were detected when refractive errors were simulated (simple myopic astigmatism), two during simulations of hypermetropic astigmatism, being one simple and the other compound, and two others during the simulation of mixed astigmatism. Conclusion: A novel App for teaching refractometry was successfully developed, where it enabled a real-time observation of refractive errors and their arrangements. The EYE REFRACTION App is currently available at Apple App Store.
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Sukumaran, Kajal Seema, Jayalekshmi Thankamma, Prasenna Meleaveetil, and Kavitha Syamala. "Is Prematurity a Risk Factor for Refractive Errors in Children? Results from School Vision Screening Program." Journal of Evidence Based Medicine and Healthcare 7, no. 42 (October 19, 2020): 2380–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.18410/jebmh/2020/493.
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BACKGROUND The prevalence of refractive errors is reported to be higher in children born preterm. Factors like gestational age, birth weight and retinopathy of prematurity status have a significant impact on the refractive development in preterm infants. Population based long term follow up studies on the refractive status in preterm infants are limited. We designed this study to assess whether prematurity is a risk factor for refractive errors in children. METHODS This study was conducted among children aged 5 - 16 years who participated in the school vision screening program over a period of one year. All children underwent detailed ocular examination including measurement of best corrected visual acuity, cycloplegic refraction and fundoscopy. Visual acuity was assessed using an internally illuminated Snellen’s chart at 6 meters. Objective refraction by streak retinoscopy after instilling 1 % cyclopentolate eye drops was done in all children with visual acuity ≤ 6 / 9. Children were divided into two groups based on their gestational age at birth - preterm group and full-term group. Preterm birth was defined as childbirth before 37 completed weeks of gestation. Children were enrolled in the study only if the hospital birth document showing gestational age and birth weight was available. Children with co-existing organic disease affecting the eye contributing to the diminished visual acuity such as congenital cataract, glaucoma, and corneal opacities were excluded from the study. Those who had undergone any ocular surgery were also excluded. RESULTS One thousand two hundred and ninety-five children were enrolled in the study of which 700 (54.1 %) were boys and 595 (45.9 %) were girls. Median age of the enrolled children was 12 years. The number of pre-term births was 287 (22.2 %). Of the 1295 students screened, 273 (21 %) had refractive errors. Among the children with refractive errors, astigmatism was the most common refractive error (10.6 %), followed by myopia (8.5 %) and hypermetropia (1.9 %). Refractive errors were statistically more prevalent in preterm group (34.1 %), when compared with term born children (17.3 %), p = < 0.001. Compared to the term born children, preterm group had significantly higher prevalence of myopia; 16.4 % vs 6.3 % (p = < 0.001) and astigmatism; 15.3 % vs 9.3% (p = 0.003). There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of hypermetropia among the two groups; 2.4 vs. 1.8 (p = 0.477). CONCLUSIONS There is strong association between prematurity and refractive errors. These findings prompt long term monitoring of the refractive and visual outcome in preterm infants for diagnosing refractive errors at the earliest. This helps to prevent the consequent amblyopia and the ensuing permanent visual function deficits. KEYWORDS Prematurity, Refractive Error, Myopia, Hypermetropia, Astigmatism
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L, IBRAHIM, KINGSLEY O. A, and ANAS HUSSAINY YUSUF. "PREVALENCE OF REFRACTIVE ERROR AMONG MEDICAL STUDENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR IRREGULAR EYE SCREENING SERVICES IN NIGERIA." BIMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (2536-6041) 6, no. 03 (December 31, 2022): 239–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.56892/bima.v6i03.71.
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Refractive error is caused by an error in the refractive power of the eye due to alteration in the ocular length. Uncorrected Refractive error is the second leading cause of visual impairment worldwide. Uncorrected refractive errors are common visual impairment among medical students. The study was designed to determine the prevalence of Refractive error among medicalstudents. A cross-sectional study conducted from October, 2021 – March, 2021 among Medical students. 157 students were selected by simple sampling technique, aged between 17 to 25 years. Demographic data of each student was obtained by a combination of self-administered interviewer questionnaire and clinical eye examination. The history of the past and previous eyecheckup and use of glasses were also determined. Snellen chart, pinhole, pen-torch, ophthalmoscope, retinoscope were used to determine refractive error among the students. The study showed that 14.0% of `the students had visual impairment, and the prevalence of refractive error was found to be 10.8% with a preponderance of myopia at 70.6%, hyperopia at 17.6%, then astigmatism at 11.8%. Out of the students with myopia, 88.2% had low degree myopia. The study shows that 18.2% of the students were not using corrective lenses. Refractive error is a significant cause of visual impairment and regular eye screening is necessary for early detection and correction of refractive errors among medical students.
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Awg Isa, Mohd Zaki, Azarina Abdullah, Zurin Ferdawani Yacob, Mohd Ferdaus Sari, Fairuz Mohd Nordin, Amalina Othman, Baqiatul’ Sabiqi ‘Asffi Rahmat, et al. "Refractive Errors among Urban Poor Population in Shah Alam, Selangor:." Journal of Optometry, Eye and Health Research 3, no. 1 (June 15, 2021): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.57002/joehr.v3i1.277.
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International Association of Prevention Blindness (IAPB) reported 1.1 billion people worldwide live with vision loss. Ninety percent of vision loss is treatable or preventable. Management and Science University (MSU) prevention of blindness project (POB) is an outreach community project providing eye care accessibility to underserved communities. This paper aimed to report the prevalence of refractive errors among the urban poor population in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. A total of 433 participants were involved in a cross-sectional study. Spherical equivalent (SE) of 0.50 D in the worse eye is considered refractive errors, which SE of >-0.50 D is myopia, and SE of >050 D as hyperopia. Low myopia was defined as SE less than -3.00 D; moderate myopia is defined as SE between -3.00 to -5.99 D, and high myopia is defined as SE -6.00 D and above. Astigmatism is considered as cylindrical refraction greater than 0.50D in either eye. Anisometropia is defined as differences SE of 1D of equal with or greater between two eyes Myopia in one eye and hyperopia in the fellow eye SE difference than 0.50D is considered antimetropia. Presbyopia is defined as near vision worse than N6 at 40cm when best-corrected distance visual acuity was better than 6/12. Out of 433 participants were recruited, 242 (55.68%) were male, and 191 (44.32%) were female and a mean age of 55.97(SD = 10.55). For types of refractive errors, 28.41% participants were presbyopia, 28.18% were myopia, 14.78% were hyperopia, 24.94% were emmetropia, 3.70% were antimetropia, and 54.04% were astigmatism. Most of the reported myopia cases have low myopia (79.51%), followed by moderate myopia (13.12%) and high myopia (7.38%). Approximately 75.06% of the population studied were affected by refractive errors and significantly associated with age. This study suggests a need for interventions to allevaiate refractive errors in urban poor areas and other communities affected by providing access and affordable eye care services.
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Javed, Muhammad Iqbal, Arif Hussain, and Asad Aslam Khan. "Screening for Eye Diseases & Refractive Errors in District Jail Inmates, Lahore." Pakistan Journal of Ophthalmology 35, no. 4 (January 23, 2020): 261–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.36351/pjo.v35i4.870.
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Background: Refractive errors and eye diseases are the main core issues in the jail inmates in Pakistan and especially in Punjab province but with best efforts the ophthalmic disorders can be controlled with the help of better screening process for refractive errors, presbyopia, low vision and the general ophthalmic disorders that are found among the jail inmates. The over burden of these ailments can be minimized following a comprehensive screening methods time to time using slandered guidelines approved by WHO.
Methodology: A plan was executed for basic necessary screening process to find out the ophthalmic diseases and vision problems. A team of ophthalmologist, optometrists and ophthalmic technicians visited inmates in the jail who presented with any eye problem in this 1-day screening. Auto refraction and manual retinoscopy was done. Visual cut off point was 6/12. Ophthalmic eye medication and glasses (spectacles) was provided free of cost.
Results: a total of 270 inmates were examined in the eye camp. The study showed prevalence of refractive errors 4% with a significant high ratio of presbyopia 34% as 79%of inmates were more than 40 year of age. Prevalence of other main eye disease was: conjunctivitis 3%, glaucoma 1% and cataract 2%.
Conclusions: There is an urgent need to look into matter of presence the eye diseases and refractive errors found among jail inmates as they fall in the category of marginalized community and the health care provided with ease has no provision the general eye health care. So it is an important issue to lodge a comprehensive effective initiative for the provision of that need mentioned above and a training program for the medical staff of jail hospitals to screen out this community for effective screening knowledge in Primary Eye care.
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Kulkarni, Dr Suhas Shripad, and Dr Deepak Shashikant Khismatrao. "Proportion of Refractive Errors Among Young Adults Attending Private Eye Clinic." Indian Journal of Applied Research 4, no. 5 (October 1, 2011): 476–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.15373/2249555x/may2014/148.
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Megala, M., S. Dhamodharan, M. Duraimurugan, and K. Chellavel Ganapathi. "A study on prevalence of refractive error and its associated factors among school children in Tamil Nadu." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 7, no. 5 (April 24, 2020): 1880. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20201999.
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Background: Refractive error is an avoidable cause of visual impairment. Children do not complain of defective vision. This warrants early detection and treatment. The study was conducted with the objective of estimating the prevalence of refractive error in school children and its associated factors.Methods: This was a cross sectional study conducted in schools of selected district in Tamil Nadu from July 2017 to January 2018. Sample size of 422 covered. A semi structured questionnaire was used to collect the details and also screened for refractive errors. Data was analysed using SPSS.Results: Among the 422 students screened, 86 (20.4%) had refractive error. The prevalence of refractive error showed significant association with age, education and occupation of parents, socio economic status, parental history of refractive error, duration of watching television and body mass index.Conclusions: Refractive errors among school children can be easily identified by regular eye screening programmes, promptly treated can be protected from future complications. Periodic screening of school children is very essential to improve the quality of eye-sight.
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Rozina Shahadat Khan, Abid Alam, and Sidra Batool. "PREVELANCE OF REFRACTIVE ERRORS AMONG 4TH YEAR MEDICAL STUDENTS OF D.G.KHAN MEDICAL COLLEGE, DERA GHAZI KHAN, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN." Pakistan Postgraduate Medical Journal 34, no. 02 (May 27, 2023): 69–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.51642/ppmj.v34i02.588.
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Background: A refractive error is a very common eye disorder which occurs when the eye cannot clearly focus outside world images ending up with blurred vision but timely detection and intervention can enormously enhance student’s potential during his or her formative years. Medical student’s Refractive status is of immense importance considering the burden of medical studies and their role as future health care providers. Aim: To assess the Prevalence of Refractive errors among 4th Year Medical students of D.G. Khan Medical College, Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. Study Design was Cross sectional Comparative. Place of study was D.G Khan Medical College, Dera Ghazi Khan Duration: Six months. Results: Myopic were 42/80 (52.5%) out of which 2/42(4.76 %) also had Astigmatism while 1/80(1.25%) had Hyperopia. Severe Myopic were 3.0/80 (3.8%) in both right and left eyes while 10/80 (12.5%) and 11/80(13.8%) fall in moderate category in right and left eyes respectively. Mild were 29/80 (36.3%) in right while 28/80(35.0%) in left eye. Only 2.0/80(2.5%) were having Astigmatism in both eyes along with mild Myopia. Significant association found between Age and sex of medical students with the Refractive errors. Conclusion: According to currents study findings High prevalence of Refractive Errors especially Myopia among female medical students tends to be alarming. It demands implementation of more structured student awareness campaigns focusing genetic factors to help prevent and control more cases of eye defect among medical students, society and Nation at large. Future study can be focused on causes of high Refractive Errors among female medical students.
Key Words: Refractive Error, Myopia, Hypermetropia, Astigmatism and Medical Students.
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Ijaz, Hijab. "Relationship between Refractive State and Nutritional Status among the children." Medical Science and Discovery 9, no. 3 (March 26, 2022): 175–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.36472/msd.v9i3.701.
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Objective: Refractive error and malnourishment both are common issues in developing countries therefore in this study main aim is to find the relationship between refractive state and nutritional status. Material and Methods: This was a cross-sectional observational study conducted at Tehsil Headquarter Hospital Kamoke. The sample size was 200 children equally divided into well-nourished and malnourished groups with their age range between 3-12 years of both gender. First visual acuity was measured monocularly with Snellen’s Chart The amount and type of refractive error were assessed using cycloplegic refraction with cyclopentolate 1% eye drops. Eyes with amblyopia, strabismus and any other ocular pathology that affects vision were excluded. All children were referred from eye department to the nutritionist of this hospital to determine the nutritional status through WHO provided guidelines. Results: There were a total of 101 (50.5%) males and 99 (49.5%) females in this study. The most common type of refractive error was Astigmatism which was present in 29 (29%) well-nourished and 31 (31%) malnourished children. The least common was hypermetropia which was present in only 3 children and all were females. However, myopia was present in 12 (12%) well-nourished and 11 (11%) malnourished children. Conclusion: Thus, Refractive errors were present in both groups. The most common was Astigmatism and the least common was hypermetropia in both groups. The inferential statistics of this study concluded that refractive errors were not related with nutritional status but may be due to some factors.
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Ohlendorf, Arne, Alexander Leube, and Siegfried Wahl. "Advancing Digital Workflows for Refractive Error Measurements." Journal of Clinical Medicine 9, no. 7 (July 12, 2020): 2205. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm9072205.
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Advancements in clinical measurement of refractive errors should lead to faster and more reliable measurements of such errors. The study investigated different aspects of advancements and the agreement of the spherocylindrical prescriptions obtained with an objective method of measurement (“Aberrometry” (AR)) and two methods of subjective refinements (“Wavefront Refraction” (WR) and “Standard Refraction” (StdR)). One hundred adults aged 20–78 years participated in the course of the study. Bland–Altman analysis of the right eye measurement of the spherocylindrical refractive error (M) identified mean differences (±95% limits of agreement) between the different types of measurements of +0.36 D (±0.76 D) for WR vs. AR (t-test: p < 0.001), +0.35 D (± 0.84 D) for StdR vs. AR (t-test: p < 0.001), and 0.0 D (± 0.65 D) for StdR vs. WR (t-test: p < 0.001). Monocular visual acuity was 0.0 logMAR in 96% of the tested eyes, when refractive errors were corrected with measurements from AR, indicating that only small differences between the different types of prescriptions are present.
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Bharadwaj, Manu, Lokesh Kumar Singh, and Bhaskar Dutt. "A hospital based eye health survey to see the pattern of eye diseases in Uttarakhand, India." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 5, no. 2 (January 23, 2017): 548. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20170149.
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Background: The cause of blindness and low vision differs in different countries and communities. The requirements of eye services also vary according to the need of the native population. Studies showing the pattern of ocular morbidity are needed to build better infrastructure of eye care facilities.Methods: This prospective study was conducted in eye department of Government Doon Medical College, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India between April 2016 to May 2016.the patients were seen in eye OPD by ophthalmologists. Proper anterior and posterior segment evaluation was done and patients were treated accordingly. Data including the registration number, name of the patient, age, sex and diagnosis were recorded in OPD register and analysed.Results: Total 1259 patients were examined. 605 were male and 654 were female. The mean age of male patients was 43 years and for females was 41.33 years. Refractive error (20.97%) was the commonest ocular morbidity in our study followed by cataract (20.02%), follow ups of cataract surgeries and allergic conjunctivitis. Besides refractive errors total 137 (10.88%) patients were presbyopic.Conclusions: This study shows a slightly exceeding number of female patients, which shows that females are equally aware of their health problems. Refractive errors are the most common cause in present study with cataract being second, may be because of higher mean age of the patients presenting to OPD. In present study allergic conjunctivitis was third commonest cause of ocular morbidity in our district may be due to windy weather. The leading causes of ocular morbidity in our study were refractive errors, cataract, allergic conjunctivitis and, presbyopia. The high prevalence of refractive errors and cataracts shows that hospital still requires an improved infrastructure with spectacle provision to the patients.
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Mohmand, Naveed Ahmad, Rozina Shahadat Khan, Abid Ullah, and Abid Alam. "Refractive Errors in Children of 11 to 16 Years of Age Group attending Eye OPD at Hayatabad Medical Complex Peshawar." Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences 16, no. 10 (October 30, 2022): 46–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs22161046.
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Background: Children of school age are susceptible to refractive error, which has a significant negative influence on lowering the learning capacity and educational potential. Aim: To estimate the frequency of different types of refractive erors in children, age group 11 to 16 year, visiting eye OPD H.M.C Peshawar. Study Design: Cross sectional descriptive study. Place and duration of study: Study has been conducted at Eye OPD of H.M.C Peshawar in three months duration. Methods: A total of 308 patients fulfilling the inclusion criterion were examined for Visual acuity. Distance visual acuity was measured both monocularly and binocularly by using a Snellen E chart at a distance of 6 meter. After refraction, best corrected visual acuity was assessed and recorded. Refractive status was recorded according to the criterion. Results: A total of 308 subjects were examined, out of which 73 (23%) were having Ammetropia i.e. having refractive error. Among 73 refractive error children 27 (36.98 %) were having Myopia and 24 (32.87%) were having Hyperopia and 22 (30.13%) were Astigmatic. It was found that male were more affected than females, having frequency of 63% and 36.98% respectively. Conclusion: Refractive error can no longer be ignored as a target for urgent action. The world must make every effort to meet the goals of VISION 2020. A child’s whole life may get ruined just because of uncorrected or inappropriately corrected Refractive error. There is dire need of public awareness regarding refractive errors and availability of services. The results show a great burden of refractive error patients on the hospital, so the facilities of the refractive services need to be increased. Keywords: Refractive error, visual acquity, Ammetropia, Hyperopia, Myopia
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Mahmud, Muhammad U., Umar F. Ibrahim, Mohammad Isyaku, Sadiq Hassan, Philips I. Ebisike, and Rabi Y. Sani. "Correlation of axial length and corneal power with refractive status of patients with refractive error in Kano, North-Western Nigeria." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 12, no. 7 (June 29, 2024): 2266–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20241870.
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Background: Uncorrected refractive errors are a major cause of blindness and low vision. Determination of the etiology is essential in planning appropriate treatment modalities. Aim of this study was to determine the correlation between axial length and corneal power with refractive status of patients with refractive error in Kano, Nigeria. Methods: Observational cross-sectional study in which 385 eligible patients were recruited. Relevant history was obtained from the patients and ocular examination was done. Objective and Subjective refraction were performed. Spherical equivalent was calculated for patients with astigmatism. Keratometric readings (k1 and k2) and measurement of axial length were taken. Data was analyzed using the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) version 22. Results: Statistically significant inverse association (r=-1.7, r2=56.8%, p<0.0001) was found between Spherical equivalent objective refraction and axial length of right eye. Statistically significant inverse association (r=-1.2, r2=53.3%, p<0.0001) was found between Spherical equivalent subjective refraction and axial length of right eye. Statistically significant inverse association (r=-0.5, r2=8.5%, p<0.0001) was found between spherical equivalent objective refraction and corneal power of the right eye. Statistically significant inverse association (r=-0.3, r2=6.4%, p<0.0001) was found between spherical equivalent subjective refraction and Corneal power of right eye. Negative correlation existed between axial length and corneal power but was not statistically significant (r=-0.0, p<0.4). Conclusions: The study established that axial length and corneal power are the determinants of refractive status and that axial length is a stronger determinant.
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Carracedo, Gonzalo, Carlos Carpena-Torres, Cristina Pastrana, Ana Privado-Aroco, María Serramito, and Laura Batres. "Repeatability of Aberrometry-Based Automated Subjective Refraction in Healthy and Keratoconus Subjects." Journal of Ophthalmology 2020 (October 29, 2020): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/4831298.
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Purpose. To compare the intersession repeatability of the Eye Refract, a new instrument to perform aberrometry-based automated subjective refraction, on healthy and keratoconus subjects. Materials and Methods. A cross-sectional and randomized study was performed. A total of 64 participants were evaluated in the study, selecting one eye per participant randomly. The sample was divided into two different groups: 33 healthy subjects (38.85 ± 13.21 years) and 31 with keratoconus (37.29 ± 11.37 years). Three refractions per participant with the Eye Refract were performed on three different days, without cycloplegia. The repeatability analysis of refractive variables (M, J0, and J45), binocular corrected distance visual acuity (BCDVA), and spent time in refraction was performed in terms of repeatability (Sr), its 95% confidence interval (r), and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results. There were no statistically significant differences ( P ≥ 0.05 ) between sessions in both groups for all refractive variables (M, J0, and J45) and BCDVA. Spent time in refraction was reduced as the sessions went by ( P < 0.05 ). The Eye Refract was more repeatable for refractive errors assessment in healthy subjects (M : Sr = 0.27 D; J0 : Sr = 0.09 D; J45 : Sr = 0.06 D) compared to those with keratoconus (M : Sr = 0.65 D; J0 : Sr = 0.29 D; J45 : Sr = 0.24 D), while it was similar for BCDVA. Conclusions. The Eye Refract offered better repeatability to assess refractive errors in healthy subjects compared to those with keratoconus. Despite measurements being also consistent in keratoconus subjects, they should be treated with caution in clinical practice.
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Anajekwu, Cosmas Chinedu, and Gloria Chizoba Eze. "Pattern of Ocular Morbidity in Patients Attending Urban Specialist Eye Clinic in South East, Nigeria." Asian Journal of Medicine and Health 21, no. 6 (April 5, 2023): 56–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ajmah/2023/v21i6822.
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Background: The pattern of eye diseases varies across the world. Racial, ethnic, socio-cultural and socio-demographic characteristics are known to exert some influence on the pattern of these eye diseases. Knowledge of these patterns is important in planning for adequate eye care services.
Aim: To determine the pattern of ocular morbidity in an urban Specialist Eye Clinic in Awka, South-East Nigeria.
Setting and Design: A two-year descriptive retrospective study of patients seen in an urban Specialist Eye Clinic in South-East Nigeria.
Materials and Methods: The needed information, which included socio-demographics and diagnosis, were extracted from patients’ case files and entered into a proforma. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 20. Ninety five percent Confidence Interval was given for percentages and p ≤ .05 was accepted as statistically significant.
Results: Five hundred and twenty seven patients comprising 277 (52.6%) females and 250 (47.4%) males with a mean age of 43.2 ± 21.7 years seen within the two year period were reviewed. Refractive error, glaucoma, allergic eye diseases, and cataract in that order were the commonest ocular morbidities in these patients. Spherical errors were commoner than cylindrical errors. Hypermetropia was the commonest refractive error while hypermetropic astigmatism was the commonest astigmatic error. All the refractive errors were commoner in females than in males. Although 185 (35.1%) patients were presbyopic on clinical examination, only 41(7.7%) patients had presbyopia as their main diagnosis.
Conclusion: Most of the common reasons for ophthalmic consultations were refractive error, glaucoma, allergic eye diseases, and cataract. Adequate provision for the management of these conditions will help in reducing the burden of visual impairment and blindness.
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Aham-Onyebuchi, UO, OO Jagun, A. Betiku, O. Olijide, and M. Leshi. "The Prevalence and Pattern of Refractive error in Ogun State, Nigeria." Babcock University Medical Journal (BUMJ) 1, no. 2 (June 30, 2015): 20–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.38029/bumj.v1i2.9.
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Objective: To determine the prevalence and pattern of refractive errors in Ogun State, Nigeria. The prevalence of blindness was also determined.
Method: A cross sectional descriptive survey. Participants aged 15years and above were randomly selected from 1125 attendees of different community medical outreaches conducted in 5 Local government areas of Ogun State between August 2012 and March 2013. Participants underwent ocular examination and refraction (automated objective and subjective assessments).
Results: The sample consisted of 780 participants. Their mean age was 49.14 (±18.37), and 52.8% were females. About two-thirds [67.7%] had presenting visual acuity [VA] of at least 6/18, while 14.3% were legally blind [VA worse than 3/60].Astigmatism was the most prevalent refractive error [40%] but on conversion tospherical equivalents, hyperopia [28.5%] became the most prevalent error. Apart from refractive errors, cataract and glaucoma were found to be the other major causes of visual impairment amongst the respondents.
Conclusion: The prevalence of refractive errors and blindness in the study population was higher than previously documented with hyperopia being the most prevalent spherical equivalent refractive error. An urgent integration of primary eye care into the existing primary health care system for prevention of blindness is advocated.
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Krithik Jain N and XavierJayseelan C. "Incidence of refractive errors in diabetic patients." International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences 11, no. 4 (December 24, 2020): 7271–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v11i4.3863.
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The aim of the study is to find the incidence of refractive errors in diabetic individuals. Diabetes mellitus is highly prevalent in the current world in both developing and developed countries due to the lifestyle modifications. Refractive errors of eye are a very common group of disorder associated with diabetic people leading to the impairment of vision. Hence the study of incidence of refractive errors in patients with type 2 Diabetes mellitus was conducted. It was a cross-sectional study conducted at a tertiary health care centre and following was the methodology. One hundred eyes of fifty individuals were taken into consideration from Jan 2020 to March 2020, who were affected with type 2 Diabetes mellitus. These fifty individuals underwent subjective refraction of both the eyes. The results obtained were only 17 eyes (17%) being emmetropic, remaining 83 eyes (83%) were found to be ametropic. In the 83 ametropic eyes 22 eyes (22%) were myopic, 39 eyes (39%) were hypermetropic and 22 eyes (22%) had astigmatism. In the current Cross-sectional study refractive errors were noted in 83% of individual and hypermetropia being the most common error with a prevalence of 39%.
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Savaliya, Mayur, Hirava Sevak, Patel Keyuri R, and Patel Prakruti H. "A qualitative analysis on prevalence of refractive errors in children." IP Journal of Nutrition, Metabolism and Health Science 7, no. 2 (July 15, 2024): 67–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.18231/j.ijnmhs.2024.012.
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General Health survey was conducted in order to gain a better understanding about the lifestyle of children and their weekly consumption of nutrition. The study was mainly based on information provided by children and their family members. The survey has 400 different cases from all over Ahmedabad, Gujarat showcasing the eye power and cause of power. There are cases with eye power as well as non-eye power once. To evaluate the general public's understanding of and attitude towards refractive errors in the North-central part of Gujarat, Ahmedabad. Door-to-door population survey in the region of North-central Gujarat, Ahmedabad. A 15-point questionnaire was created and the information was gathered and analyzed to determine statistically the knowledge, attitude, and practice of the general population and population as well as to identify important demographic relationships. It was seen that among all the refractive errors myopia was the most common one seen in children. After myopia the most common Refractive error was amblyopia accompanied with astigmatism and then hyperopia was seen rarely in children. From 400 children’s 54 children were diagnosed with Refractive errors that is 13.5%. Refractive errors were common in both the genders. Age population between 3 to 9 shows fluctuations while population of 10 to 12 years had higher number of individuals suffering from Refractive disorders.
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Sharma, Pratik, Jamshed Ali, Ragni Kumari, Ramlah Akhtar, Sunil Gupta, and Amisha Sharma. "Prevalence of refractive error in children- hospital based study in Lucknow." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 11, no. 1 (December 30, 2022): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20223648.
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Background: Refractive error is defined as a status of refraction. They happen when the shape of your eye keeps light from focusing correctly on your retina (a light-sensitive layer of tissue in the back of your eye). Refractive errors are the most common type of vision problem but many don’t know that they could be seeing well.Methods: This study was a cross sectional hospital-based study of 197 children carried out in ophthalmology department of Era Medical College, Lucknow. The study of population comprised of all the children in 5-20 years’ (78 male 119 female) age group in the rural area. In this study compressive examination prevalence of myopia and hypermetropia. The assess refractive error among study with ‘hine retinoscopy’. Myopia considered grater or equal -0.50 and hyperopia is grater and equal +0.50.Results: The crossed section hospital-based study 197 children examined 78 male and 119 female. The uncorrected ametropia in children was 82.2%. The highly prevalence of myopia 46%, hypermetropia 5%, astigmatism 31%. The most highly significant refractive error 16-20 year of age.Conclusions: The prevalence of ametropia is fined among children in hospital visit. Need for regular routine cheek up proper ophthalmic assessment examination of eye and full proper diet and distance with digital gadget.
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Mahnoor Qayyum, Muhammad Ajmal Ch, Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary, Salah ud Din Arbi, Rida Khalid, and Abida Hanif. "Patterns of refractive errors in albino patients in pediatric age group." Professional Medical Journal 30, no. 04 (March 31, 2023): 451–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.29309/tpmj/2023.30.04.7416.
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Objective: To evaluate the patterns of refractive errors in albino patients in pediatric age group and to find out the most common refractive error in these patients. Study Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Recruited all patients who visited Eye OPD of The Children’s Hospitals and The Institute of Child Healths, Lahore and Multan. Period: July 2021 to December 2021. Material & Methods: Between the ages of 02 to 12 years. The participants presented with oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) were included and the participants with ocular pathologies like congenital cataract, retinopathy of prematurity, buphthalmos etc were excluded. Cycloplegic refraction was done to evaluate the refractive errors and fundoscopy was done to find out ocular pathology. Non-probability convenient technique was used. Chi square test was used for statistical analysis. Results: This study recruited 22 patients with OCA between the ages of 02-12 years (mean age: 6.86 ± 3.385), 13 were male patients and 09 were female patients. 19 patients (86.36 %) had visual acuity (VA) fix and follow the light and 03 (13.64 %) patients were not able to fix and follow the light. Most of the patients have moderate type of refractive error. 06 patients (27.3%) had mild refractive error, 09 patients (40.9%) had moderate and 07 patients (31.8%) had severe refractive error. 13 patients (59.1%) showed astigmatism, 08 patients (36.4%) showed hypermetropia and only 01 patient (4.5%) showed myopia. Nystagmus was present in all 22 patients. Conclusion: This study suggested that astigmatism was the most common refractive error in OCA patients followed by hypermetropia. If refractive errors are not managed timely it will affect their daily life activities and increase the burden on the community.
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Amra, Aryani Atiyatul, Fithria Aldy, Bidasari Lubis, and Elyani Rahman. "The Effect of Anthropometry on Refractive Error and Ocular Biometry in Children with β Thalassemia Major." Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 9, T3 (May 14, 2021): 64–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2021.6280.
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AIM: The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of anthropometry on refractive error and ocular biometry in children with β-thalassemia major. METHOD: This study was an analytical observational with a cross-sectional design which conducted in 1 day care thalassemia pediatric Department and Ophthalmology Department of North Sumatera University Hospital from February to April 2019. The study included 44 children with β-thalassemia major. RESULTS: Anthropometric analysis of refractive errors did not show a significant correlation, whereas anthropometric analysis on biometry showed a significant correlation between height and axial length of the right eye (p = 0.004) and left eye (p = 0.043), then showed significant correlations between height and anterior chamber depth of the right eye (p = 0.027) and left eye (p = 0.016). CONCLUSION: Height affects the axial length and anterior chamber depth, but there are no anthropometric variables that affect refractive errors in this study.
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V, Sudharsan, Prateeksha Dawn Davidson, Lakshmi Kandhan V, Amudha VP, and Rita Hepsi Rani M. "Development and Validation of a Screening Tool for The Identification of Refractive Errors Among School Going Children In Tamil Nadu, India." National Journal of Community Medicine 14, no. 09 (September 1, 2023): 581–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.55489/njcm.140920232751.
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Background: The inability to focus light onto the retina, known as refractive error, is a significant cause of correctable visual impairment. Unfortunately, students' ocular complaints often go unnoticed due to a lack of awareness. To address this issue, a questionnaire with high sensitivity and reasonable specificity was developed for teachers to identify students with refractive error. Methods: A questionnaire with surrogate indicators for refractive error in children was used and the data was analysed using SPSS. Significant markers were scored and a ROC curve determined a suitable cut-off. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated based on this cut-off. Results: The questionnaire was developed using five variables that had a 65% probability of identifying refractive error, including copying errors, copying from peers, eye squeezing, previous use of glasses, and eye deviation. A cut-off score of 5.5 out of 14 achieved 90% sensitivity and 50% specificity in detecting refractive errors. Conclusion: This study created a tool with five markers that demonstrated good internal consistency and content validity, it had an average sensitivity and specificity of 84% and 63%, respectively. The tool is twice as likely to identify someone with refractive error than someone without it.
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Botabekova, T. K., N. A. Aldasheva, V. R. Abdullina, I. S. Stepanova, B. I. Isergepova, and Zh S. Iskakbaeva. "Complex program for the prevention of the development and progression of refractive errors in school year children." Russian Journal of Clinical Ophthalmology 21, no. 3 (2021): 135–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.32364/2311-7729-2021-21-3-135-142.
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Aim: to develop a complex preventive and therapeutic program for refractive errors in school year children. Patients and Methods: 1,760 pupils of elementary, secondary, and high school of eight schools of Almaty (1,302 pupils of gymnasiums and 458 pupils of general education schools and sport boarding school) were examined. The 1st step was a preventive screening. The 2nd step was a distant interactive screening by teachers. The 3rd step was an eye examination of schoolers with low vision. The efficacy of the detection of visual impairments in schoolers during preventive and distant computer screening was compared. In addition, significant indicators for visual impairment monitoring in schoolers were identified. A "Program for the Prevention of the Development and Progression of Refractive Errors in Schoolchildren" was developed. To evaluate its efficacy, 140 pupils of general education schools with refractive errors and 1,302 pupils of gymnasiums with refractive errors or their high risk underwent eye examinations. In addition, to compare the effect of wearing glasses/contact lenses with full correction on the quality of life, 31 schoolers aged 12–17 with refractive errors were selected. Results: the rate of visual impairments was 28.4% among the pupils of general education schools and 31.3% among the pupils of gymnasiums. The most common refractive error was myopia (46.9% and 65.4%, respectively). As children moved through their school carrier, the proportion of myopia tended to increase. Accommodative dysfunction ranked second 48.5% and 29.7%, respectively). Time spent on distant screening was twice less compared to time spent on preventive screening. Visual acuity, cycloplegic refraction, reserves of relative accommodation, and axial length (measured by ultrasound) were indicators of visual impairments in children during monitoring. Poor general health was reported in 33% of children who wear glasses and 15% of children who wear contact lenses. Keywords: refractive errors, myopia, accommodation, schoolchildren, distant screening, prevention, vision correction with contact lenses. For citation: Botabekova T.K., Aldasheva N.A., Abdullina V.R. et al. Complex program for the prevention of the development and progression of refractive errors in school year children. Russian Journal of Clinical Ophthalmology. 2021;21(3):135–142 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.32364/2311- 7729-2021-21-3-135-142.
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Akhter, Waseem, Erum Yousafzai, Afia Matloob Rana, and Shakaib Anwar. "Refractive Errors: Prevalence and Pattern among Rural Population of Islamabad, Pakistan." Journal of Islamabad Medical & Dental College 9, no. 2 (June 29, 2020): 103–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.35787/jimdc.v9i2.326.
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Background: Refractive error is the most common cause of correctable visual loss worldwide. Decreased vision due to refractive error can be easily corrected with the help of spectacles, contact lenses and refractive surgery. However, there are 42% of uncorrected refractive errors all over the world. The present study aimed to evaluate different kinds of refractive errors, its prevalence and pattern in patients from rural areas who visited our hospital in the last five years.
Material and Methods: This cross-sectional study enrolled 2,138 patients, who visited eye OPD at Rawal Institute of Health Sciences, Islamabad during a period of five years i.e. from September, 2013 to September, 2018. Patients having only refractive error with an age of five years and above were included in the study. All patients had objective refraction with automated refractometer followed by subjective refraction. Data was entered and analyzed in SPSS version 20.0. Chi-square test was used for comparing groups with a P-value of <0.05 considered as statistically significant.
Results: Compound myopic astigmatism was the most common error found in our study population (n=575; 26.9%). The second most frequent complaint was simple myopia (n=501; 23.4%) followed by presbyopia (n=441; 20.6%) and mixed astigmatism (n=235; 11%). Patients with more than one refractive error included 178 (8.3%) with mixed astigmatism and presbyopia and 78 (3.6%) with simple myopia and presbyopia. Compound myopic astigmatism was more prevalent in younger ages compared to older age groups (46.4% vs 19.9%) (P <0.001). Mixed astigmatism (12.4% vs 8.9%), simple myopia (23.8% vs 22.9%) and presbyopia (21.3% vs 19.5%) were slightly greater in females than males (P=0.07), respectively.
Conclusions: The prevalence of myopia is significantly higher among female population and young individuals. Mixed astigmatism combined with presbyopia is more common among elderly population.
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V. S., Aparna, Kevin A. John, and Rithima Anvar. "Prevalence of visual disturbances among medical undergraduate students of a tertiary care teaching hospital in South Kerala." International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health 10, no. 6 (May 31, 2023): 2068–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20231682.
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Background: Uncorrected errors of refraction are the leading cause of moderate to severe visual impairment. This study helps to determine the risk factors and prevalence of refractive error among medical students and to evaluate the uncorrected visual acuity among them. Aim was to study the prevalence and risk factors of visual disturbances among medical undergraduate students. Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted among 200 undergraduate medical students. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, type of refractive errors, risk factors for refractive errors and frequency of eye examinations were collected through questionnaires. Uncorrected visual acuity was detected using Snellens chart and near vision was tested using jaeger’s chart. Appropriate statistical tests were applied and data was analysed using statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) version 21. Results: Out of the total 200 study participants, majority were females (61.5%), mean age of the study participants was 21.51±1.33, 11.5% were examined for the first time through this study, 51% were suffering from some sort of visual disturbance among which 80% were having myopia, 50% of the study participants spent more than two hours per day reading books, 72.5% had habit of reading in dim light. Uncorrected visual acuity was seen among 22% of the study subjects and 15% with positive family history of refractive errors showed uncorrected visual acuity. Conclusions: This study was an effort to identify the risk factors and determine the prevalence of refractive errors, 22% of subjects had uncorrected visual acuity; myopia was the common refractive error observed among the study participants followed by hypermetropia and astigmatism.
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Flitcroft, D. I. "Emmetropisation and the aetiology of refractive errors." Eye 28, no. 2 (January 10, 2014): 169–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/eye.2013.276.
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